--+IMPLEMENTATION OF THE CURRICULUM

4.1 Teaching Strategies

4.1.1 LEARNING TARGETS

Each subject can be broken down into a number of modules. For example,
perceptual training and motor co-ordination are essential modules in the subject of
Perceptual Motor Training. The teacher might need to translate these modules into
concrete learning targets for actual teaching in the classroom.

It will be more beneficial to the children if these learning targets are defined in
terms of different types of outcome such as skills, behaviour, knowledge, attitudes,
values and interests.

4.1.2 STEPS FOR PLANNING LEARNING TARGETS

The teacher can plan the learning targets that make up the modules in the following
four basic steps:

(1) Specifying Learning Targets in

Behavioural Terms

All learning targets should be expressed in observable behaviour or skills. For

example, when instructed, the children are to button up their shirts with six buttons
for four times. Each learning target in its written form should contain the following
elements :

(a)
Target Behaviour ─ This is the behaviour that the
children are expected to achieve after learning or
mastering the target.
(b) Pre-requisite Skills ─ These are the basic skills that the
children should have mastered before learning other more
difficult skills.
(c) Instruction and Materials Required ─ This refers to the
instruction and materials required for teaching. The
 conditions under which the instruction should be given
may sometimes be included.
(d)
Criteria of Success ─ This refers to the number of
successful performances of a target skill required out of a
fixed number of attempts before the target skill is
considered to have been mastered by the children.
(2) Setting Teaching Priorities

A very important part of curriculum implementation is that the teacher should

consider carefully the order in which learning targets should be learnt. It is logical
to put learning targets requiring lower level skills before those requiring higher
level skills, for example, teaching the children to draw lines before teaching them
to write. In some cases, the targets themselves may form a definite sequence or
hierarchy when the skills actually come in a continuous or chained sequence, for
example, putting on a shirt and buttoning it up. Some higher level targets can be
learnt more quickly after the pre-requisite skills have been mastered. For example,
learning to write will become easier when eye-hand co-ordination skill has been
acquired. It follows that unrelated targets can be learnt in any order.

(3) Specifying

Baseline Assessment Procedures

This is the specification of the procedures to identify the current skill level or the
pre-requisite skills of the children. The assessment enables the teacher to know
whether or not the children have acquired the pre-requisite skills required for
learning the target. (Refer to Sections 4.5 - 4.5.4 for details)

(4) Procedures for Writing Programmes to Teach Target Skills

With the pre-requisite skills of the children known, the teacher can then design
learning materials to help them achieve the target skills. The learning materials
should be designed in small steps and in order of difficulty. The teacher should
choose the appropriate step for the children according to their pre-requisite skills,
so as to bridge the gap between their pre-requisite skills and the target skills.

4.1.3 TEACHING APPROACHES

To teach target skills effectively, the following teaching approaches are suggested :
(1)

Modelling

Children learn by imitating other people's behaviour. Modelling

therefore underlies most of the learning activities. The teacher
can either demonstrate the behaviour to be learnt or point out
the target behaviour performed by other children and encourage
the children to imitate it.

(2)

Task Analysis

Task analysis is a way to break down target skills into smaller

steps according to the children's abilities and learning needs.
The teacher can then teach the steps in a planned sequence.
Task analysis should be used with flexibility to help the
children with further difficulties in learning the planned steps.
The technique can also be applied to a blocking step to further
break down the planned steps into even smaller steps for easier
learning. Once the difficulty is overcome, the original teaching
steps can be resumed until the target skill is achieved.

(3)

Chaining

This means breaking down a target skill into a series of steps to

describe the action to be performed in sequence. The sequence
can be written in a forward or backward order, depending on
the nature of the target skill to be learnt. For example, most
dressing and undressing skills can be taught by chaining. The
more effective approach to teach dressing skills is backward
chaining because this would ensure that the children will be
able to complete the task. Forward chaining would be more
appropriate in teaching target skills such as operating a washing
machine or writing one’s own name.

(4)
Discrimination Learning

When the target skill to be learnt involves choosing the right

answer, discrimination learning is a more effective approach.
For example, a child is given several choices (including some
distractors) from which to pick out the correct answer. In this
approach, it is necessary to control both the characteristics and
the number of the distractors used. At the initial stage, the
difference between the distractors and the target choice should
be as great as possible and the number of distractors used
should be as small as possible. That means the strength of the
distractors should be low (e.g. a circle and a big square, then a
circle and a square, and finally a circle and an eclipse). As the
child begins to master the initial step, the number of distractors
used can be increased gradually.

