PSYC 201 Chapter 12 Notes

Descriptive Statistics
Chapter 12
Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019
Lecture Outline
‣ Describing Single Variables
‣ Describing Statistical Relationships
‣ Expressing Your Results
‣ Conducting Your Analyses
Statistics
‣ Why do we need statistics?
‣ Statistics help us organize our world and make sense of it!
‣ It is much easier to understand our natural world if we can
objectively interpret what we are seeing.
‣ Statistics can be broken into two broad categories
‣ Descriptive Statistics help us summarize and display our data
‣ Inferential Statistics help us understand if our results are “statistically
significant”; that is, are our results really different?

Descriptive Statistics
‣ Descriptive statistics help us to summarize and display our
data.
‣ Summaries of our data will include measures of central
tendency and measures of variability.
‣ When we display our data, we typically do so using graphs
and tables.
Describing Data
‣ What can we say about the following data?
22 22 15 19 24 20 22 18 21 21
21 20 18 16 21 23 19 20 22 22
23 23 24 22 23 22 22 21 19 24
21 21 21 22 22 23 20 20 18 16
‣ It is difficult to determine quickly such things as what is the

most common score? What is the Minimum/Maximum?
About the easiest thing we can say is that N = 40
Sort and Categorize

‣ What can we NOW say about the following data?
15 16 16 18 18 18 19 19 19 20
20 20 20 20 21 21 21 21 21 21
21 21 22 22 22 22 22 22 22 22
22 22 23 23 23 23 23 24 24 24
‣ One of the first steps to dealing with data is to simply

categorize and sort it… patterns start to emerge. We can see
minimum and maximums, and common values
Frequency Tables
‣ From our categorized and sorted data we Table 12.1. Frequency Distribution of Scores on
can create a Frequency Table which the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
Self-Esteem Frequency Rel. Freq.
lists each value, and the number of times 24 3 .075
it appears (its frequency). 23 5 .125
‣ Tables are listed from highest value to 22 10 .250

21 8 .200
lowest value, and each value is included, 20 5 .125
even if it has a zero count. 19 3 .075
‣ We can also include the relative 18 3 .075

17 0 .000
frequency of a value simply by dividing
16 2 .050
the frequency by the total N. 15 1 .025
Grouped Frequency Tables

‣ Sometimes our original data may be Table 12.2. Frequency Distribution of Reaction
Times (in ms) in Grouped Intervals of 20 ms.
too “spread out” for a traditional Reaction Time

(ms) Frequency Rel. Freq.
frequency table; i.e., there are too many 240 - 259 1 .050
0 frequency values.
220 - 239 2 .100
149 155 170 170 170 172 181 182 183 188
191 194 196 198 198 201 210 222 229 244 200 - 219 2 .100
‣ In this case, we can create grouped 180 - 199 9 .450
intervals for the frequency table.
160 - 179 4 .200
‣ Intervals always have equal width, and
140 - 159 2 .100
always start on a multiple of the width
Graphing our Data

‣ Another way of summarizing 10
our data is to use graphical 8

Frequency of Response
figures. 6
‣ A histogram plots frequency 4
data for interval or ratio 2

scales of measurement.
0
‣ The bars all touch in a 15 16 17 18 19 20 21 22 23 24
Self Esteem Score
histogram… a space means Figure 12.1. Frequency distribution of scores on the Rosenberg
there is no data for that value. Self-Esteem Scale

Distribution Shapes
‣ One advantage of using 14
12
graphs over tables is that it
Frequency of Score
10
allows us to easily see the 8
shape of the distribution. 6
‣ For instance, this figure 4

2
shows a bimodal distribution 0
of scores, meaning it has two 0 - 9 10 - 19 20 - 29 30 - 39 40 - 49 50 - 59 60 - 69
distinct peaks* Beck Depression Inventory Score

Figure 12.2. Histogram showing a hypothetical bimodal distribution
of scores on the Beck Depression Inventory in intervals of 10.
Skewed vs. Symmetrical

Symmetrical
‣ Another property of the shape of the distribution
is whether or it is symmetrical or skewed
‣ A symmetrical distribution means the left and
right halves mirror each other
Negatively Skewed
‣ A negatively skewed distribution has its peak
closer to the right side of the figure, and a long
tail towards the left (ceiling effect)
‣ A positively skewed distribution has its peak
Positively Skewed
closer to the left side of the figure, and a long
tail towards the right (floor effect)
Outliers
‣ An outlier is defined as an extreme score score that is much
higher or lower than the rest of the scores in the distribution.
‣ Not all extreme scores are outliers… some may be an
important part of our data, such as looking at the ages of
students in a class.
‣ Other times, outliers can scores that are due to errors,
misunderstandings, equipment failures, etc.
‣ It is important to deal with these types of outliers as they may interfere
with the analysis of our data.

