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Cavability Assessment with MRMR classification

Article · August 2015

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Cavability Assessment with
MRMR classification

Ashkan Rastegarmanesh
M.Sc. Student

For

SMF. Hossaini Ph.D.

Advanced Engineering Rock Mechanics

Fall, 2015
 Cavability Assessment with MRMR
classification
Abstract
Mine are getting deeper and deeper and surface mining resources are being depleted. The need for a
suitable underground mining method which can be capable of competing with surface mining production
rate is inevitable, and caving methods are the best underground mining can offer. In order to initiate and
continue a prosperous and successful cave some aspects should be considered carefully including:
cavability, fragmentation, undercutting, subsidence, gravitational flow and etc. Cavability which is a
qualitative term for capability of hanging wall to cave in is the subject of this paper. For demining
cavability various methods is used e.g. structural analysis, numerical models, empirical charts and etc.
During next sections Laubscher empirical chart which is the most renowned empirical method of
determining cavability of an orebody is introduced and graphs based on real case studies which prove the
accuracy and capability of MRMR will be presented.

Introduction
In this section an explanation and history about the caving methods is presented as well as some
clarification about importance of cave mining in today world. It should be said that the most important
part of designing every part of a cave mine is experience. It’s the experience that will effect decision
making of the engineers and cavability assessment is not any different. So in order to develop more insight
into caving second part of this section will introduce the reader briefly to different aspects of the designing
a cave operation.

Basic Descriptions
Underground mining methods can be classified based on different criterions but the widely accepted
classification is based on the figure 1:

Figure 1-Underground Mining Methods (Brown, Underground Mining Methods, 2003)

 As it is shown Cave mining is part of the unsupported mining methods which is followed by surface
subsidence; and minimum amount of support is used for these methods. In comparison with other mining
methods the average daily production as well as relative cost can attract some attention! Block Caving is
the least costly methods of underground mining and it has the highest production rate among all the
methods. (Brown, Underground Mining Methods, 2003)
In caving gravity which is a force that’s cheap and available everywhere is used for rock breakage and
use of foreign energies like explosives is at its minimum. Caving methods usually have a high potential for
becoming mechanized and can provide relatively safe environment for workers.
On the other hand the capital investment and development time is significantly high. In addition to
this, rigorous management and quality equipment is required because the design scale is very large and
sensitive.
In mining industry amount of surface mining production is incomparable to underground mining
however block caving is the underground best option. Based on the conventional methods a series of
mines are being studied and tested which are called Super Caves that is predicted to provide production
even higher than open pits mine until 2040.

Figure 2- History of Mining (Brown, Underground Mining Methods, 2003)

In caving operations the design and study phase is full of uncertainties because most of the time
amount of the information and data is not sufficient and data should be extended to near points based
on engineers’ decisions. When the production begins the majority of operations involve Cave Dynamics
and Cave Management which deals with less uncertainties. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)
Generally a Caving operation is divided to Cavability, Fragmentation, Draw Control, Undercutting, Cave
Flow and Cave propagation.
Experience
Cave mines based on their layout have about 3 or 4 levels,
haulage, production, undercut and ventilation. These levels are
usually one or some drifts in foot wall of the orebody. Levels are
connected with raises. When enough muck is removed from
beneath of orebody via undercut level the cave will begin. After
this phase the ideal is that the fractures and discontinuities will be
reproduces automatically and cave propagates. When a cave
begins usually an ellipsoid above the draw point will form call
“loosening ellipsoid”. This is the volume that’s effected by
drawing mucks. But all of this spatial shape cannot be drawn out
because of dilution. In fact there’s another ellipsoid inside the
loosening ellipsoid that’s called “ellipsoid of extraction” or
“ellipsoid of motion”. All that can be drawn without dilution is this
spatial shape. The vertical height of the later ellipsoid is called
“Height of Draw” (HoD).
The coarser the material, the bigger the width of the ellipses.
This will directly influence the fragmentation.

Figure 3- Cave Flow Parameters (Norman B. Keevil

Institude, 2015)

Figure 4- Impact of Fragmentation (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

 There are two forms of fragmentation. When the ore particles fall off the cave back (upper part of the
motion ellipse) due to the high induced stress the Primary Fragmentation happens that is function of
orebody discontinuities and stresses. After this ore particles of various shapes and sizes enter the draw
column and are imposed to secondary fragmentation which is function of the HoD and some other
factors. So longer the HoD, the finer materials at draw points.

