Dina Rose B.

Obena BSED III - ENGLISH

SPEC 14 MWF 9:00-10:00AM

CHAPTER 1

What is Instructional Materials?

Instructional materials are the content or information conveyed within a course. These include
the lectures, readings, textbooks, multimedia components, and other resources in a course. These
materials can be used in both face-to-face and online classrooms; however, some must be
modified or redesigned to be effective for the online environment. The best instructional
materials are aligned with all other elements in the course, including the learning objectives,
assessments, and activities.

Importance and Significant Use Instructional Material in Teaching and Learning Process

Instructional materials provide the core information that students will experience, learn, and
apply during a course. They hold the power to either engage or demotivate students. This is
especially true for online courses, which rely on a thoughtful and complete collection of
instructional materials that students will access, explore, absorb, and reference as they proceed in
a course.

Therefore, such materials must be carefully planned, selected, organized, refined, and used in a
course for the maximum effect. The planning and selection of instructional materials should take
into consideration both the breadth and depth of content so that student learning is optimized.

Nature of Preparation and Evaluation of Instructional Materials

Instructional materials may be operationally defined as especially designed classroom tools

which contain instructions to learners and teachers, and which specify each increment of
learning: the content to be learned; the techniques of presentation; practice and use of that
content; and the modes of teaching associated with those techniques (Johnson, RELC Journal).

Instructional materials generally serve as the basis for much of the language input learners
receive and the language practice that occurs in the classroom (Richards).

IMs are an important element within the curriculum and are often the most tangible and visible
aspect of it (Nunan, 1991).

They can provide a detailed specification of content, even in the absence of the syllabus
(Richards and Rodgers, 1986).

They can define the goals of the syllabus, and the roles of the teachers and the learner within the
instructional process (Wright, 1987).
Guides in Preparing and Using of Instructional Materials in the Classroom

 Size
 Color
 Durability
 Economy
 Easy to Handle
 Relevance
 Novelty

Criteria in Evaluating the Use of Instructional Materials

Criteria’s for evaluating instructional materials is very important to make teaching effective and
meaningful, here are some criteria’s:

1. Content

Aligns with curriculum and standards, and is current, valid and reliable, with real world
examples. Design to meet the interest of the individual learners from various skills levels.
Enhances conceptual understanding and engages higher order thinking skills. Free from bias.

2. Equity and Accessibility

Materials are durable, easily stored, transported and are universally accessible. Materials are
easily updated and are adaptable and customizable to match the resources of the school.

3. Appropriateness

Materials are appropriate for the subject matter, and also appropriate for the learner’s capacity or
levels of learning.

4. Presentation

Comprehensiveness of student and teacher resources; alignment of instructional components;

organization of instructional materials; readability of instructional materials; pacing of content;
ease of use and durability of materials.

5. Learning

Motivational strategies; teaching a few "Big Ideas;" explicit instruction; guidance and support;
active participation of students; targeted instructional strategies; targeted assessment strategies.

6. Cost

The materials used for teaching should not be expensive, as long as it eye captivating and catches
the attention of the students then it is an effective instructional materials.
Different Types of IM’s and their Uses