(5)

Information Gathering

Children may sometimes lack the information required to

analyse the problems they encounter. The teacher should teach
them to gather relevant information from various sources, e.g.
teachers, parents, newspapers or the library and help them
develop a more objective and systematic way to deal with
problems. Activities, such as organizing a birthday party or a
picnic, would help the children understand the procedures of
information gathering and its importance.

(6)

Induction

This is an approach to help the children form a holistic concept

from the characteristics of different things. The children are
thus trained to observe the various characteristics of things --
their similarities, differences as well as relationships and then
exercise induction.

(7)
 Discussion

This approach is often used in group teaching. Through

discussions, the children learn to look into problems and are
thus motivated to think. Through discussions, they express their
own views and at the same time listen to other children's views,
so that they can review their own. The teacher needs to ensure
that each child is given equal opportunity to participate in
discussions. Thus, discussions can promote greater interaction
among the children. More important still, they help the children
to realise the importance of accepting other people's views
while expressing their own.

The following are ways to teach target skills :

(1)

Prompting

This skill can be used at any stage of the programme. There are
various kinds of prompts : physical guidance, physical prompts,
gestures, verbal prompts, eye pointing, etc. Prompts should only be
used when required and should be faded out as soon as the children
demonstrate certain degree of mastery.

(2)

Shaping

This refers to the increase in precision in the behaviour to be

performed. It involves successive approximation of the target
behaviour. Another aspect of shaping which is not so obvious is the
shaping of the target behaviour by manipulating the materials used.
An example of this is teaching the children to thread a needle with a
big eye using thick thread and then gradually increasing the precision
by using an ordinary needle and sewing thread.

(3)

Fading
 This means gradual removal of the various prompts as the children
begin to master the target behaviour. At the initial stage, the teacher
can use prompts with more help . Then at a later stage , he can use
prompts with less help. One common example is the gradual removal
of the strokes of a word when teaching the children to write.

(4)

Generalization

When the children know how to apply the knowledge or skills they
have acquired to new situations, they have achieved generalization.
The ultimate purpose of generalization is to reinforce the children's
social adjustment. For example, when a child applies the table
manners he has learnt at school to the environment of his home or a
restaurant , generalization is achieved.

The following are important considerations in formulating teaching approaches for

MH children :

(1) Observing the children’s behaviour, planning goals and

targets appropriate to their ages, levels of development
and interests and building on their areas of strength;
(2) Using situations familiar to the children and those which
they can experience in their everyday life;
(3) Using activities which are as practical as possible;
(4) Making the children feel secure and willing to express
themselves and giving them opportunities to learn by
doing;
(5) Breaking down a task into simple steps to facilitate
learning;
(6) Providing the children with opportunities for direct
sensory contact, for manipulating real objects or relating
learning experiences to real life situations;
(7) Using various media extensively and varying the teaching
approaches and techniques according to individual
learning needs;
(8) Using encouragement and reward to reinforce the
children's motivation to learn.
4.1.4 GROUP TEACHING

Quite often, the teacher is faced with a class of mixed abilities or with different
behaviour problems. He will have to teach them in groups or individually. The
following are some suggested forms of grouping :

(1) Small Group Teaching

Small group teaching means splitting the class into

different ability groups and teaching the children with
different approaches. This would help the children learn
by imitating and helping each other and apply what they
have learnt to other situations. Small group teaching also
helps to reinforce the children's ability to communicate
and co-operate with each other. Take the teaching of
colour concept for instance. The teacher can set the
children's baselines according to assessment results and
split the class into three groups as follows:

(a) Junior group － In this group, the concept of

red and blue colours is taught. The children
are taught through a matching game to put the
cubes into boxes of corresponding colours.
(b) Intermediate group － In this group, the
concept of red, yellow, blue and green colours
is taught with one type of teaching aid, such
as cubes. The children are asked to pass cubes
of the same colour to the teacher and name
the colour after him.
(c) Senior group － In this group, the concept of
red, yellow, blue, green, black and white
colours is taught with different types of
teaching aids which include cubes, beads,
Lego, etc. The children are asked to pick up
different things of the same colour and name
the colour when the teacher picks up one
thing. If the children can name the colour
correctly, the teacher will ask them to pick
 out things of the same colour from the
cupboard according to instructions.

