ThcTheoretical

Foundations
I-AIM - CTF Publication Series - Issue No. 4

AYURVEDIYA
PADARTHA-VUNANA

THE THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF AYURVEDA
Text Book of Ayurveda
(As per BAMS Syllabus)

“Vidyanidhi”
K.S.KANNAN

I-AIM
cfamPrcT:
Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, (I-AIM)
Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT),
Bangalore

2011
v
AYURVEDIYA PADARTHA-VIJNANA - THE THEORETICAL
FOUNDATIONS OF AYURVEDA - Text Book of Ayurveda (as per Editorial Board
Syllabus prescribed for BAMS Course : by “Vidyanidhi” K S Kannan,
Prof, and Head, Department of Sanskrit, The National Degree College
(Autonomous), Jayanagar, Bangalore - 560 070.
Mr. Darshan Shankar
Vice-Chairman,
Pages: xvi + 462 + viii Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
Size: • Demy Octavo Bangalore
Price: Rs. 350 (within India)
$ 20 (outside India)
Dr. Padma Venkat
First Edition: 2011
Director,
Published by: Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine, (I-AIM) Bangalore
Foundation for Revitalization of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT),
74/2, Jarakabande Kaval, Post Attur, Via Yelahanka Dr. G. G. Gangadharan
Bangalore - 560 064.
Medical Director,
Web: www.iaim.edu.in; email: info@frlht.org
Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
© Publishers Bangalore

ISBN : 978-81-908965-9-7
Prof. M. A. Lakshmithathachar
Senior Hon. Advisor,
This publication is brought out with the financial Centre for Theoretical Foundations,
assistance provided under the Inter-university Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
Endogenous Programme, called CAPTURED, Bangalore
supported by DGIS, Govt. of Netherlands.
Dr. M. A. Alwar
The printing of this book is partly funded from the grant Hon. Project Director,
received by I-AIM from the Jamsetji Tata Trust, Bombay Centre for Theoretical Foundations,
House, Mumbai, which is gratefully acknowledged. Institute of Ayurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM),
Bangalore
Cover Design:
Mr. K. Lokesh, Mysore