 Audio Visual Materials – include non-projected visuals, projected visuals, audio, media,
multimedia, films and videos, electronic distribution system, computer-based
instructional media and simulations and games.
 Non- Projected Visuals
1. Chalkboards – most versatile and useful visual aid that is available.
2. Multipurpose boards --used for more than one purpose.
3. Display Boards --used for decorative, motivational, or instructional purposes.
4. Graphic Materials – non-photographic, two dimensional materials designed
specifically to communicate a message to a viewer.
5. Still Pictures – photographic representations of people, places, and things.
6. Flip Charts – pad or large-sized paper fastened together at the top and mounted on a
wooden or metal end.
7. Maps and Globes – provide information about surface features, places, scientific data,
social and cultural data, political data, historical changes and economic data.
8. Realia – real things; such as animals, plants, artifacts, coins and minerals.
9. Models and Mock-ups – Allow learners to examine things often not easily seen in real
things.
10. Exhibits – displays of various types of non-projected visuals designed to form an
integrated whole for instructional purposes.
11. Dioramas – static displays consisting of three dimensional foregrounds and a flat
background to create a realistic effect.
 Projected Visuals
1. Overhead Projector – transparencies are large shades for use with an overhead
projector by a presenter positioned at the front of a lighted room.
2. Filmstrip – a roll of 35mm transparent film containing a series of related still printers
intended for showing one at a time.
3. Slides – small format photographic transpiring individually mounted for one-at-a-
time projection.
4. Opaque Projection – method of enlarging and displaying non- transparent material
on a screen.
 Audio Media
1. Phonograph records – can be used to communicate music, speeches, drama, poetry,
animal and nature sounds, and numerous possible sounds with instrumental
applications.
2. Audiotapes – they are sound recordings on magnetic tape.
3. Computer Disc – it contains information to communicate music, the spoken word,
and other sounds.
4. Audio cards – it is a flash card with sound.
5.
  Multimedia
1. Multimedia Kits – collection of teaching/ learning materials involving more than one
type of medium and organized around a simple topic.
2. Modules – learning activity package, an individualized learning package.
3. Learning Center – an individualized environment designed to encourage the student
to use a variety of instructional media.
4. Interactive Video – an instructional delivery system in which recorded video
material is presented under computer control to viewers who not only see or hear the
pictures and sounds, but also made active responses, with those responses affecting
the pace and sequence of the presentation.
 Film and Videos
1. Electronic Distribution System – transmits sounds and pictures over distances.
2. Computer-Based Instructional Materials – micro-computers in the classroom have
the potential for a variety of uses that could enhance learning and simplify some of
the tasks of the teacher.
 Simulation and Gaming
1. Instructional Games – activities in which participants follow prescribed rules that are
different from those of reality as they strive to attain a challenging goal.
2. Instructional Simulation – recreates or represents an actual event or situation that
causes the learner to act, react, and make decisions.
 Books and Duplicated Materials
1. Textbooks – should be viewed as teaching aids and should not be considered as the
only source of printed information to be used during instruction.
2. Resource Materials – used to enrich curriculum and enhance classroom instructional
activities.
3. Workbooks – used as supplement to textbook and include a spare for students to
write in their answers to questions.
4. Duplicated Materials – teachers often use duplicated materials to supplement other
printed materials in the textbook or resource books.

The Do’s and Don’ts in Preparing Instructional Materials

The nature and qualities of the teaching materials that you use can have a substantial effect on
the educational experience of your students. Teaching materials can often distract learners rather
than help them to learn. Common avoidable problems include overcrowded or illegible slides,
irrelevant or badly prepared handouts, and incompatible multimedia equipment. It is important
therefore to know how to create effective teaching materials.

Ground rules

Five basic principles apply to preparing teaching materials, irrespective of the type of material
you choose: links, intelligibility, general style, highlighting, and targeting (LIGHT). You may
sometimes decide to ignore one or more of these principles, but if you do, think carefully about
what you are trying to achieve.

Links

Your teaching materials should have obvious and direct links to your talk, discussion, or
presentation. Handouts are the main offenders in this category, and it is not unusual for handouts
to have little in common with the talk. It is quite acceptable for the teaching materials to give
some additional information, but this should not be excessive.

Preparing overhead transparencies

Do

 Try to use typed rather than handwritten script

 Use a type size that is big enough to be read by the whole audience—for example, at least
20 points

 Make sure that the colour of your text works—for example, dark print on a pale
background

 Limit each transparency to one idea or concept

Don'ts

 Use small print

 Use overhead transparencies packed with tables and figures

 Use light colours

Intelligibility

The teaching material should be easy to understand and learn from. How this is achieved will
depend on the medium used and the venue of the talk or presentation. Use simple language and
avoid overlong sentences or statements. Diagrams can help to clarify a complex message. If you
are using slides or overhead transparencies, the size of the print needs to be large enough.

Brainstorming on IM Marketing

What is Brainstorming?

Brainstorming is a process for developing creative solutions to problems. Alex Faickney Osborn,
an advertising manager, popularized the method in 1953 in his book, Applied Imagination. Ten
years later, he proposed that teams could double their creative output with brainstorming
(Osborn, 1963).
Brainstorming works by focusing on a problem, and then deliberately coming up with as many
solutions as possible and by pushing the ideas as far as possible. One of the reasons it is so
effective is that the barnstormers not only come up with new ideas in a session, but also spark
off from associations with other people's ideas by developing and refining them.

While some research has found brainstorming to be ineffective, this seems more of a problem
with the research itself than with the brainstorming tool (Isaksen, 1998).

There are four basic rules in brainstorming (Osborn, 1963) intended to reduce social inhibitions
among team members, stimulate idea generation, and increase overall creativity:

 No criticism: Criticism of ideas are withheld during the brainstorming session as the
purpose is on generating varied and unusual ideals and extending or adding to these
ideas. Criticism is reserved for the evaluation stage of the process. This allows the
members to feel comfortable with the idea of generating unusual ideas.

 Welcome unusual ideas: Unusual ideas are welcomed as it is normally easier to "tame
down" than to "tame up" as new ways of thinking and looking at the world may provide
better solutions.

 Quantity Wanted: The greater the number of ideas generated the greater the chance of
producing a radical and effective solution.

 Combine and improve ideas: Not only are a variety of ideals wanted, but also ways to
combine ideas in order to make them better.