(2) Individual Teaching

This allows learning materials to be tailored to meet the

specific needs of individual children. The teacher can
focus his attention exclusively on individual children and
likewise the children only need to attend to one teacher
and one set of learning materials during this period.

4.1.5 ONGOING RECORD-KEEPING

A comprehensive curriculum design should include ongoing assessment and a

clear record of progress. This will ensure that teaching procedures will be
consistent and continuous. This consistency and continuity will in turn ensure that
the planned programmes will match the actual progress of the children.(Refer
to Sections 4.5 for details)

4.2 Organization of Resources

Successful curriculum development also depends upon the effective utilization of

resources in the school and in the community, particularly human resources.

All members of staff can contribute to curriculum development in terms of

knowledge and experience. Through regular contacts with the children, the teacher
can identify the range of knowledge, concepts, skills and attitudes which need to be
developed in them. His understanding of the children's learning needs will enable
him to see the different parts of the curriculum as an integral whole. It is therefore
essential to involve all teachers in curriculum development.

Specialist staff such as

educational psychologists,

speech therapists,

occupational therapists,
physiotherapists,

social workers, etc. should also be encouraged to contribute to the enrichment of

the curriculum. They should be encouraged to suggest how existing programmes
can be adapted to meet the needs of children with additional handicaps. The joint
involvement of professionals of different disciplines in curriculum development
will foster the co-operation between the school and related professionals.

Parents are also valuable resources of the school. They should be encouraged to
participate in curriculum development and to follow-up at home on what their
children have learnt at school, thus reinforcing their learning. This joint effort
between the school and the parents will contribute much to the education of the
children.

The effective use of space in the school helps to develop in the children an
awareness, understanding and appreciation of their surroundings. Physical
constraints can be overcome by careful planning and flexible utilization of teaching
bases and common areas. Arrangements within the classroom can be varied to suit
different teaching purposes.

Community resources should be utilized for teaching purposes as well. Appropriate

use of these resources will help to enhance the children's understanding of the
people around them, their role in society and the relationship between people and
their environment. Therefore, facilities available in the community should be used
or introduced to the children to enrich their life experiences.

4.3 Time Allocation

Time allocation is one of the major concerns in curriculum planning. It is for

individual schools to decide how the curriculum is to be organized in terms of
content and time allocation. Basically, flexibility should be allowed so that the
varied needs of different schools, classes and individual children can be met.

In designing a time-table, apart from classroom availability, options, etc. other

variables such as the children's abilities and learning needs, should be given prior
consideration.

At different stages of development, the children require different skills to help

them cope with those needs which are characteristic of a particular developmental
stage. Priority of learning should therefore be given to these skills and emphasis in
training should vary according to the present and future goals of these children.
The understanding of the children’s needs will facilitate time-table arrangements,
with due weight given to various subject areas.

Apart from basic and functional academics, the children also need to develop their
capacity to respond appropriately to sensory and social experiences, regardless of
their ages and abilities. This involves the exploration and understanding of
aesthetic and creative experiences, which may be integrated in any part of the
curriculum. Music, Art and Craft and Physical Education contribute particularly to
such development. The children also need to acquire these skills as leisure time
activities. In considering the allocation of time to these areas of learning for both
the junior and senior sections of the school, similar emphasis should be given.

Apart from basic and functional academics, the children also need to develop their
capacity to respond appropriately to sensory and social experiences, regardless of
their ages and abilities. This involves the exploration and understanding of
aesthetic and creative experiences, which may be integrated in any part of the
curriculum. Music, Art and Craft and Physical Education contribute particularly to
such development. The children also need to acquire these skills as leisure time
activities. In considering the allocation of time to these areas of learning for both
the junior and senior sections of the school, similar emphasis should be given.

4.4 Classroom Arrangements

Classroom arrangements should provide a favourable environment and atmosphere

conducive to learning. This requires good planning in the use of space,
arrangement of furniture, display of learning materials, etc. Flexibility should be
allowed so that the arrangements can vary according to the type of learning activity
adopted at the time. For example, desks and chairs can be arranged in groups rather
than in straight lines so that the children can work in groups of various sizes
according to their different abilities and learning needs.