Measures of Central Tendency & Variability
‣ Although Tables and Figures give us a nice summary of our
data, it would be better to have a more concise description.
‣ In Psychology, we typically describe our data using measures
of central tendency (mode, median, mean), and measures of
variability (range, variance, standard deviation)
‣ It is important to note that not all measures of central
tendency and variability can be applied to all scales of
measurement (nominal, ordinal, interval, ratio)
Measures of Central Tendency: Mode

‣ The mode is the simplest measure of Table 12.1. Frequency Distribution of Scores on
the Rosenberg Self-Esteem Scale
central tendency, and can be applied Self-Esteem Frequency Rel. Freq.
to all scales of measurement. 24 3 .075
23 5 .125
‣ It is defined as the most common (or 22 10 .250
frequent) value within the 21 8 .200
distribution. 20 5 .125
19 3 .075
‣ We can use our Frequency Table to 18 3 .075
easily determine the mode. 17 0 .000

16 2 .050
15 1 .025
Measures of Central Tendency: Median

‣ The median is defined as the middle of the
distribution, such that half the data are below it, 2 2
and half are above it. 3 3
‣ Because it requires you to order your data from Median
3 3
lowest to highest, it can only be used with
4
ordinal, interval, and ratio scales of measurement.
‣ If you have an odd number of data in your distribution, 8
6 { 48
then the median is simply the middle value. 10 10
‣ If you have an even number of data in your distribution,
12 Median 12
then there are two values in the middle of the
distribution, and the median is the halfway point 15
between those two values.

Measures of Central Tendency: Mean
‣ The mean is the most common measure N=7 2
of central tendency (and probably the 3
most abused measure of central tendency). 3
‣ The mean can only be applied to interval 4
or ratio scales of measurement. 8
‣ The mean is also referred to the 10
arithmetical average of a data set. 12
‣ It is computed using the formula  M = ΣX/N ΣX = 42
where ΣX is the sum of all the scores. M = 42/7 = 6
Properties of Central Tendency

Symmetrical
‣ If the distribution of scores is unimodal and Mode
Median
symmetrical, the mode, median, and mean will Mean
all be equal.
‣ If you have a skewed distribution, the mean Negatively Skewed
will be pulled toward the skew, and the median Mode
Median
will be between the mean and the mode. Mean
‣ If there is a severe skew in the data (say caused

by extreme outliers), then the mean may not be Positively Skewed
Mode
a good measure of central tendency as it will Median
Mean
be biased towards the outliers.
Measures of Variability
‣ Although measures of central tendency are 20
18
16
important, they do not tell us the whole story. 14

Frequency
12
10
‣ Not all data within a distribution have the 8

6
4
same value… there is variability in the data. 2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 1314 1516 1718 1920
‣ The graphs to the right show distributions that 20

18
X
16
have the same mode, median, and mean (and 14
Frequency
12
the same number of scores in the data set), 10

8
6
but the upper one has relatively little 4

2
0
variability in the data, whereas the lower one 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 1314 1516 1718 1920
X
shows much more variability Figure 12.3. Hypothetical distributions with the
same central tendencies, but with low variability
(top) and high variability (bottom)
Restrictions on Measures of Variability
‣ There are many different measurements of variability,
including the range, median absolute deviation (MAD), and
the standard deviation (SD)
‣ Just like measures of central tendency, however, the scale of
measurement of your data dictates which measure of
variability you can use.
‣ Nominal data has no measure of variability.
‣ Ordinal data can use the range and the MAD.
‣ Interval and Ratio data can use the range, MAD, and SD
Measures of Variability: Range