Principles of Material Design

o Materials should achieve impact

o Materials should help learners to feel at ease
o Materials should help learners to develop confidence
o What is being taught should be perceived by learners as relevant and useful
o Materials should require and facilitate learner self-investment
o Learners must be ready to acquire the points being taught
o Materials should expose the learners to language in authentic use
o The learners’ attention should be drawn to linguistic features of the input
o Materials should provide learners with opportunities to use the target language to achieve
communicative purposes
o Materials should take into account that the positive effects of instruction are usually
delayed
o Materials should take into account that learners differ in learning styles
o Materials should take into account that learners differ in affective attitudes
o Materials should permit a silent period at the beginning of instruction
o Materials should maximize learning potential by encouraging intellectual, aesthetic and
emotional involvement, which stimulates both right – and left-brain activities
o Materials should not rely too much on controlled practice
 o Materials should provide opportunities for outcome feedback

Tips in Making Functional Visual Aids

1. Plan your presentation before creating visual aids. Know what you want the audience to do as
a result of hearing your presentation. Then figure out what they need to know to do what you
want them to do. Then create a simple outline that logically and clearly develops your main
points. Finally, create visual aids to support your message.
2. Use visual aids sparingly. They are aids to your presentation – not its sum and substance.
Using visual aids is meant to highlight and support your key points.
3. Make your visual aids visible to the entire audience. Projecting an image people can’t see is as
senseless as speaking so softly people can’t hear.
4. Talk to the audience, not to your visual aids. Look at the audience at least 80% of the time.
Avoid turning your back to the audience.
5. Avoid laser pointers. Your visual aids should be so clear that your audience can easily follow
along. Use your hand, if necessary. (If you absolutely have to use a pointer, set it down after you
are finished. Holding on to it will only encourage you to use it for every point on every slide.)
6. Explain the content of the visual aid when you first show it. As soon as you show people an
object, they will look at it – even if you’re talking about something else. Don’t make them divide
their attention.
7. When you finish with the visual aid, remove it, cover it, or turn it off. When using PowerPoint,
tap the B key and the screen will go to black. Tap any other key and the screen light up again.
8. Limit the amount of material on any one visual aid. Use each slide to convey a single point.
Bullet points – no more than four or five per slide – explain, illustrate, or substantiate that one
point.
9. Avoid clip art from well-known sources. It’s almost always boring and amateurish. DO use
images, graphs, and charts, whenever possible and appropriate.
10. Be prepared to give your presentation without your visual aids. Murphy’s Law — “if
anything can go wrong, it will” — applies in spades to anything involving technology and an
audience. Have a backup plan in case something goes wrong. Take a hard copy of your slides.
 CHAPTER 2

Designing Effective Instructional Materials

Effective visuals help your audience understand and remember the key points of your
presentation. Overhead projectors and slides, blackboards, handouts, and computer programs like
PowerPoint can greatly enhance your message if they are used effectively. The following tips
will help you design effective visual aids.

Make each visual stand on its own.

Each visual needs to be clear and understandable on its own. To help you accomplish this,
consider using the following tips:

 Limit each slide to only one topic, and give it a relevant title

 State sources where appropriate – for statistics, figures, pictures, etc.

 Number headings to clearly illustrate where you are in your presentation

 Know your audience: avoid abbreviations and jargon unfamiliar to them

 Use meaningful graphics when they reinforce your written message

 Highlight key information on charts, tables, and graphs to help focus your audience’s
attention (i.e., use color, circle the information, or use a pointer)

 Make points concise yet meaningful – avoid being cryptic

Achieve balanced and consistent layouts.

Balance and consistency are important when creating a presentation package. While your visuals
should be able to stand alone, they also need to fit together into a coherent whole. The following
tips should help:

 Keep type sizes and fonts consistent on all visuals in a presentation

  Format headings consistently (e.g., use bold text and increased font size)

 Use no more than two fonts per slide (one for headings and one for main text) or choose
different sizes of the same font for headings and main text

 Spread the information out so that it fills the screen

 Choose contrasting colours (e.g., dark background with light lettering)

 Use colour consistently but avoid overuse – two to four colours per slide

 Be aware of the connotations behind colours (e.g., red on a financial statement comes
with the negative connotation of having a cash deficit)

 Use parallel grammar for points (e.g., begin each point with the same part of speech)

Make visuals easy to read.

Visuals are only effective if your audience can physically see them. Here are some tips:

 Use 24 - 28 point font for main text and 32 - 40 point font for headings

 If writing by hand on overhead slides, make your letters at least 1/2” (1.0 cm) high

 Avoid distracting, unnecessary graphics and excessively complex backgrounds

 Use clear, standard fonts such as Times New Roman, Arial, or Helvetica

 Consider using boldface lettering to make text thicker

 Avoid putting much text in italics or all upper-case letters – this slows down reading

 Ensure diagrams are not too intricate to be visible from the back of the room

 Limit each point to one line whenever possible to limit reading time
Include only your main points.