Figure 5- Primary and Secondary Fragmentation (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

Two major theories are purposed for cave mechanism. At the start of a block caving operation the cave
will propagate vertically. Vertical extension caving was originally referred to as stress caving. It occurs in
virgin cave blocks when the stresses in the cave back exceed the rock mass strength. Caving may stop
when a stable arch develops in the cave back. The undercut must be increased in size or boundary
weakening must be undertaken to induce further caving. (Laubscher D. , 1999)

Lateral extension or subsidence caving occurs when adjacent mining has removed the lateral restraint
on the block being caved. This can result in rapid propagation of the cave with limited bulking. Lateral
extension caving occurs when the cave face is advanced from an active cave owing to the removal of a
lateral stress and results in caving occurring with a lower hydraulic radius. There can be a rapid
propagation of the cave with massive wedge failures if a well-developed relaxation zone has formed
ahead of the cave front. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

A concave face confines the rock mass behind the face whilst a convex face allows relaxation. It is
generally good mining practice to mine from weak to strong rock in certain caving situations it might not
be advisable. All the features that are observed on the level such as squeezing in weaker ground with
strain bursts and stress spalling in more competent zones will occur in the undercut back. In fact more so
because there is freedom of movement and gravity plays a significant role. (Norman B. Keevil Institude,
2015)

Water in the potential cave zone can assist the cave by reducing friction on joints or with the effects
of increased pore water pressure. The source of the water can be ground water or water introduced
during the rainy season. At Shabanie Mine, the monitoring of Block 6 cave showed that the stress caving
increased after heavy rainfall. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

At shallow depths the limited mass of the overburden might result in a settling of the jointed rock mass
into a stable arch rather than collapse. In the case of Northparkes, the mining of the open pit removed
weight from the center encouraging the formation of a dome. Advancing the undercut towards the
principal stress will ensure a better caving environment. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

The rapid caving of the weaker rock might leave strong rock in the orebody boundary because the
induced stresses are not high enough to induce caving. In later case it is preferable to start the
undercutting in the strong rock as this would allow the stresses to build up in the strong material and also
there would be time for caving to occur. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

All rock masses will cave. The manner of their caving and the resultant fragmentation size distribution
need to be predicted if cave mining is to be successfully implemented. The rate of caving can be slowed
by controlling the draw as the cave can only propagate if there is space into which the rock can move. The
rate of caving can be increased by advancing the undercut more rapidly but problems can arise if this
allows an air gap to form over a large area. In this situation, the intersection of major structures, heavy
blasting and the influx of water can result in damaging air blasts. Rapid, uncontrolled caving can result in
an early influx of waste dilution. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

Figure 6- Air Gap Monitoring (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Figure 7- Subsidence arising from block caving operations, Dutoitspan and Bultfontein Mines, Kimberley, South Africa (Photo: P
Bartlett)

Cavability
Cavability is a measure (often non-quantitative) of the ability of an orebody to cave under particular
circumstances. In mining practice, the problem is usually to predict the undercut geometry, as
represented by the hydraulic radius, required to initiate caving in a rock mass of given or estimated
geotechnical properties. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

Approaches to Cavability Assessment

Cavability can be assessed with various methods including Empirical charts, Structural analysis,
Numerical analysis, Neural networks and at last Experience. In this paper the most famous empirical
method for cavability assessment, the Laubscher’s Chart will be explained thoroughly.

Empirical caving charts

Due to complexity of design and shortage of the data for numerical models empirical charts has
become very wide spread and useful for feasibility studies and operation phase. These chart were created
after gathering information from many case studies and have been changed and revised for years after
initial proposal. The idea behind majority of empirical charts are determining the hydraulic radius of
undercut for cave initiation. So before going into these charts the concept of hydraulic radius of undercut
shape will be introduced.
Hydraulic Radius
The hydraulic radius is a term used in hydraulics and fluid mechanic and is a number derived by dividing
the area by the perimeter. The hydraulic radius required to ensure propagation of the cave refers to the
unsupported area of the cave back, that is, there is space into which caved material can move. The
hydraulic radius very neatly brings the minimum span into play. (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