To provide the children with maximum exposure to a diversity of learning

environment and experiences, the following learning corners/interest areas are
suggested as possible variations :

o reading corner
 o creative work area
o nature corner
o self-care corner

o educational toys corner / toys resources room

(Press Ctrl or Shift Key to zoom in /out)
o role play area
o home bay
o display area

These learning corners and interest areas serve different purposes. For example, the
reading corner is for the display of light reading materials for casual reading; the
educational toys corner is for the children to learn through play; the nature corner
serves to nurture in the children the love of plants and animals as well as the way
to look after them and the creative work area helps with the development of
creativity in the children. The children should be asked to remember where the
various materials are kept and to put them back after use. Therefore, these learning
corners and interest areas can provide them with a wide range of learning
experiences.

To enhance the learning environment, display boards are valuable display areas for
the children's work, group projects, charts, diagrams, photos, cut-outs from
newspapers or magazines, etc. all of which have much to contribute to the
children's learning and enhance their sense of achievement. The following is an
example of classroom arrangements:

< Click on the Picture!> (Press Ctrl or Shift Key to zoom in /out)
4.5 Assessment

A well-structured curriculum should enable the school to follow a procedure of

teaching intervention, incorporating assessment, programme planning and
evaluation. To achieve this aim, criterion-referenced assessment designed by the
teacher is recommended.

Assessment should not be seen as something external to the learning process or

something added on at the end of a learning sequence simply for administrative
purposes or as a means of reporting to parents. Rather, it is an integral part of
effective learning, whereby the children are provided with feedback on their
progress. The teacher should plan in his scheme of work the learning experiences
which he will provide for the children. Similarly, as part of his scheme of work, he
should also plan the assessment of the children’s progress.
4.5.1 Purposes of Assessments:

(a) To identify the children's learning needs;

(b) To help the teacher plan educational programmes for the
children;
(c) To indicate which specific educational objectives have or
have not been achieved;
(d) To serve as continuous evaluation.

4.5.2 Process in Assessment:

(a) Identifying the children's learning needs;

(b) Assessing the children's baselines in specific subjects and
establishing their pre-requisite skills;
(c) Setting learning objectives;
(d) Implementing curriculum programmes;
(e) Implementing curriculum programmes;
(f) Evaluating the effectiveness of curriculum programmes &
Making adaptations to curriculum programmes.

4.5.3 Assessment Flow Chart

The following flow chart will illustrate the assessment process :

4.5.4 Methods of Assessment

When evaluating the children's performance in terms of specific criteria set, the
teacher has to analyse the curriculum and the method of instruction used before he
can develop appropriate assessment to identify the children's learning needs. As the
teacher knows the children better, he is in a better position to assess their learning
needs.

In order to gather relevant information and collect observational data, assessment

designed by the teacher should be used to measure the children's specific skills and
abilities. The assessment may be in the form of checklists, paper-pencil tests,
interviews or observation of the children engaged in activities. They should be
individually administered both at the beginning and at the end of the teaching
period, so that the children's progress can be measured. The assessment results will
then reflect the children's strengths and weaknesses. Assessment is thus an
important part of the teaching process.

4.6 A Whole-School Appoach to Curriculum Development

4.6.1 Step to be Taken in Curriculum Development

To ensure the quality of education, schools should be actively involved in

curriculum development and implementation. Curriculum development involves
the following steps:

(1) Identifying the learning needs of the children;