Effective visuals should aid your audience, not you! They are not your lecture notes. The
following tips will help you design concise, content-rich visuals:

 Write only main points on your visuals, not the details that support them – avoid giving
the audience your presentation to read

 Put the key words you repeat throughout your presentation on your visuals (repetition is
acceptable in presentations, since it helps audience retention)

 Make your points discrete: do not simply break up paragraphs

 Assume your audience will copy down everything you present on a visual – keep
information clear, simple, and minimal.

Basic Elements in Instructional Designing

 Analyze learner and organization needs.

 Determine instructional goals and objective.

 Construct a method for evaluating learner achievement.

 Design and select instructional strategies.

 Implement the training.

 Evaluate the training.

Traditional Resources in the Preparation of IMS

1. Blackboards and chalks. Blackboard is one of the very old and most used teaching aids in
the schools along with the text books. Recently blackboards have been changed to green boards,
but the basic function of the board remains the same by whatever color one may name it. Even
the material used for making the blackboards is changed from the ordinary wood to the most
sophisticated plastic, fiber and glass materials of today. In some classrooms, the blackboards are
permanently made of cement and mortar. But the functions of all these are the same.
2. Text books. The prescribed texts books of studies for particular classes in a school have been
the other very useful tool in the hands of the teacher for centuries whereby a teacher uses the text
book to read and explain to the students everything contained in the text book lessons. The
teacher asks the students to mark or underline important ideas appearing in the lessons and the
difficult words or the concepts which the students may fail to grasp easily. While using the
textbook, sometimes the teachers move away from the subject to tell the students anecdotes,
stories or personal experiences concerned with the topic in the textbook that is being taught to
the students.

3. Charts, pictures and posters. For easy understanding of the lessons, the teachers use
teaching aids like the charts, pictures and posters which they display in the walls of the
classrooms. These not only decorate the walls of the classrooms but also are important tool for
teaching in the classrooms. Colorful charts in the classrooms attract the students to get attracted
to the classrooms.

4. Maps, Atlases and Globes. The lessons in geography becomes realistic when the teachers use
wall maps, atlases and globes to make the student understand and know various geographical
concepts and to know the locations of various places in the world.
Teaching of geography in the classrooms will be meaningless without the use of these teaching
aids. Visit to historical places near the school is live experience for the children to learn and
these also serve as natural teaching aids.

5. Flashcards, flip cards and worksheets. Flash cards and flip cards are another useful teaching
aid used especially in small classes to teach vocabulary and important concepts.
Worksheets are an important aid to the students to work out the exercises given in these
worksheets.

6. Scientific apparatus, materials and models used in classrooms and science labs. No
science lesson can said to be complete unless the children are shown the practical examples by
conducting the science experiments in the lab or class. Models of parts of the human body and
many other models depicting the replica of the things taught in the class are very important
teaching aids. Clay models are very prominently seen in the schools.
Visit to science museums, planetariums; zoological parks and places of scientific importance will
serve as very good teaching aids to the students. Leaves, twigs, flowers, seeds etc. of plants when
shown to the children either from the school garden or a nearby park will add to the botanical
knowledge of the students and are living teaching aids from the beginning.

7. Crossword puzzles, quizzes and storytelling etc. Crossword puzzles and other quizzes held
in the school from time to time also serve as a sort of teaching aids. Learning games which the
students play in the classrooms are also one of the teaching aids. Children may be asked to write
stories from the pictures shown to them. They may also be given incomplete stories to complete.

8. Dramatization and plays. Dramatization and one act plays enacted in the classrooms based
on the subjects of study also serve as important teaching aids.
9. Dictionaries, Encyclopedias and other reference books. Dictionaries, encyclopedias and
other books of reference always come to the help of the teachers and the students whenever they
want to find out the meaning of any word or an idea. Books containing facts of knowledge and
important data books help the teachers and students to find them easily in these books.

10. Toys and other objects used as methods of teaching. Toys are usually used in small classes
for teaching the children the names of various fruits, vegetables, animals, birds, insects etc. Toy
models of these objects are easily available in the market. Children in lower classes are also
given some objects like marbles and beads to learn numbers. Toy clocks and watches are used in
schools to teach children the concept of time.

11. Use abacus as a teaching aid. The use of abacus in learning numbers and small
mathematical operations has been in use since times immemorial.