The minimum span is the critical dimension in promoting caving. In cases where the hydraulic radius
of the orebody is borderline and the ratio of maximum span to minimum span is high, then a small
increase in the minimum span will have a significant influence on the hydraulic radius for example, an
area of 40m x 250m has a H.R. = 17, increasing the minimum span by 10m to 50m then the H.R. = 21 and
caving would be ensured. (Brown, Underground Mining Methods, 2003)

Figure 8- Hydraulic Radii and Minimum Span (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

Laubscher’s Classification
Basically a rock mass classification provides a common understanding of rock in field and office and is
a communication mean between geologist, engineers and operating personnel. In 1973 D. H. Laubscher
met with Z.T. Bieniawski to discuss the rock mass classification system that Bieniawski was developing -
RMR – for geotechnical investigations of civil engineering projects and to overcome communication
problems. However, Laubscher decided that a lot more flexibility was required for the different mining
situations. He used the RMR concept for in-situ ratings and brought in adjustments for mining situations,
thus the MRMR system was developed (Laubscher 1975) (Laubscher and Taylor 1976) (Laubscher 1990).
The classification which was proposed by Laubscher has been expanded to these days and today can
provide solutions for many fields like followings:
 support design (Laubscher 1984)
  cavability diagrams
 stability of open stopes
 pillar design
 determining cavability
 Extent of cave and failure zones
 caving fragmentation
 mining sequence
 Potential massive wedge failure

The procedure is to calculate an Intact Rock Mass Rating (IRMR) for the rock mass and apply some
relevant adjustment factors to reach to Modified (Mining) Rack Mass Rating (MRMR).

IRMR
Intact Rock Mass Rating provide understanding of the rock mass without any attention to what kind of
operation is planned to be done. The overall equation for obtaining IRMR is:

Equation 1- IRMR

IRMR = RBS rating + Overall Joint rating

Now the RBS and Overall Joint Rating calculation will be explained:

RBS
Rock Block Strength is based on Intact Rock Strength (IRS). IRS is simply the unconfined compressive
strength (UCS) with some adjustments. The intact rock specimen may be homogeneous or have
intercalations of weaker material. Based on the percentage of weak material, figure 9 is provided to adjust
the UCS to the corrected IRS.

Figure 9- Averaging IRS (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Now if the rock is homogeneous and don’t have fractures and veins the RBS is obtained from this
equation:
 Equation 2- RBS

RBS = 0.8 x “corrected” IRS

The 0.8 represent the physical scale factor because data from a small cylindrical specimen is being
used for a large rock block.
If the rock has fractures and veins a procedure should be undertaken. First the hardness of the material
in-between should be found based on Mohs’ Hardness chart.

Index 1 = Talc 2 = Gypsum 3 = Calcite 4 = Fluorite 5 = Apatite

Inverse 1.0 0.5 0.33 0.25 0.2

Then the inverse of the hardness is calculated is put into the next equation and the result will
correspond to an adjustment factor in figure 10.

Equation 3- Inverse of Hardness by Fractures per Meter

(Fracture or vein frequency) per meter * Inverse

Figure 10- Percentage Adjustment to IRS (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

The result is then multiplied by 0.8 because of the size factor. The overall RBS will be used in the figure
11 graph to correspond to a rating between 0-25.

Figure 11- RBS Rating (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Overall Joint Condition

Overall Joint Condition has total rating of 75; 35 for Jointing, 40 for Joint Condition. Joints in Laubscher’s
works are divided into Open Joints and Cemented Joints. The fracture/vein frequency and their condition
is part of the rock block strength calculation and therefore cannot be counted twice. For this reason that
the joint spacing rating is reduced to 35 and refers only to open joints. There are situations where there
are more than three joint sets, for simplicity they should be reduced to three sets. A graph is offered for
calculation:

Figure 12- Joint Condition Rating for One, Two and Three set of Joints (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