(2) Setting priorities in these learning needs for curriculum
development;
(3) Searching and retrieving resources from within and
outside the school;
(4) Designing curriculum programmes;
(5) Implementing curriculum programmes;
(6) Evaluating the effectiveness of curriculum programmes;
(7) Making adaptations to curriculum programmes.
Education after Post 18
th
Constitutional amendment andresponsibility of
Society
The Eighteenth constitutional amendment has some drastic effects on overall
Pakistani legislativeand administrative system. While Education sector has no
exception, the omission of concurrent listhas opened a Pandora of issues, ranging
from planning, implementation, finances on one side andthe curriculum, teacher
training, syllabus, and infrastructure on other side. Before elaborating theseissues it
is essential to understand the effects of 18
th
amendment on educational sector and how it isdifferent from pre 18
th
amendment scenario.There are two distinctive changes in 18
th
amendment. First the inclusion of article 25A that ensuresthe right to education to
the children from five to 16 years, and second the exclusion of concurrentlist
which implies that the curriculum, syllabus, planning, policy, Centre of excellence
and standardsof education would be devolved and comes under provincial
jurisdiction.The implications of 25A can only be significant if the government
really exhibit the will to implementthe clause in its true essence, however if such
would be the case then even the National EducationPolicy (2009) may suffice
where it has been suggested
that ‘Provinces and Area Governments shall
affirm the goal of achieving universal and free primary education by 2015 and up
to class 10 by
2025.’ In fact the NEP is more strategic (as it should be) in achieving the education
goal.
Nevertheless the article 25A provides an opportunity to develop a legislative
framework forEducation sector that would provide the basis of accountability of
responsible authorities who maybe involve in denying this basic right to
education.The second and the most significant effect of 18
th
amendment is the abolishment of concurrent list. As stated above it has
implications on all those educational areas which were part of federal jurisdiction.
In fact apart from Higher education, everything related to education is
now devolved tothe provinces. After 18
th
amendment two school of thoughts emerged in an academic circle, thosewho are in
favor of, and those who have serious concerns.Those who have concerns advocates
that the provinces have some serious deficit of capacities interms of financial,
human and technical expertise to take up the colossal challenge of planning
andimplementing the province wide education system. Another principal concern
raised is more on ideological grounds, and curriculum is the basis of suchgrounds.
After the 18
th
amendment, provinces would have freedom to exercise free hand in

developing curriculum that suits them the best. However in doing so they may end
up withsomething which is not aligned with national ideology and cohesion. In
worst case one province maydevelop curriculum which is not acceptable to the
norms of the other province and hence couldembark into direct conflict. According
to them such scenario is not ignorable in countries likePakistan where political
parties and their ideologies differ significantly. Reviews of past educationalpolicies
are good examples of such division. Expanding to national cohesion issue another
concernraised is the standardization of the educational system in Pakistan. In this
case the fundamentalquestion is how can a nation ensures that the same standard of
education has been taught fromnorth to south of Pakistan. Similarly the
representation of Pakistani education system ininternational arena where Pakistan
is signatory and member of several treaties and agreementswould have been
diffused, as no central body would be present to represent the nation.On the other
hand proponents of 18th amendment view it as an essential and long awaited
change,which can lay a foundation of bridging planning and implementation gap.
To them eighteenamendment provides the basis of autonomous educational
provision through which provinces
canplan and implement the educational system according to their needs and
requirements. For e.g. if Baluchistan economy relies mostly on natural resources
then for obvious reason it needs a manpowerwhich is trained and skilled in the
same sector, comparatively Punjab with more agrarian economyhas its own
requirements. Same arguments have been made for promoting local and
regionalcultures including languages and customs. Another major point made by
the proponents of 18
th
amendment is bridging the gap betweenplanning and implementation. One of the
terrible issue of Pakistani educational system since itsinception was remain the gap
between planning and implementation. Historically the planning wasdone at the
federal level with little consultation from provinces (at-least provinces were always
onblaming side, arguing that they were not taken in confidence in developing
policies, rules andregulations) resulting in a huge misconceptions and lack of
ownership from provincial side.The proponents also answers to the concerns raised
after the amendment. To them the capacity of provinces to develop and run the
educational systems is largely under rated and usually emanatesfrom the trust
deficit embedded in the psyche of federal level establishment. To them most of
theoperational level expertise are already present at the provincial level and what is
not available canalways be develop or imported. Similarly most of the funding
specially for primary and secondarylevel education was already part of the
provincial budget.From the above few points it is clear that there is an imbalance
between the opinions and attitudesfrom two opposite sides. It also shows that the
provinces are not ready to embark the responsibility
not because they don’t have capacity or resources but because they still lack
unified thoughts in