12. Mathematics including geometry kits. The geometry box containing compasses, protectors,
ruler scales etc. is very important set of aids in the hands of students and teachers to learn
geometrical concepts. The teachers will have the same instruments made in larger sizes to
explain the sums in geometry to the students using chalk instead of pencils which the students
use.
Graphic Organizers

A graphic organizer is a visual display that demonstrates relationships between facts, concepts or
ideas. A graphic organizer guides the learner's thinking as they fill in and build upon a visual
map or diagram.

Teacher-made Resources

 Resources are tools every ESL, EFL or TESOL teacher uses daily in order to enhance the
language learning environment motivate students or assist in student comprehension.
(HINES, 2010)
  They are tools to help teachers in whatever approaches and techniques they have chosen
to use and offer students an amazing variety of routes for learning and discovery.
(HARMER, 2007)

What teaching resources and materials have you / your teachers used?

 They are available at the place where the teacher works.

 They adapt and expand on the available resources.
 They borrow resources from a professional resource centre.
 They buy their own resources.
 They create their own resources.
 They find resources on the internet.
 They bring authentic materials to the classroom.
 They involve students in the preparation of resources.

Teaching Strategies: Selecting Instructional Materials

 Visualization. Bring dull academic concepts to life with visual and practical learning
experiences, helping your students to understand how their schooling applies in the real-
world.
 Cooperative learning
 Inquiry-based instruction
 Differentiation
 Technology in the classroom
 Behavior management
 Professional development

A. Teaching Strategies Using Chapter Books

How to Teach a Novel

Step One: Choose (and Read!) a Novel

This is absolutely the most important step. Just as we choose wallpaper and furniture carefully,
knowing that we’ll be living with it for the next ten or fifteen years, choose your novel carefully,
because you will indeed be living with it for the next three to eight weeks. When choosing a
novel, ask yourself: “Why this book? What’s worth reading in it? What’s worth teaching from
it?” Below, I’ve listed just a few of the many reasons why you might choose one novel over
another, and you are sure to have reasons of your own.

A novel is worth reading and teaching if it

 Is a classic which continues to be relevant to today’s students?

 Is well written and particularly strong in a single area such as characterization, plot, point of
view, dialogue, conflict;
 Contains a universal theme which can be integrated into at least one other curriculum area;

 Speaks to the students’ interests, concerns, or social issues; exemplifies a desired genre or a
style of writing;

 Is grade and ability appropriate (or just slightly over or under the average student’s
independent reading level);

 Support your curriculum objectives as well as the state standards.

Step Two: Align the Novel with a Universal Theme For a novel to be compelling now and
memorable later, it most works at a thematic level. That is, it must address a universal concept to
which students can relate. Is the book about a dog that pulls a sled? No; it is about
Determination, and Loyalty, and Overcoming Challenges. Those are ideas to which students can
relate. Is it simply a tale about a pig and a spider? No; it’s a story of Compassion, and Sacrifice,
and Identity. In order to make literature meaningful, teachers must find a way to help students
connect it to their own lives. Universal Themes and their accompanying Guiding Questions are
one way of doing this. Regardless of the novel you choose and its innate merits, you must ask
yourself, “What makes this story accessible to everyone? For the kid who couldn’t care less
about spiders and pigs, what does this story say to him about experiences which we all share in
common?” That’s getting to the theme, or the universality, of the novel.

There are several major advantages to using themes:

 Learning about Text Structure across Selections In order for students to become effective
constructors of meaning, they must learn to understand the differences in narrative and
expository texts (Beach & Appleman, 1984; Taylor & Beach, 1984). Thematic organization
makes it possible to arrange several pieces of related literature together to help students learn to
use different text structures as aids to constructing meaning.

 Strategies/Skills Evolve from the Literature Students learns the strategies and skills of reading
and writing by reading and writing (Wells, 1990). By placing related pieces of literature with
similar characteristics together, it is possible to scaffold (Ibid. page 23) instruction and gradually
release the responsibility for learning to the students (Pearson, 1985). In the first selection the
teacher can provide heavy support and modeling. In the next selection students can begin to take
control and model what they are learning, still under the teacher's guidance or coaching.

 Building Connections and Relationships Thematic organization helps to account for the
concepts of schema theory and prior knowledge. By having related, focused literature, students
are able to build connections and relationships about a given theme, which is how one develops
prior knowledge and uses it to construct meaning (Anderson & Pearson, 1984).

 Provides Models for Reading and Writing Children learn to read and write together (Teale &
Sulzby, 1986). A thematic organization allows reading and writing to be taught and developed
together as readers and writers naturally learn. By having themes with several pieces of the same
type of literature, students have models to use in their writing. For example, if students are
reading several well-formed stories with very strong character descriptions, their writing can
focus on the writing of stories with strong character descriptions; the exact topic of the student's
writing, however, should be selected by the student (Graves, 1983).