Printed at:
M/s Tech Prints, Mysore
(0821) 2330 380.
 I-AIM is a multi-disciplinary research, education and
outreach arm of a public trust called Foundation for
Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions (FRLHT). In
2008, the FRLHT governing council resolved to subsume
FRLHT initiatives developed during 1993-2008 into an
Institute ofAyurveda and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM) in order
. Foreword to execute a bold strategy to upscale and diversify FRLHT‘s
education, research and outreach programs to demonstrate
India carries the legacy of Ayurveda (the Science of life) an innovative Institutional model for the promotion of
which is more than three millennia old. An estimated 100,000 Ayurveda for the new millennium. One of the key activities
manuscripts on Ayurveda have been produced over the period of I-AIM is the Centre for Theoretical Foundations of
1500 BC to 1900 AD covering different aspects of positive Ayurveda (CTF).
health, medicine and surgery. These manuscripts primarily
The two main research activities of the Centre for
cover eight branches (astanga) of Ayurvedic Knowledge
Theoretical foundations of Ayurveda(CTF) are (i) analysis,
which are medicine (kayacikitsa), pediatrics (balacikitsa),
translations and critical editions of unpublished medical
psychiatry (grahacikitsa), ENT (Urdhvdhga), surgery {Salya),
manuscripts, and (ii) epistemology and ontology of Ayurveda.
Toxicology (damstra), Geriatrics (Jard) and Reproductive
The centre began its work in 2007 with support from the
health (vrsacikitsa). However apart from medical subjects,
National Manuscripts Mission of the Govt, of India and many
the manuscripts also cover sophisticated schools of logic and
of its projects are currently being supported by the Dept, of
epistemology (Nyaya, Vaisesika, Sankhya, Vedanta).
AYUSH, Govt, of India.
According to scholars, the general structure of the corpus
Work on analysis, translations and critical editions
of Ayurvedic knowledge can be classified into three
of unpublished medical manuscripts is in full swing with I-
dimensions viz; (i) the principles (Tattvas and Siddhdntas),
AIM conducting Training programmes on deciphering,
(ii) the science i.e, the operational rules & laws (Sastra) and
preparing critical edition of unpublished medical
(iii) the applications (Vyavahara). While the principles
Manuscripts. This programme is targeted towards scholars
{Tattvas) underlying the Ayurvedic knowledge system are
who are genuinely interested in engaging in serious translation
declared by primary texts to be unchanging {SaShwat), the
of medical manuscripts and their interpretation, preservation
Science {Sastra) has evolved in terms of additions and
and propagation. It has also brought out a work called
deletions, the applications however are required to necessarily
“Handbook on Medical Manuscriptology” that deals with
change in time and space. The literary history of Ayurveda
different aspects of Manuscriptology in general and Medical
thus reveals that it is an evolving knowledge system. It is in
Manuscriptology in particular. It is a comprehensive treatise
fact this evolving nature of Ayurveda that has kept it
covering a range of subjects right from knowing and
contemporary, throughout its long history.
IV
understanding the materials used for creating manuscripts, endowed with commendable abilities of effective articulation
the various scripts used therein, methods of conservation, and graphic presentation, vivified by his background
methods of cataloguing, editing and other technical aspects knowledge of science & mathematics, linguistics & machine
translation. He is known for his felicity of expression in
concerning this field.
English and Kannada, and can wield a good pen in Sanskrit
Extensive work has also been done regarding epistemology
also. Books edited by him have been prescribed/published
and ontology of Ayurveda. In the year 2007, a National
by universities. He has presented many papers in national/
Seminar was organized by the CTF of IIAM on
international seminars/conferences. One finds in him a
“Contribution of Indian Philosophical Systems to Ayurveda”,
smooth blend of the ancient and the modern, the oriental
at Choksi Hall, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore. The
and the occidental, and the metaphysical and the scientific.
Seminar was aimed at improving the understanding of the
He combines in himself the virtues of versatility and
theoretical foundations of Ayurveda. As a sequel and as a
simplicity. The present book vouches for the same. I express
result of the recommendations made at the seminar, an
my gratefulness to Prof. Kannan for his association with
authentic, comprehensive text book delineating all the aspects
the I-AIM for the last few years and also authoring this book
concerning this topic is being published now.
in a versatile manner. I also hope that this association
Just as the theoretical foundations of modern medicine continues for a long time, which will be helpful in bringing
are based on logical positivism and Aristolian logic, the many such editions.
system of Ayurveda is based on the epistemology and
I congratulate the CTF group, especially Prof M.A.
ontology of the Indian philosophical systems of Nyaya,
Lakshmithathachar for giving valuable inputs and Dr.
Vaisheshika and Sankhya etc. Ayurvedic practitioners today
M.A.Alwar for coordinating the work of this project, which
are generally not well-versed in these aspects leading to a
has resulted in bringing out this very reader-friendly edition.
lack of the proper knowledge of the fundamentals of
It is through such scholarly efforts that I believe Ayurveda
Ayurveda, which severly affects its proper practice. The
can enlighten the world at large.
present book proposes to fill this void. This book is prepared
in such a manner that even persons not familiar with the
Dr. Padma Venkat
basic tenets of Indian philosophy or Ayurveda, but having
Director,
basic education of the pre-university level, would be able to
understand the same without undergoing undue difficulty. It I-AIM, Bangalore
also focuses on the syllabus that is prescribed for the BAMS
so so so so
courses at the Graduate level. Xr X X X
“Vidyanidhi” K.S.Kannan is a meticulous scholar and a
votary of Sanskrit - the language, its literature, and
philosophy. He has earned reputation as a gifted teacher