‣ The range is the simplest measure of 20
18
16
Range = 14 - 6 = 8
variability, and is simply computed by 14

Frequency
12
10
subtracting the lowest observed value 8

6
4
from the highest observed value 2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 1314 1516 1718 1920
‣ e.g., Range = Max - Min

X
20
18 Range = 20 - 0 = 20
16
‣ The problem with the range is that it

14
Frequency
12
10
is very sensitive to outliers, and may

8
6
4
give a false sense of variability in the

2
0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 1112 1314 1516 1718 1920
data.
X
Figure 12.3. Hypothetical distributions with the
same central tendencies, but with low variability
(top) and high variability (bottom)
Measures of Variability: Standard Deviation

‣ The standard deviation (SD) is the X (X-M) (X-M)2
most commonly used measure of 2 -4 16
3 -3 9
variability within statistics. It is
3 -3 9
essentially the average amount 4 -2 4
scores vary from the mean. 8 2 4
‣ Because it is based on the mean, it 10 4 16
12 6 36
can only be used with interval and
M= 6 94
ratio data.
Σ(X − M)2 SD =
94
= 3.66
‣ The formula is SD = 7
N
N vs. N - 1
‣ By definition, the standard deviation is the square root of the
mean of the squared deviations from the mean.
‣ Hence, we divide by N
‣ This formula is only for descriptive statistics when we are not
concerned with trying to infer anything about the population
from our sample.
‣ If we use inferential statistics, then the standard deviation is
computed as Σ(X − M)2
S=
N−1
Measures of Location
‣ Finally, descriptive statistics allows us to determine the
location of a value within a distribution.
‣ Two measures of location include the percentile rank and the 
z-score.
‣ The percentile rank can be used for ordinal, interval, and ratio
data.
‣ The z-score can only be used for interval and ratio data.
Percentile Rank
‣ The precise definition of percentile rank Table 12.3. Frequency Distribution of Scores on the Rosenberg
Self-Esteem Scale Including Cumulative Frequencies
(PR) is a bit contentious*.
Self-Esteem Freq. Rel. Freq. C.F. C.R.F.
‣ We will use the definition of the percentage of
24 3 .075 40 1.000
values that are at or below a specific value. 23 5 .125 37 .925
‣ The easiest way to compute the percentile 22 10 .250 32 .800
rank is to expand our frequency table just a 21 8 .200 22 .550
bit… we are going to include the cumulative 20 5 .125 14 .350
frequency and the relative cumulative 19 3 .075 9 .225
frequency. 18 3 .075 6 .150
‣ The percentile rank is just the cumulative 17 0 .000 3 .075
relative frequency (C.R.F.), on the same line 16 2 .050 3 .075
as our value. i.e, the PR(23) = 92.5 15 1 .025 1 .025

z-Scores
‣ The z-score is a measurement of how far an individual score
is from the mean of the distribution, expressed in units of
standard deviation.
X−M
‣ The formula is  z=
SD
‣ The z-score is a standardized measure, which means that it
has no units, and has a universal interpretation.
‣ We can use z-scores to determine if a score is an outlier or not
Chapter 7 Empirical Distributions
Standard Normal Distribution (SND)

‣ Defined
- Raw score values (data) transformed to standard scores
• Retains all the qualities of a normal distribution
‣ Characteristics (Properties)
- Original Data: Interval or ratio scale
- Linear transformation of scores
- Shape: Data are normally distributed
- Mean! = 0, SD = 1
- Area under curve = 100% of scores (proportion will be 1.00)
- Each z! -score value is associated with fixed proportion of area under
the curve.
z-Scores and the Normal Distribution

- Because of standardization, shape of distribution can reflect
different forms of kurtosis & retain fixed properties for area under
the curve.
‣ If our dataStandard
is normally distributed,
Normal Distribution then Illustrated
our -scores follow a
very specific pattern that can be used for inferential testing
‣ The area under the curve between the !z-score values of 0.0 and +1.0 in
and other astatistics.
normal distribution is always = 0.3413 of the total area
Proportion under curve
.0013 .0215 .1359 .3413 .3413 .1359 .0215 .0013
-4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