 Efficient Use of Classroom Time, a thematic organization also makes it possible to use
classroom time more efficiently by focusing on a variety of curricular areas across the theme
(Pappas, Kiefer, & Levstik, 1990; Walmsley & Walp, 1990). Teachers are constantly faced with
the dilemma of having too many things to teach and not enough time to teach them. By having a
strong thematic organization, teachers are better able to provide students with learning
experiences that make more efficient use of their time and match the way students actually learn.
 Supports Constructing Meaning Overall, the major advantage of focused themes is that they
make it possible for students to more effectively construct meaning by reading related authentic
selections and building connections among them.
(http://www.eduplace.com/rdg/res/literacy/lit_ins2.html) But which comes first: the novel or the
theme? That’s entirely up to you. Many teachers have strong allegiances to certain novels, so
they let the novel “lead” the curriculum.

B. Teaching Strategies Using Basal Reader

So, you may be ready to ditch your basal reader and transition to the workshop model. Or maybe
you love your basal but want to get more out of it. Either way, here are 5 ways to make your
basal reader work for you.

1. Kick start an Interest in an Authentic Piece of Literature

When I was a kid I loved Beverly Cleary’s books. When I was adding books to my classroom
library last year I thought it would be a great idea to include some of her books so my third
graders could fall in love with her storytelling the way I did. Those books sat in the book bins
most of the year, untouched, until the day I shared an excerpt from Cleary’s “Ramona Quimby,
Age 8” from our basal reading program, Journeys. Who knew it would take an introduction
through Journeys for Cleary to reach an entirely new audience? After that reading it was
impossible to keep Cleary’s books on the shelves!

2. Do a Genre Study

Even though you may not want to use the mandated basal reader, it turns out they are actually
good at meeting certain specific learning standards. For example, the Common Core Standards
for grades K-5 require students to be familiar with a range of text types from diverse cultures and
time periods.

3. Use the Basal to Let Your Kids “Have a Go at It”

Using a story from your basal reader provides you with a shared text that students can use to get
in some guided, hands-on practice before they go off with their own texts when they read
independently.
4. Basals as Mentor Texts

One way I made good use of the basal reader is to use a story for teaching writing. Carl
Anderson, an education consultant and writer, reminds us that “when we connect a student to a
published author, we can explain what the author did in his piece that we’d like the student to
try.”

5. Standardized Test Preparation

There is a significant difference between reading comprehension strategies and test preparation.
It would be a disservice to our students if we didn’t expose them to the style and format of a
standardized test before sitting down for one. Make no mistake about it, asking students
questions after reading is a form of testing, as stated by Irene Fountas and Gay Su Pinnell in
“Guided Reading.” If you have basal readers on hand here is yet another way to get the most out
of them.

C. Predictable Books

Predictable books, sometimes called pattern books, are picture books that contain rhyme,
repetitive words, songs, refrains, or phrases, questions or some other structure that makes them
predictable.

8 Types of Predictable Books

1. Chain or Circular Story – The plot is interlinked so that the ending leads back to the
beginning. Ex: Where the Wild Things Are

2. Cumulative Story – Each time a new event occurs, all previous person, places, things, and
events in the story are repeated. Ex: The Gingerbread Man

3. Familiar Sequence – Organized by a recognizable theme (days of the week, months of the
year, numbers, etc.) Ex: The Very Hungry Caterpillar

4. Pattern Stories – The scenes or events are repeated with some variation. Ex: Froggy Gets
Dressed

5. Question and Answer – The same or similar questions are repeated throughout the story. Ex:
Brown Bear, Brown Bear, What Do You See?

6. Repetitive Phrase – Word order in a phrase or sentence is repeated. Ex: Goodnight Moon

7. Rhyme – Rhyming words, refrains, or patterns are used throughout the story. Ex: I Went
Walking

8. Songbooks – Familiar songs with predictable elements such as repetitive phrases, sentences,
rhymes, or refrains. Ex: Five Little Monkeys Jumping On the Bed
Kinds of Instructional Media for Teaching English

Learning and of the teaching and learning of foreign language skills including English is
determined by a number of factors both linguistic and non-linguistic such as the students, the
teacher, the methods teaching a foreign language needs a lot of patience, energy, time, creativity
and competence. The success, material and media or aids used.

English teaching media are very important to help students acquire new concepts of, the skills
and language competences. They are many kinds of media which can be used by the teachers in
the teaching learning process, but the teacher should be selective when choosing. This paper
discusses about Kinds of Instructional Media for Teaching English. This case followed their
picture, definition and how to use in English teaching.

CHARTS (1)

 A chart is a combination of pictorial, graphic, numerical or vertical material which

presents a clear visual summary.