bringing forth the plans which are not only aligned with the provincial
requirements but alsounsusceptible to national integrity and cohesion.One of the
reasons of such lacking is the dearth of coherent, thoughtful and meaningful
dialoguebetween the educationist, planners, policy makers, implementers etc.
representing the grass rootlevel and the officialdom level. Quite often the
impressive talks, presentations and conferencesgenerate immense interest in
various educational issues but fail to bring any lasting imprint oneducational
discourse, educational policies and practices. It is this important to conceive of
dialoguesthat are concentrated, evidence based, bringing forth concrete solutions
and carry the messageforward to ensure impact on policies and practice. The
dialogues in light of evidence and amongrelated people have greater potential to
generate more meaningful and relevant discussions. If anon-threatening
environment is somehow created to ensure free, frank and open dialogue,
solutionscan be forged. Such solutions need to be carried forward to the policy and
practice level for broaderimpact utilizing various forums
–
monographs, technology, media etc. Such discourse also helps toemanate the
common grounds where all the groups unanimously agree to the issue and its
possiblesolutions.In the light of above discussion it is imperative to open the
venues through which people couldengage in to meaningful discourse, however the
modus operandi of such discourse is still a questionmark. Shall it be a policy
dialogue, an interactive writing contest, conference or some other out of
boxmechanism?Number of questions need to be answer for e.g.

How to engage education sector stakeholders to develop a consensus on

educational issues?

How to prioritize the issues, i.e. which issues require addressing first?

What are the mechanisms require that ensures provincial autonomy and at the same
timerespond to national integrity demands? Above and many other questions like
above demands a movement from civil society and governmentofficials to come
forward and engage in the process. Otherwise the fear is that the education
systemagain falls in to the myriad of despair or mirage of joys which solely exists
in our mind but nevertransform in to meaningful practice
The Influence of Psychology to Curriculum
Curriculum is influenced by psychology. Psychology provides information about the
teaching and learning process. It also seeks answers as to how a curriculum be
organized in order to achieve students’ learning at the optimum level, and as to what
amount of information they can absorb in learning the various contents of the
curriculum.

The following are some psychological theories in learning that influenced curriculum
development:

1. Behaviorism
Education in the 20th century was dominated by behaviorism. The mastery of the subject
matter is given more emphasis. So, learning is organized in a step-by-step process. The
use of drills and repetition are common.
For this reason, many educational psychologists viewed it mechanical and routine.
Though many are skeptical about this theory, we can’t deny the fact the influences it
had in our educational system.

2. Cognitivism
Cognitive theorists focus on how individuals process information, monitor and manage
their thinking. The basic questions that cognitive psychologists zero in on are:

 How do learners process and store information?

 How do they retrieve data and generate conclusions?
 How much information can they absorb?
With their beliefs, they promote the development of problem-solving and thinking skills
and popularize the use of reflective thinking, creative thinking, intuitive thinking,
discovery learning, among others.

3. Humanism
Humanism is taken from the theory of Gestalt, Abraham Maslow’s theory and Carl
Rogers’ theory. This group of psychologists is concerned with the development of
human potential.

In this theory, curriculum is after the process, not the product; focuses on personal
needs, not on the subject matter; and clarifying psychological meanings and
environmental situations. In short, curriculum views founded on humanism posits that
learners are human beings who are affected by their biology, culture, and environment.
They are neither machines nor animals.
A more advanced, more comprehensive curriculum that promotes human potential must
be crafted along this line. Teachers don’t only educate the minds, but the hearts as well.

4. Sociology and Curriculum

There is a mutual and encompassing relationship between society and curriculum
because the school exists within the societal context. Though schools are formal
institutions that educate the people, there are other units of society that educate or
influence the way people think, such as families and friends as well as communities.

Since the society is dynamic, there are many developments which are difficult to cope
with and to adjust to. But the schools are made to address and understand the changes
not only in one’s country but in the world as well.

Therefore, schools must be relevant by making its curriculum more innovative and
interdisciplinary. A curriculum that can address the diversities of global learners, the
explosion of knowledge through the internet, and the educational reforms and policies
recommended or mandated by the United Nations.

However, it is also imperative that a country must have maintained a curriculum that
reflects and preserves its culture and aspirations for national identity. No matter how far
people go, it is the country’s responsibility to ensure that the school serves its purpose
of educating the citizenry.

Now, it is your time to reflect. Can you think of your experiences in which the major
foundation of curriculum can explain it?