0.01 0.13 2.28 15.87 50.00 84.13 97.72 98.87 99.99
Percentile Ranks

Dr. D. Medler & Dr. V. Gonzales Psyc 300A (2018) !120
Lecture Outline

Differences Between Groups
‣ Differences between groups are usually described in terms of
their means and standard deviations.
‣ For example, we might report a Table with means and
standard deviations, or use a bar graph to represent the means.
Table 12.4. Means and Standard Deviations (SD) of Fear 8
Ratings in Three Different Treatment Conditions
Fear Rating
6
Condition Mean SD 4
Education 4.83 1.52 2
0
Exposure 3.47 1.77 Education Exposure Control
Control 5.56 1.21 Type of Treatment
Figure 12.4. Mean fear ratings following treatment
The Importance of Graphing Data
Effect Size
‣ Another important measurement of the difference between
groups is what is called effect size.
‣ Similar to a z-score, effect size determines the distance
between groups in units of standard deviation.
‣ The most widely used measure of effect size is Cohen’s d
M1 − M2
d=
SD
‣ Technically, it is the difference between populations, as
estimated by the samples.

Interpreting Cohen’s d
‣ Although Cohen’s d is a standardized measure, it is not very
useful unless we can interpret it.
‣ Fortunately, there are guidelines that exist for interpreting
both Cohen’s d and Pearson’s r
Table 12.5. Guidelines for Referring to Cohen’s d and Pearson’s r as
“Strong”, “Medium”, or “Weak”.
Relationship Strength Cohen’s d Pearson’s r
Strong/Large ±0.80 ±.50
Medium ±0.50 ±.30
Weak/Small ±0.20 ±.10
Relationships Between Quantitative Variables

‣ As we have seen, there are many statistical relationships that take the
form of correlations (the relationship between two variables).
‣ For example, there is a relationship between the alphabetical position of
the first letter in a person’s last name, and how quickly they respond to a
consumer appeal.
Presenting Relationships
‣ Typically, correlations or relationships are plotted either using a line
graph (like the previous graph) or by using a scatter plot.
‣ Line graphs are used when we can organize our data into a small
number of distinct values (such as quartiles)
‣ Scatterplots are used when there are a large number of values on the
x-axis.

Pearson Correlations
‣ Pearson Correlations are the best known form of quantifying
the relationship between two variables.
‣ Pearson Correlations range from -1.00 to +1.00
‣ Correlations can be computed a number of different ways, but

they are essentially the “mean cross product of z-scores”
Σzxzy
r=
N
Correlation Example
X zX Y zY zX × zY
4 0.00 30 -0.85 0.00
7 1.58 54 1.19 1.88
2 -1.05 23 -1.44 1.52
5 0.53 43 0.25 0.13
2 -1.05 50 0.85 -0.89
MX = 4 MY = 40 r = 0.53
SDX = 1.90 SDY = 11.78
Limitations of Pearson Correlations

‣ One has to be careful of interpreting
the Pearson Correlation
‣ Pearson’s r is only useful for linear
relationships, and therefore will
miss non-linear relationships.
‣ Pearson’s r can be susceptible to a
restriction of range.
‣ Restricting a range can artificially lower
or raise a correlation
Real correlation is r = -.77, but restricted range is r = 0

Lecture Outline
APA Format
‣ When publishing results, Psychology tends to follow the
American Psychological Association (APA) format for text,
tables, and figures.
‣ If possible, one should try to present results
‣ within the text first (cheapest option), but only good for small amounts of
data
‣ within a table next, for moderate amounts of data, and if there are no
interactions within the data
‣ within a figure last… usually reserved for large amounts of data or if there
is an interaction in the data.
Presenting Data within Text

‣ When you have a small number of results to report (i.e., 3 or
fewer means), you are best to report your results directly in
the text.
‣ APA guidelines dictate that you should report all statistical
results using Arabic numerals (e.g., 0, 1, 2, …, 9) as opposed
to writing them out (e.g., zero, one, two, …, nine).
‣ Results should be reported to 2 decimal places*

Examples of Reporting Results
‣ Results can be presented narratively within the text, or
parenthetically.
‣ The mean age of the participants was 22.43 years with a standard
deviation of 2.34.
‣ The treatment group had a mean of 23.40 (SD = 9.33), while the
control group had a mean of 20.87 (SD = 8.45).
‣ The test-retest correlation was .96.
‣ Do not mix how you are presenting the data within a single
sentence.
Presenting Data within Tables

