Name: Kristin Baney

Student ID: 810001681

BIOL 1364 Introductory Genetics
Tutorial 1

1) The experiments that showed that DNA is the genetic material were:
(i) The Transforming Experiments by Griffith (1928) and by Avery, McCarty and
McCleod (1944).
(ii) The Blender Experiment by Hershey and Chase (1953)
(iii) The Reconstituted Tobacco Mosaic Virus by Fraenkel-Corral (1955)

2) The first transforming experiment done by Griffith (1928) involved taking attenuated
(nonvirulent), nonencapsulated R cells and transforming them into fully encapsulated and
virulent S cells. These cells were derived from Pneumococcus (Avery, McCarty and McCleod,
1944). The experiment conducted by Avery, McCarty and McCleod was more concerned
with the transformation of specific types of Pneumococcus. DNA was extracted from dead S
cells and added to growing cultures of R cells. The mixture was then spread on an agar
surface. Among the R colonies, they found a few of type S. While there may have been
traces of protein and RNA in the DNA preparations, the addition of a protease enzyme (an
enzyme that destroys protein) and the addition of an RNAse enzyme (one that destroys
RNA) did not stop the transformations. However, when a DNAse enzyme (one that destroys
DNA) was added, the transformation activity halted (Hartl and Jone, 1998). They concluded
that the genetic material must be DNA.

3) The basic chromosome number can be defined as the number of unique chromosomes in a
somatic cell. The haploid number refers to the number of chromosomes found in gamete
cells. Haploid cells contain a single set of chromosomes. The terms are not equivalent.
Humans are diploid organisms and have 46 chromosomes in somatic cells. These are
organized into 23 pairs. 22 of those pairs are autosomes while the 23rd pair is the sex
chromosomes. The gametes are haploid. They contain one homologous chromosome from
each pair. When fertilization occurs, the gametes fuse together forming a complete diploid
set (Khan Academy: Chromosome Structure and Numbers review).

4) The similarities between the chromosome theory of inheritance and Mendel’s principles are:
(i) Both genes and chromosomes come in homologous pairs. One comes from
the mother and one comes from the father.
(ii) During meiosis, homologous chromosomes separate. Mendel’s principle of
segregation theorized that during reproduction the alleles would separate
randomly.
(iii) Mendel’s principle of independent assortment stated that the genes will be
inherited independently of each other. The chromosome theory stated that
during meiosis, different chromosomes would be independently sorted into
 the gametes. This all occurs randomly (Hartl and Jones, 1998, ScienceLearn:
Mendel’s Principles of Inheritance, 2007).

5) Two differences between eukaryotic and prokaryotic chromosomes:

(i) In prokaryotic cells, the chromosome is a single circle of DNA. In eukaryotic
cells, each chromosome consists of linear DNA and their associated histone
proteins.
(ii) Eukaryotic chromosomes are found in the nucleus while prokaryotic
chromosomes are found in the cytoplasm.

6) Karyotype can be defined as the picture of all the chromosomes in a body cell. The picture is
taken through the microscope after the chromosomes have been isolated and stained.
Chromosomes are arranged by size from the largest to smallest (Chromosome 18 Registry
and Research Society). The karyotype picture is taken during metaphase (Hartl and Jones,
1998).

7) Chromosomes are numbered according to size with the largest being chromosome 1. There
are 22 numbered pairs called autosomes. The 23rd pair is the sex chromosomes which
determine the individual’s gender (Chromosome 18 Registry and Research Society). In
normal females, the autosomes are identical to males. In females, the sex chromosomes are
two X chromosomes, while in males there are X and Y chromosomes (Hartl and Jones, 1998).

8) Four uses of a karyotype by geneticists are:

(i) To identify the sex of an individual
(ii) To determine any abnormalities in the chromosome number and
morphology
(iii) To detect birth defects in a foetus
(iv) To diagnose a genetic disease in a young child or baby.
(Hartl and Jones, 1998).

References:
Avery, Oswald T., MacCleod, Colin M. and McCarty, Maclyn. 1944. “Studies on the Chemical Nature
of the Substance Inducing Transformation of Pneumococcal Types: Induction of
Transformation by a Deoxyribonucleic Acid Fraction Isolated from Pneumococcus Type III.”
The Journal of Experimental Medicine, Volume 79, 137 – 158.

Chromosome 18 Registry and Research Society. “What is a karyotype.” Accessed February 01, 2019.
https://www.chromosome18.org/what-is-a-karyotype/

Hartl, Daniel L and Jones, Elizabeth W. 1998. Genetics: Principles and Analysis, Fourth Edition. Jones
and Bartlett Publishers, Sudbury, Massachusetts.
Khan Academy. “Chromosome structure and numbers review.” Accessed February 01, 2019.
https://www.khanacademy.org/science/high-school-biology/hs-reproduction-and-cell-
division/hs-chromosome-structure-and-numbers/a/hs-chromosome-structure-and-
numbers-review

Science Learning Hub. “Mendel’s Principles of Inheritance.” Accessed February 01, 2019.
https://www.sciencelearn.org.nz/resources/2000-mendel-s-principles-of-inheritance

Scitable by Nature Education. “Haploid.” Accessed February 01, 2019.

https://www.nature.com/scitable/definition/haploid-309