The cemented joints will influence the strength of the rock mass when the strength of the cement is
less than the strength of the host rock. If the cemented joints form a distinct set then the rating for the
open joints is adjusted down according to Figure. For example, if the rating for two open joints at 0.5m
spacing was 23, an additional cemented joint with a spacing of 0.85m would have an adjustment of 90%,
so that the final rating would be 21, equivalent to a three joint set with an average spacing of 0.65m.
The IRMR system is revised to cater for cemented joints and to have water as a mining adjustment
However the joint condition rating remains at 40, but, the joint condition adjustments have been changed
to those given in figure 13.
Figure 13- Adjustment for Different Joint Conditions (Laubscher D. H., 2000)
 Figure 14- Adjustments for Open Joints (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Average joint condition ratings are required for IRMR values. A significant variation in joint condition
ratings could be due to trying to force dissimilar areas into one rating. Weighted average of joint condition
ratings can give the wrong result particularly if the rating of one set is high. Various procedures were tried
to obtain a realistic average joint condition and it was found that Figure 15 gave the best results by using
the highest and lowest ratings.

Figure 15- Averaging Joint Condition (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Now the Overall Joint Ration is completed and IRMR can be calculated. In addition to IRMR a term
named RMS (Rock Mass Strength) is introduced which can be calculated by following equation:
 Equation 4- RMS

RMS = RBS (Mpa) x Overall Joint Rating / 75

MRMR
Basically MRMR is IRMR with appropriate adjustment factors applied. In this section the factors will be
introduced. Total adjustment is not likely to be a multiplication of all the adjustments For example, a bad
blasting adjustment would apply in a low stress area but in a high stress area the damage from the
stresses would exceed that of the blasting and the only adjustment would be the mining induced stress.
The MRMR for a cavability assessment would not have blasting as an adjustment, nor would it have
weathering as an adjustment unless the weathering effects were so rapid so as to exceed the rate of cave
propagation as a result of the structural and stress effects. It has been found that there is a better
appreciation of the planning process and operation when personnel have to think in terms of adjustments.
(Brown, Underground Mining Methods, 2003)

Weathering
Certain rock types weather readily and this must be taken into consideration in terms of life and size
of opening and the support design. The weathering adjustment refers to the anticipated change in rock
mass strength as the exposed surfaces and joint fillings are altered by the weathering process. (Norman
B. Keevil Institude, 2015)
It does not refer to the existing weathered state of the rock as that would be catered for by the IRS and
then the RBS.

Figure 16- Weathering Adjustments (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Joint Orientation Adjustment

The shape, size and orientation of the excavation will influence the behavior of the rock mass in terms
rock block stability. The attitude of the joints with respect to the vertical axis of the block, the frictional
properties of the joints and whether the bases of rock blocks are exposed have a considerable influence
on stability and the RMR value must be adjusted accordingly. The magnitude of the adjustment is a
function of the number of joints that dip away from the vertical and their frictional properties. Obviously
a block with joints that dip at 60 ° is more likely to fail than one where the joints dip at 80°.Also the joint
adjustment cannot be looked at in isolation as a low angle joint is liable to shear failure whereas the steep
angle joint could be clamped. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)
 Figure 17- Joint Orientation Adjustment (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Mining induced stresses

Mining induced stresses are the redistribution of field or regional stresses as a result of the geometry
and orientation of the excavations. The orientation, magnitude and ratio of the field stresses should be
known either from stress measurements and /or stress analyses. The deformation of soft zones leads to
failure of hard zones at low stress levels a compressive stress at a large angle to structures will increase
the stability of the rock mass and inhibit caving and have an adjustment of 120%. Stresses at a low angle
will result in shear failure and have an adjustment of 70%.
The adjustment for high stresses that cause rock failure can be as low as 60%. A classic example of this
was on a mine where the IRMR was 60 in the low stress area, but, the same rock mass in a high stress area
was classified as having a IRMR of 40. The 40 is not the IRMR but the MRMR and the adjustment in this
case is 40/60 = 67%. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)

Blasting
Blasting creates new fractures and opens up existing fractures/joints generally decreasing the rock
mass strength. Boring is considered to be the 100% standard in terms of the quality of the wall rock, but,
experience on several mines has shown that whilst the rock mass might be stable at the face deterioration
occurs ± 25m back and this is a stress relief adjustment. Good blasting can have the effect to allow for
some stress relief thereby improving the stability. (Norman B. Keevil Institude, 2015)
 Figure 18- Blasting/Boring Adjustments (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Water/Ice adjustment
Water will generally reduce the strength of the rock mass by reducing the RBS and friction across
structures and reducing effective stress In the presence of ice in the permafrost areas the rock mass could
be strengthened. This will depend on the amount of ice and on the temperature of the ice. Because of
creep behavior of ice the strength usually decreases with time. Adjustments will range from 100% to
120%. (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Figure 19- Water/Ice Adjustments (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