‣ If you have four or more groups within your dataset, you
should consider using a Table to present your data.
‣ Tables are a good way of summarizing results, and allows
your reader to easily compare your groups.
‣ Tables should not be superfluous (don’t put your data in the
text and in a table), but instead should add important
information to your paper.
Rules for Constructing a Table

‣ APA has specific and general rules for constructing tables.
1. In general, the first column of your table should contain the
names of the primary independent variable
2. The other columns of your table will contain your data
3. The first row (or couple of rows) contain the column headings.
4. Tables never contain vertical lines, only horizontal lines at the
top and bottom of the table, and when separating headers from
data.

Regular Data Table
Correlation Matrix
Presenting Data in the text versus

in a table
Presenting Data in Text vs. Table

Presenting Data within Figures
‣ Just like Tables, Figures should present new, important
information.
‣ Figures are best used when you have many data points, you
have a complicated design, or when you have an interaction
in your data.
‣ In the past, Figures were complicated to typeset and
expensive to produce (especially colour figures)…
consequently, figures are typically used sparingly.
Basic Layout of Figures

‣ Layout
‣ The graph should be slightly wider than it is tall.
‣ The independent variable should be plotted on the x-axis and the dependent variable on the y-axis.
‣ Values should increase from left to right on the x-axis and from bottom to top on the y-axis.  
‣ Axis Labels and Legends

‣ Axis labels should be clear and concise and include the units of measurement if they do not appear
in the caption.
‣ Axis labels should be parallel to the axis.
‣ Legends should appear within the boundaries of the graph.
‣ Text should be in the same simple font throughout and differ by no more than four points.
Bar Graphs
‣ Bar graphs are used
when the IV is either
nominal or ordinal
data.
‣ If the IV is nominal,
the order of the
conditions is
somewhat arbitrary.

Line Graphs
‣ Line graphs are used for
interval or ratio data
‣ In both line and bar
graphs, variability is
often indicated using
error bars
‣ The most common form is
called the standard error
Scatterplots
‣ Scatterplots are used to plot
correlations (the relationship
between two variables).
‣ Each point represents an
individual score, as opposed to a
mean.
‣ The dotted line in this graph
indicates the regression line
which is the line of best fit.
Lecture Outline

Steps to Conducting Your Analyses
‣ How do we get from our raw data (which could be pencil and
paper responses to a questionnaire, electronic reaction time
data, or video recordings of interactions) to our descriptive
statistics?
‣ To get there, we follow several steps:
1. Prepare the data
2. Conduct preliminary analyses to identify outliers and other oddities
3. Answer your research question
4. Understand your descriptive statistics!
257 • RESEARCH METHODS IN PSYCHOLOGY
exclude anyPrepare data, do not Your throwDatathem away or delete them because you or another researcher might want to see
‣ Therelater.
them Instead,
are several stages tosetyour
them aside and keep notes about why you decided to exclude them because you will need
data analysis.
‣ First, make sure that your data is anonymized prior to any analyses
to‣ report this information.
Back-up your data!
‣ Check your raw data for consistency…  
Now Are you are scores?
you missing
exclude a participant
readyDoto youenter your
have obvious data
errors? Do youin need
a spreadsheet
to program or, if it is already in a computer file, to forma
it ‣for analysis.
Finally, create your Youprocessedcandatause
file. a general spreadsheet program like Microsoft Excel or a statistical analysis program
‣ This is typically in a specific format that can be read into a statistical analysis
like SPSS
package suchtoascreate
Excel, SPSS,your
or R data file. (Data files created in one program can usually be converted to work with othe
programs.) The most common format is for each row to represent a participant and for each column to represen
a variable (with the variable name at the top of each column). A sample data file is shown in Table 12.6. The firs
column contains participant identification numbers. This is followed by columns containing demographic infor
mation (sex and age), independent variables (mood, four self-esteem items, and the total of the four self-esteem
items), and finally dependent variables (intentions and attitudes). Categorical variables can usually be entered a
category labels (e.g., “M” and “F” for male and female) or as numbers (e.g., “0” for negative mood and “1” fo
positive mood). Although category labels are often clearer, some analyses might require numbers. SPSS allow
you to enter numbers but also attach a category label to each number.
Sample Data File
Table 12.6 Sample Data File
ID SEX AGE MOOD SE1 SE2 SE3 SE4 TOTAL INT ATT
1 M 20 1 2 3 2 3 10 6 5
2 F 22 1 1 0 2 1 4 4 4
3 F 19 0 2 2 2 2 8 2 3
4 F 24 0 3 3 2 3 11 5 6
If you have multiple-response measures—such the self-esteem measure in Table 12.6—you could combine the
items by hand and then enter the total score in your spreadsheet. However, it is much better to enter each response
as a separate variable in the spreadsheet—as with the self-esteem measure in Table 12.6—and use the software to
combine them (e.g., using the “AVERAGE” function in Excel or the “Compute” function in SPSS). Not only i
this approach more accurate, but it allows you to detect and correct errors, to assess internal consistency, and to
analyze individual responses if you decide to do so later.
Preliminary Analyses
‣ It is very important to look at your data using preliminary data
analyses prior to doing any inferential analyses.
‣ First, you should always graph your data… this will tell you if
there is something odd, such as a multimodal distribution.
‣ Then, you can look for internal consistency of your data using
Chronbach’s ⍺ or Cohen’s κ.
‣ Finally, compute your descriptive statistics on the individual
conditions, and identify any outliers… and then decide what to
do with them.
Answer Your Research Questions