VI

Preface
India has a unique and rich tradition of medicine. The
principal systems of Indian medicine are Ayurveda, Siddha,
Swa-rigpa and Unani. All these systems of medicine have
drawn inspiration and knowledge extensively from other
streams of knowledge / philosophy that were prevalent during
the time of their evolution and development.
Each of the six Indian philosophical systems have
contributed to the evolution and practice of Ayurveda in
unique and extensive ways. This was well known to the old
practitioners of Ayurveda, for whom learning Sanskrit
Language and some works of the Indian philosophical
systems was mandatory. However in modern Ayurvedic
educational institutions established after 1947, not much
attention is paid to the theoretical foundations of Ayurveda.
No careful analysis, as such, is available with regard to the
part played by the Indian philosophical systems to the various
subjects pertaining to Ayurveda. This has resulted in the
theoretical foundations of Ayurveda being neglected in
modern educational institutions.
Unless the theoretical foundations of any subject are
strongly established, it would be impossible for the practice
of that subject to stand the test of intellectual scrutiny.
Therefore it is imperative for a comprehensive medical
science like Ayurveda to be established on strong theoretical
foundations, based on which it can serve the world for a long
viii
long time. It is to undertake this very important, difficult
and mammoth task that the Centre for Theoretical
Foundations has been carved out as a separate centre under
the school of trans-disciplinary studies of the I-AIM, FRLHT.
The present work is a result of many years’ of research
work and explains in an authentic and lucid fashion, the
fundamental theoretical foundations of the Ayurveda Sastra.
The book also conforms to the BAMS syllabus on Basic
principles of Ayurveda, prescribed at the state and National
levels. Hence, it will be most useful for all students of
Ayurveda both from the examination point of view as well as
for gaining knowledge about the subject. Therefore, in my
opinion, reading and assimilation of this book is a must for
all students of Ayurveda.
The author of this book is ‘Vidyanidhi’ Prof. K.S.Kannan,
an outstanding scholar of great repute in Sanskrit literature
and Indian Philosophy as well the modern streams of
knowledge. He is known for his simplicity, humility and
versatility. He is also very adept in explaining even complex
concepts and thoughts in an easy to understand and versatile
manner. He has authored several text books that have been
prescribed by several Universities, many independent works
and a number of articles that have caught the imagination
and appreciation of the scholar and layman alike. He is also
well known for his unique bridge-building capabilities that
have seen him relate and nicely blend the ancient with the
modern, Oriental with the Occidental and the metaphysical
with the scientific streams of knowledge. I-AIM is grateful
to Prof. Kannan for authoring this work in a very easy-to-
understand manner, that will help students and scholars alike
to properly understand the theoretical foundations of
Ayurveda. I express my sincere thanks to him and also hope
that many more such works will flow from the pen of Prof.
IX
Kannan to enrich the current subject further.
I express my gratefulness to Dr. K.P.Muraleedharan, an
outstanding scholar of Ayurveda and Dr. Manoj
Shankaranarayanan, a very emotional and versatile scholar
of Ayurveda for reviewing the present work and giving
valuable inputs that have been incorporated in the book. I
thank Ms. Venetia Ansell, an outstanding scholar in English
and expert in editing, for copy-editing this work.
This publication is brought out with the financial
assistance provided under the Inter-university Endogenous
Programme, called CAPTURED, supported by DGIS, Govt,
of Netherlands. The printing of this book is also partly funded
from the corpus grant received by I-AIM from the Jamsetji
Tata Trust, Bombay House, Mumbai, which is also
gratefully acknowledged.
Further, I congratulate the CTF team of our organization,
especially its Senior Honorary Advisor Prof
M.A.Lakshmithathachar and Hon. Project Director Dr.
M.A.Alwar for guiding and coordinating the present work
respectively. It is due to their untiring efforts that this
publication has come out in a beautiful and utilitarian manner.
I hope that they will continue to bring out many more such
publications, in the future too, under the banner of the ClV
that will help in the conservation and propagation of the
Indian Medical Heritage.
Dr. GG Gangadharan
Medical Director,
I-AIM, Bangalore
Author’s Words
“A picture is worth a million words” - says a Chinese
proverb. Picturesque representation vivifies even dry/abstract
material that may need a careful perusal. Graphics and
Tabular presentations succeed no less in this.
A great deal of material in Ayurvedic texts deserves to be
presented in a a vivid manner. Students who enroll
for Ayurveda today will have passed the Preuniversity
Course. A good many text books on Science in recent times
employ such modes of presentations as Tables, Graphs, and
Flow charts. It is only to be expected, therefore, that students
come with apposite expectations regarding the material in
Ayurvedic texts. An attempt has been made to present
material on Padartha-Vijnana (prescribed by the CCIM for
Phase I of the BAMS Course) being taught in over 250
Ayurvedic colleges in India.
Unfortunately, most of the books on Ayurveda available
in the market today simply lack such sophisticated
presentations as we obtain in books on science and
mathematics, and which these students are already
accustomed to. Not unoften, even the English is poor in a
majority of the Ayurvedic books in the market, and
transliteration inconsistent, or even frequently faulty.
Ours is an attempt, therefore, to answer to the above
desiderata, while absorbing the merits of the books already
in use. We hope the book will be well received by the public.
Being almost the first attempt in this direction, the book CONTENTS
may have much scope for improvement, and suggestions are
most welcome (The email-id of the author has been provided PART 1: Padartha - Objects of Analysis
below).