Now that all the adjustment factors are introduced, the MRMR can be obtained from IRMR by following
equation:

Equation 5- MRMR

MRMR = IRMR x adjustment factors

Also another parameter named Design Rock Mass Strength (DRMS) can be extracted as below:

Equation 6- DRMS

DRMS = RMS x MRMR/IRMR

Presentation
In order to present the MRMR, the classification is divided in to five classes of 20 rating with A and B
sub-divisions of 10 points. It is essential that classification data is made available at an early stage so that
the correct decisions can be made on mining method, layout and support design.
 Figure 20- Presentation Layout (Brown, Underground Mining Methods, 2003)

At the end it must be stressed that every attempt should be made to zone the rock mass, averaging a
large range in ratings leads to planning and eventually production problems.

Scale Factor
The stability/cavability of a deposit cannot be based on the MRMR from a drift assessment alone.
Structures at 10m spacing would have a marginal effect on the overall IRMR value obtained from drift
mapping, but, have a large influence on the cavability of an orebody by providing planes along
displacements can occur. The MRMR value gives a hydraulic radius (HR) for assuring cavability. This figure
should be adjusted for the influence of major structures. The rankings are plotted in a Table. The highest
likely ranking from the three sets is in the order of 100. The total of the rankings when plotted will indicate
whether the HR is acceptable or whether it should be adjusted up or down.

Figure 21- Scale Factor Implication (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

If there are other features, such as internal silicified zones, that might contribute to stability then a
deduction should be made. The magnitude of the deduction should be 15% to 40% of the hydraulic radius.
The overall adjustment factor to the hydraulic radius can be extracted from figure 22:
 Figure 22- Percentage Adjustments for Hydraulic Radii (Laubscher D. H., 2000)

IRMR/MRMR classification Calculation Conclusion

As it is not possible to
precisely define every mining
situation, the engineer must
use his judgment in arriving at
the adjustment percentage.
Where the system has been
properly applied it has proved
to be successful in planning and
as a communications tool.
However, what has been found
on several mines is that the
geology departments dabble in
different systems and at the
end of the day are masters of
none. The numbers produced
are incorrect because the
personnel do not have a feel for
the rock mass.
Below a flowchart of
everything that was done is
drawn:

Figure 23- IRMR/MRMR Flowchart

(Laubscher D. H., 2000)
Usage for Cavability Assessment
Now that the MRMR of a rock is successfully extracted the following chart can give the minimum
hydraulic radii for the cave to initiate.

Figure 24- Shape Factor (Laubscher D. , 1999)

Figure 25- Laubscher Cavability Chart (Laubscher D. , 1999)

Verification
The following chart figure 26 and 27 shows where some of the famous cave mines are located on
MRMR/HR graph. It can be easily seen that Laubscher Cavability Chart correlates with real mines and
how successful it can be.

Figure 26- Laubscher Cavability Chart with Real mines Data

Figure 27- Laubscher Cavability Chart with Verification of El Teniente and Northparkes
 Conclusion
Predicting the ability of an orebody to flow smoothly into draw points have challenged engineers for
so long and is still. The mere size of a cave operation makes it truly challenging to extend data sets to
other part of blocks. Therefor many attempts have been made and various methods have been proposed
which each one have helped in a way. Practical works have proved us, among all the empirical methods,
Laubscher’s MRMR can provide the design and operative teams with very acceptable results where it’s
been implemented and calculated wisely.

Acknowledgments
The writer would wish to express his gratitude toward MSc. M. Yavari and PhD. SMF. Hossaini for
their attention and motivation.

Bibliography
Brown, E. (2003). Geomechanics of Block Caving. ISC.

Brown, E. (2003). Underground Mining Methods.

Hartman, H. L. (2002). Introductory on Mining .

Laubscher, D. (1999). Caving State of Art.

Laubscher, D. H. (2000). Caving Manual. ICS.

Norman B. Keevil Institude. (2015). British Columbia: University of British Columbia.

SME. (1992). Underground Mining Handbook. SME.

SME. (2011). Underground Mining Handbook. SME.

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