‣ Finally… answer your primary research question by computing the
appropriate group means and standard deviations, or correlations, or
whatever statistic is appropriate.
‣ Once that has been completed, you should consider exploring the data for
other potentially interesting results
‣ [e]xamine [your data] from every angle. Analyze the sexes separately. Make up new
composite indexes. If a datum suggests a new hypothesis, try to find additional
evidence for it elsewhere in the data. If you see dim traces of interesting patterns, try
to reorganize the data to bring them into bolder relief. If there are participants you
don’t like, or trials, observers, or interviewers who gave you anomalous results, drop
them (temporarily). Go on a fishing expedition for something—anything—
interesting. (Bem, 2003, p. 186–187)*
Understand Your Descriptive Statistics

‣ The final stage is to understand your descriptive statistics…
‣ Does it look like you have an interesting finding?
‣ Does it look like there is nothing in your data?
‣ Be able to describe what you have found… but remember,
you can’t make any definite claims until you have completed
the inferential analysis.

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Descriptive Statistics

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

‣ It is difficult to determine quickly such things as what is the

Sort and Categorize

‣ One of the first steps to dealing with data is to simply

‣ Tables are listed from highest value to 22 10 .250

‣ We can also include the relative 18 3 .075

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Grouped Frequency Tables

too “spread out” for a traditional Reaction Time

Graphing our Data

our data is to use graphical 8

‣ A histogram plots frequency 4

data for interval or ratio 2

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

‣ For instance, this figure 4

distinct peaks* Beck Depression Inventory Score

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Skewed vs. Symmetrical

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Measures of Central Tendency: Mode

easily determine the mode. 17 0 .000

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Measures of Central Tendency: Median

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Properties of Central Tendency

‣ If there is a severe skew in the data (say caused

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

important, they do not tell us the whole story. 14

‣ Not all data within a distribution have the 8

same value… there is variability in the data. 2

‣ The graphs to the right show distributions that 20

the same number of scores in the data set), 10

but the upper one has relatively little 4

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Measures of Variability: Range

variability, and is simply computed by 14

subtracting the lowest observed value 8

from the highest observed value 2

‣ e.g., Range = Max - Min

‣ The problem with the range is that it

is very sensitive to outliers, and may

give a false sense of variability in the

Measures of Variability: Standard Deviation

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Chapter 7 Empirical Distributions

Standard Normal Distribution (SND)

z-Scores and the Normal Distribution

Proportion under curve

.0013 .0215 .1359 .3413 .3413 .1359 .0215 .0013

-4.0 -3.0 -2.0 -1.0 0.0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

The Importance of Graphing Data

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019

Psyc 201 — Research Methods in Psychology — Spring 2019