Try to ask yourself the following questions:

1. Why should I take history, philosophy, psychology or even PE subjects in college?

2. Why is it that there is K to 12 and the mother tongue-based curriculum being implemented by the
Department of Education?
3. Why is there institutional amalgamation?
4. Why is there “One UP” (One University of the Philippines) now in the Philippines?
5. Why is there a need for a globalized higher education?
These questions imply that change will take place in the near future. So, brace yourself
for the many changes that will take place in education
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/Socie
tal
Group
s
Prima
ry
25
Secon
dary
25
Other
s
25-26
Basis
of
Group
Form
ation
26
Societ
y and
Com
munit
y
Wheel
27
Com
munit
y
Memb
er
Roles
and
Types
27-29
Institu
tions
in the
Societ
y
30
UNIT
- III
PER
SON
S
INVO
LVE
D
Jame
s,
Wund
t
John
B.
Watso
n,
B. F.
Skinn
er
Max
Werth
eimer
Sigmu
nd
Freud
Alfred
Adler
UNIT -
IPSYCH
OLOGIC
ALFOU
NDATIO
NSOF
EDUCA
TION
Chapt
er 1 -
EDUC
ATION
AL
PSYC
HOLO
GY AS
FOUN
DATIO
N OF
EDUC
ATION
Psych
ology
and
Sociol
ogy
Defin
ed
 The
word
“psyc
holog
y”
come
s from
the
Greek
word
(Psyc
he
mean
Soul,
Logos
mean
Scien
ce),th
us the
meani
ng of
Psych
ology
is the
scienc
e of
soul.
It is
the
scienc
e of
behav
iour,
the
activiti
es
ofani
mate
creatu
re,
which
can
be
obser
ved
and
meas
ured
in an
object
ive
way.
Sociol
ogy is
said
to be
the
study
of
huma
n
social
behav
iour,
espec
ially
the
study
of the
origin
s,
organi
zation
,
institu
tions,
and
devel
opme
nt of
huma
n
societ
y.
 Educ
ation
in the
other
hand
is the
modifi
cation
of
behav
iour of
childr
en in
a
contro
lleden
viron
ment.
To
shape
the
behav
iour of
the
subje
ct and
bring
some
positiv
e or
negati
ve
chang
es, it
isnec
essar
y to
study
the
scienc
e of
behav
iour.
The
devel
opme
ntal
stage
s and
chara
cterist
ics of
childr
en
arever
y
essen
tial
factor
s from
which
the
teach
er
must
aware
in
order
to be
a
succe
ssful
teach
er.
If the
teach
er has
no
knowl
edge
of
childr
en
psych
ology
and
societ
al
origin
s,
how
can
we
expec
t
from
him
that
he
would
succe
ed in
bringi
ng
about
the
desira
ble
chang
es in
childr
en?
Psych
ologic
al
Educa
tion
and
Sociol
ogical
Educa
tion
Educa
tional
psych
ology
is an
interd
iscipli
nary
subje
ct
that
incorp
orate
s
human
devel
opmen
t,
learni
ng
strate
gies,
intellig
ence,
motiv
ation,
meas
ureme
nt,
and
classr
oom
mana
geme
nt. An
emph
asiswi
ll be
place
d
upon
devel
oping
a
consis
tent
theory
and
philos
ophy
(perso
nal)
based
upon
thepre
ponde
rance
of
curren
t
resear
ch
includi
ng,
but
not
limite
d to
such
fields
as
brain-
based
learni
ng,mu
lticultu
ralism
,
gende
r, and
socio
econo
mic
status
.
 It
studie
s
about
how
huma
ns
learn
in
educa
tional
settin
gs,
the
effecti
venes
s of
educa
tionali
nterve
ntions
, the
psych
ology
of
teachi
ng,
and
the
social
psych
ology
of
schoo
ls as
organi
zation
s.
Mainl
y,it is
conce
rned
with
how
stude
nts
learn
and
devel
op,
often
focusi
ng on
subgr
oups
such
as
gifted
childr
enand
those
subje
ct to
specifi
c
disabil
ities
 Educ
ationa
l
sociol
ogy,
then,
is the
applic
ation
of
sociol
ogical
princi
ples
and
metho
ds to
thesol
ution
of
proble
ms in
an
educa
tional
syste
m. It
is
mostl
y
conce
rned
with
schoo
ling,
and
espec
ially
thema
ss
schoo
ling
syste
ms of
moder
n
indust
rial
societi
es,
includi
ng the
expan
sion
of
higher
,
furthe
r,
adult,
and
contin
uing
educa
tion.
UNIT
IChapt
er 1 -
EDUC
ATION
AL
PSYC
HOLO
GY AS
FOUN
DATIO
N OF
EDUC
ATION
1
Contri
bution
of
Educa
tional
Psych
ology
One
simple
questi
on
may
be
asked
as to
why
educat
ional
psych
ology
should
be
taught
to
prospe
ctive
teache
rs in
trainin
g
colleg
es.
The
educat
ional
psych
ology
helps
the
teache
rs in
the
followi
ng
ways:
1. To
unders
tand
develo
pment
al
charac
teristic
s
2. To
unders
tand
the
nature
of
class
room
learnin
g
3. To
unders
tand
individ
ual
differe
nces
4. To
unders
tand
effecti
ve
teachi
ng
metho
ds
5.
Knowl
edge
of
mental
health
6.
Curric
ulum
constr
uction
7.
Measu
rement
of
learnin
g out-
comes
Childr
en
pass
throug
h
differe
nt
stages
of
develo
pment
in life
as
infanc
y,
childh
ood
and
adoles
cence.
These
develo
pment
al
stages
have
their
own
charac
teristic
s and
deman
ds.
With
the
help of
educat
ion
psych
ology
the
teache
r
unders
tand
the
studen
ts and
their
need
and
proble
ms, it
help
teache
r in
learnin
g
proces
s in
genera
l and
class-
room
learnin
g in
particu
lar.
With
the
help of
psych
ology
teache
r
unders
tand
the
individ
ual’s
differe
nces.
Teach
er
faces
a class
of 30to
50
studen
ts who
have a
differe
nt
range
of
individ
ual
differe
nces.
Teach
er with
the
knowle
dge
ofeduc
ation
psych
ology
and
individ
ual
differe
nces
may
adjust
his
teachi
ng to
the
needs
and
require
ments
of
the
class.
Every
day
experi
ence
shows
that
lack
of
prope
r
metho
ds of
teachi
ng
somet
imes
result
s
infailu
re of
comm
unicat
ion in
the
classr
oom.
The
educa
tional
psych
ology
gives
us the
knowl
edgeo
f
appro
priate
metho
ds of
teachi
ng. It
helps
in
devel
oping
new
strate
gies
of
teachi
ng.
Psych
ologic
al
princi
ples
are
also
used
in
formul
ating
curric
ulum
for
differe
nt
stage
s.
Psych
ologic
al
tools
help
the
teach
ers to
evalu
ate
the
learni
ng
out-
come
of the
stude
nts. it
helps
the
teach
er
to
evalu
ate
his
own
perfor
manc
e.
Menta
l
health
of the
stude
nt and
teach
er is
very
import
ant for
efficie
nt
learni
ng.
With
the
helpof
educa
tional
psych
ology,
the
can
under
stand
the
variou
s
factor
s,
which
are
respo
nsible
forthe
menta
l
health
and
malad
justm
ent.
UNIT
IChapt
er 1 -
EDUC
ATION
AL
PSYC
HOLO
GY AS
FOUN
DATIO
OF EDUCATION
N