It remains to thank the benefactors of this work. First

and foremost of all, we thank the authorities of I-AIM, 1 Darsana 1
FRLHT - Dr. Darshan Shankar and Dr.
2 Dravya 16
G.G.Gangadharan, whose grand vision is materializing itself
in various forms - research and healthcare activities in 3 Pancabhuta 36
the service of humanity in general, and of the Indian heritage 4 PrthivI 53
in particular. Our thanks are due to Prof. M A
5 Jala 59
Lakshmithathachar and Dr. M A Alwar, the wonderful
father-and-son team, at home equally with traditional 6 Tejas 64
knowledge and modern technology. The primary motivation 7 Vayu 71
to write this book came from them.
8 Akasa 83
Our thanks are also due to Ms. Meera, for the efficient 9 Kala 88
assistance. She has typeset the work excellently, and has even
acted the role of a copy-editor alongside. Her knowledge of
10 Di$ 104
Sanskrit and sensitivity to diacritical marks, as well as skill 11 Atman 114
in manipulating tables and handling footnotes have greatly 12 Manas 137
enhanced the utility of the work.
13 Guna 149
We also thank M/s Tech Prints for the neat getup of the work.
14 Karman 189
We welcome suggestions from teachers and students, as
15 Samanya 197
also scholars and the general public, in respect of improving
the book in every possible fashion so as to enhance its utility. 16 Visesa 202

Candramana Yugadi K S Kannan 17 Samavaya 208

04-04-2011 ks_kannan@yahoo.com 18 Abhava 215
19 Tam as 218
x xf x xr
xiii
xii '
PART 2 : Pramana - Modes of Analysis
TRANSLITERATION SCHEME
20 Pramana 222
21 AptopadeSa 246
22 3abdapramana 254
23 Pratyaksa 270 a 3T a 3TT i 1 i
24 Anumana 323 u "3 u r r

25 Pramanantara 365 lr
e ai o 3^ au 3#
PART 3 : Praklrna - Miscellaneous
m h •

26 Karyakaranabhava 377
27 Sastra & DarSana 399
28 Srsti 421
k w kh s g \ gh \
n \
29 Prakrtipurusasamyoga 451 \

c xTs ch j jh n
30 Moksa 461 \ \ S

t cTs th s
d T\ dh s
n Ws
Appendix t 7Ts th d dh y\ n Ts
\

p V\ ph W b ¥s bh s
m TT S
\

y ■^rs r Ts 1 cTs V s

s s \
s TTV h f
ksa jna ?T

X X

XIV xv
 ILLUSTRATIONS
for Transliteration

-cHch^BdT carakasamhita

w susruta

3 astangahrdaya

trftarr parlksa

fTFT jnana AYURVEDIYA

PADARTHA-VIJNANA
TOW pramana

■o
nighantu THE THEORETICAL
visesa FOUNDATIONS OF AYURVEDA
dalhana

MI6 patha

TTsRJlT sangraha

riidhi

svaccha

m nlti

5ff
X X' X" X
XVI
 CHAPTER 1

DAR&ANA: INTRODUCTION
Essential Goal
It is almost a self-evident truth that all actions of all
living beings have but one essential purpose viz. the
attainment of happiness. Vagbhata makes it a point to
explicitly state this, in order, no doubt, to lay the
foundation for what we call today a holistic approach to
life. Says he: “It is deemed that all impulses of all beings
are directed towards happiness. Happiness issues not, else
from [the pursuit of) dharma. One ought, hence, to be
dedicated to dharma.”1
Just as it is easy to say, “Be a good man!”, but is
difficult all the same to define what goodness is, it is easy
to say “Be happy,” yet difficult to define what happiness
is. It is not very difficult to notice, however, what people
constantly seek to avoid. None in his senses wishes to die,
and none, similarly, is not relieved when he recovers from
an illness. As to the first, nature has never favoured bodily
immortality, hence none can ever escape death; one may
at best try to postpone death - that is all.