Edgar Dale defines charts as, “a visual symbol summarizing or comparing or contrasting or
performing other helpful services in explaining subject-matter”. The main function of the chart is
always to show relationships such as comparisons, relative amounts, developments, processes,
classification and organization.

Uses of charts:

1. Motivates the students

2. Shows continuity in the process

3. Shows relationships by means of facts, figures and statistics

4. Presents matter symbolically

5. Presents abstract ideas in visual form

6. Summarizes information

7. Shows the development of structures

8. Creates problems and stimulates thinking

9. Encourages utilization of other media of communication

POSTERS (2)

S.L.Ahulwalia’s view: “A poster is a pictorial device designed to attract attention and

Communicate a story, a fact, an idea, or an image rapidly and clearly.”

Good’s Dictionary of Education: A poster is a “placard, usually pictorial or decorative, Utilizing

an emotional appeal to convey a message aimed at reinforcing an attitude or urging a course of
action”.

 The poster can be defined as a graphic representation of some strong emotional appeal
that is carried through a combination of graphic aids like pictures, cartoons lettering and
other visual arts on a placard. It aims for conveying the specific message, teaching a
particular thing, giving a general idea etc. Posters exert a great influence on the observer.

How to use posters

 Posters are very useful in students’ project work. Divide the class into groups and each
group can decide what message their post is going to have. The completed posters,
together with the students’ other project work, such as reports and maps, can then be
displayed around the school.

FLASHCARDS (3)

 Flashcards are small cards with a picture or symbol on them used both in teaching and in
development work. In the classroom, flashcards are commonly used to teach reading.

A picture, for example, of an elephant may be drawn or stuck on a card and the word ‘elephant’
written underneath it or on a different card. The students are encouraged to associate the pictures
and the words through various ‘look and say’ activities and games, for example, Kim’s game,
Pairs, and so on.

In teaching and development work, flashcards may have pictures symbols drawn or painted on
them. They are particularly useful for stimulating discussion in small groups, as well as for
sharing information and reminding people of a recommended process with posters, research the
local situation and pre-test them.

How to use flashcards

 To use flashcards in a classroom situation, such as learning to read show the picture and
the word together. Ask students to look at the picture and say the word. Then they look at
the word and say it again. After presenting a number of words with pictures that the
students already know, ask for volunteers to come out and match pictures and words.

When the students have learnt to read the words, you can divide them into teams and play
reading games using the flashcards.
GRAPHS (4)

 Graph is defined as a visual representation of numerical data. Graph is fundamentally a

tool for expressing number relationships, which is much easier to visualize than can be
done if the statement were made only in words and figures. It offers a judicious technique
for analyzing, comparing and prophesying of facts which are vital to an intelligent study
of a problem.

Uses of Graphs

1. Awareness: The teacher should be well aware of the method of drawing of graph in a neat and
accurate manner.

2. Neatness: The graph should be neat, clean and artistic. It should be of good quality.

3. Accuracy: The scales and the measurement of the graph should be accurate and intelligible to
the students.

4. Drawing and paper: The graph should be properly drawn. The graph paper should be good.
The pencil that is used should also be good.

5. Hints: The hints should be properly explained. The marks on the graph should be such that the
students may know them by themselves.

6. Blackboard: The teacher may draw a graph on the black board.

MAP (5)

 A map is a flat drawing or representation of an area, such as a village, which shows the
location of natural and man-made features and resources. A map is drawn or made to be
smaller than real life, and is not always to scale.
 Maps made by students or communities may take several days or weeks to build up, as
they gain confidence through the process. Leave any map with the group you have made
it with. If you want to keep a copy, make your own or take photographs.
 Making a map in a classroom can help to teach students about the concept of maps and
how to interpret them. It can help the student to reflect on their own surroundings. For
example, they might make a map of the health and safety hazards in the school
compound, village or town, showing features such as busy roads, blind corners,
unprotected water sources, rubbish tips and stagnant ponds where mosquitoes breed. This
might be part of a project to protect the environment or to campaign for road safety
measures.

SLIDES (6)

 Among the various types of materials available still projection, slides and film strips are
the foremost visual aids. They are of great value in teaching. Slide Projector or Diascope
 popularly known as Magic Lantern, is an optical aid to the process of teaching. It is used
for projecting pictures from a transparent slide on a wall or screen. As it is used to project
slides, i.e., why it is called a slide projector. It helps in showing the magnified image of
the slide. When the figure or illustration is very small and it is required that the whole
class should see it clearly, a transparent slid of this small figure is prepared. The slide is
placed inverted into the slide carrier part of the magic lantern (slide projector). The slide
projector projects its erect image on the well or screen by enlarging its dimension and
making the vision more sharp and clear. If he slide or film strip is colored then it would
be more attractive. The slide projector is useful for small as well as large groups.