8. Guidance for the education of exceptional children

Methods of Educational Psychology

1. Introspection
Historically introspection is the oldest method of all, which was formerly used in philosophy, and

then inpsychology to collect data about the conscious experience of the subject. Introspection

means to see within one self or self observation. To understand one’s own mental health and the

state of mind. This method was developed by the structuralists in psychology who defined

psychology as the study of conscious experiences

of the individual.

2. Observation

With the development of psychology as an objective science of behaviour, the method of

introspection was replaced by careful observation of human and animal behaviour.

Observation literally means lookingoutside oneself. It is a very important method for

collecting data in almost all type of research studies.

3. Experimental Method

This method has been developed in psychology by the continuous efforts by psychologists to

make objectiveand scientific study of human behaviour. One of the major contributions of the

behaviourism is thedevelopment of experimental method to understand, control and

predict behaviour. It is the most precise, planned systematic observation. The experimental

method uses a systematic procedure called experimental design.

4. Clinical Method

This method is primarily used to collect detailed information on the behaviour problems of

maladjusted anddeviant cases. The main objective of this method is to study individual case or

cases ofgroup to detect and diagnose their specific problems and to suggest therapeutic

measures to rehabilitate them in their environment.

5. Case Study Method

Case study is in-depth study of the subject. It is the in-depth analysis of a person, group, or

phenomenon. Avariety of techniques are employed including personal interviews, psychometric

tests, direct observation, and archival records. Case studies are most often used in psychology in

clinical research to describe the rare events and conditions of the subject; case study is specially

used in education psychology