FILM STRIPS (7)

 It is an improvement upon slide projector (magic lantern). The device may be used as a
slide projector or as a film strip projector. Instead of using different slide for different
topics or more slides for one topic, one strip or piece of still film is prepared. Slides
produced on films are called film strips. A film strip consists of a strip of cellulose
acetate film 16mm or 35mm wide and length 2 to 5 feet. It usually consists of 40 to 100
separate pictures related to a particular subject, topic or theme. These pictures may be
connected with series of drawings, photographs, diagrams or combination of these. Such
strip or a piece of still film serves the same purpose as served by a number of slides.

OVERHEAD PROJECTOR (O.H.P.) (8)

 The Overhead projector has opened a new dimension in communication. It represents a

lot of improvement over magic lantern, slide and film projectors.
 The name ‘Overhead projector’ comes from the fact that the projected image is behind
and over the head of the speaker/teacher. In overhead projection, a transparent visual is
placed on a horizontal stage on top of light source. The light passes through this
transparency and then is reflected at 90° angle on the screen at eh back of the speaker.

How to use OHP

Step 1 Remember to plug in the OHP. Step 2 Pull the head mirror up completely. It is likely to
break down if you move the head mirror up strongly. Step 3 Turn on OHP. It is ready for use
OHP.
After Use: Turn off power, and move the head mirror down. If out of focus, please adjust as
follows. Turn the part of gray on head mirror to the right and left until focus is correct.

WHITE BOARD (9)

 A whiteboard has a smooth shiny white surface, which can be written: on with special
pens and wiped clean with a dry cloth.

How to use a white board

You will need

• Special thick whiteboard pens which have washable ink

• A sponge or cloth to clean the board Providing you have the special pens you can use many
different surfaces, for example, plastic sheeting, sticky-back plastic and so on. Do not allow
young children to play with the plastic bags - they could put them over their heads and suffocate.
Whiteboards can be used in the same way as chalkboards for writing or drawing. In the
beginning it may be difficult to keep the writing horizontal, and the same size and style, so you
will need to practice.

FLIPCHART (10)

 A flipchart is a series of sheets of paper, fastened together at the top. When a sheet has
been used, it can be ‘flipped’ over the top so that the next sheet can be used.

How to use a flipchart

A flipchart can be used in two ways:

• With blank sheets of paper or newsprint, which the teacher or trainer writes on during the
session

• As a pre-prepared resource with pictures and or notes.

WORK SHEET (11)

 A worksheet lists questions or activities for students or trainees to work through. Pre-
prepared worksheets can be used successfully with groups with differing abilities or
language skills because each person can work at their own pace.

How to use worksheets

 Worksheets can be used for homework or a revision programme, or they can include
further details to be studied for the next lesson. They can be photocopied, or copies can
be made using a jelly copier or banda machine. In development work, worksheets can
reinforce or remind trainees about a particular message or technique. Worksheets provide
flexibility in the classroom as well as in the workshop, because they can be used
individually, in pairs, or in small groups to facilitate teamwork skills.

NEWSLETTER (12)

 A newsletter is an informal printed report, which is distributed to members of a particular

group in order to share information. A newsletter can be useful to promote good public
relations, offering evidence that the school, college or other organization is working hard
to achieve its targets. To keep a record of newsletters you have made, punch holes in
them and store them in a special file. Printing costs can be funded through selling
advertising space or asking local businesses to sponsor a page. Careful budget control is
 necessary. Like pamphlets, newsletters are easier to produce if you know how to use and
have access to a computer and a desktop publishing (DTP) programme.

CARTOON (13)

 A cartoon is a simple picture of an amusing situation; sometimes it is a satirical comment

on a serious or topical issue. A strip cartoon is a sequence of framed drawings, which tell
a story. Both types are to be found in newspapers, magazines and leaflets. In
development situations a cartoon is a method of conveying a specific message.

How to use cartoons

 Cartoon pictures can enable people to discuss sensitive issues and so are useful for
teaching and training. Listening skills in the language class can be extended and
developed using cartoon strips. You can read out a description of something, which needs
to be drawn in sequence, each part in a separate frame. Ask the students to listen
carefully, while you read the piece two or three times. Then ask them to draw what they
have heard. You could provide a template with a number of ready drawn frames for them
to fill in. You could do this with two separate groups and ask the students to discuss what
they see in the picture. You can then evaluate how well they have understood the piece
you read. Cartoon strips can be used to teach sequencing and ordering to students. Find,
or draw, a cartoon strip with between three and eight separate frames. Cut out each frame
and rearrange them so that they are in the wrong order. Stick them down in the new order
and make one copy for each group. Ask them to cut each frame out and put them in the
correct order. Before you do this, show the students an example on the chalkboard of
pictures in the wrong order and ask them to put them in the correct sequence.