1 Astangahrdaya 1.2.20
sukhdrthdh sarvabhutanam matdh sarvah pravrttayah \
sukham ca na vina dharmat tasmad dharmaparo bhavet 11
1. Darsana: Introduction
The second aim - of curing illnesses - is the more
important concern of Medicine as a branch of Knowledge.
Postponement of death to the extent possible, or more
plainly, attainment of longevity - is also, by corollary, the
aim of the science of medicine; as, too, prevention of
illnesses. It is pertinent to note in this context that
Ayurvedic texts actually have major/primary chapters/
sections dwelling on these latter themes, hence entitled
dirghan-jivitiyadhyaya /same as dyus-kamiyddhydya) or
roga-anutpadaniya-adhyaya. _
Fourfold Analysis
Any good body of knowledge worth its name ought to
first justify its very existence. It has to state, in other
words, in its very preamble, how it can be of use to men.
To make things even more explicit, it must first define the
kind of problems that are encountered, and demonstrate
how it offers a solution. A wholesome system of
knowledge must also throw light on the genesis of the
problem, as too, the procedural aspects of the solution.
This is at least how the Buddha went about when he
stated the Four Noble Truths, even though he was not
necessarily the originator of the approach. For, the
Sankhyan and Yogic traditions preceded him by centuries,
perhaps millennia, and their very opening remarks spoke
of the problem and the solution.
The most famous Sankhyan text opens with the
statement of the variety of problems confronting us, and a
consequent need of an inquiry into solutions that can
2 Padartha -
/. Darsana: Introduction
tackle them2. Similarly the most famous and ancient Yoga
text opens with the remark that Yoga restores one to
one’s very own nature - implying that it is the lack of the
same that is the cause of our being ill at ease (which
question it takes up explicitly later also)3.
An even more explicit statement of the aforesaid Four
Factors is encountered in a commentary on the Yogic text,
which plainly states that the Yogic system has its analogue
in the Science of Medicine. Says Vacaspati MiSra in his
gloss on the celebrated commentory on Yogasutra-s thus:
“Just as the Science of Medicine has four “regiments”
(catur-vyuha) viz.
(i) disease
(ii) cause of disease
(iii) health and
(iv) medicine,
even so this science [of Yoga] too has four of them - viz.
(i) cycle of births and deaths
(ii) cause for the cycle
(iii) liberation and
(iv) the means for liberation4.”
2 Refer: Sahkhyakdrika of ISvarakrsna, the very first verse :
duhkha-traydbhighdtat jijnasa tad-abhighatake hetau \
drste sapartha cen naikdntdtyantato’bhavat \ \
3 Yogasutra of Patanjaii. See the opening aphorisms :
1.2 yogaS citta-vrtti-nirodhah \
1.3 tada drastuh svanipe’vasthanam |
1.4 vrtti-sampyam itaratra etc.
4 Sankhyapravacanabhasya (on Yogasutra 2.15 = parinama-tapa-
sarhskara-duhkhair gunavrtti-virodhacca duhkham eva
sarvam vivekinah \ ) says :
- Vijndna 3
1. Dartona: Introduction 1. Darsana: Introduction

The Yogasutra has separate names for these as listed in Components in English
Table 1. Ayurveda Rendering
1 row Illness
The parallel Buddhist Schema is presented in the
2 roga-hetu Cause of Illness
table below. The similar Ayurvedic Scheme is also
presented here 3 arogya Health
4 bhaisajya Medication

Table 3 : Ayurvedic Scheme

Components English
in Yoga Rendering
1 heya Thing to be obviated
Darsana - Meaning and Etymology
2 heya-hetu Cause of the thing to be obviated
3 harm Obviation Any systematised body of knowledge presenting a
4 hanopaya Means of Obviation particular world view aimed at a deeper understanding of
life as can conduce to peace and happiness could be
Table 1: Yogic Scheme technically called a darSana.
The word darSana is derived from a root meaning ‘to
see’5. It can have various senses depending upon the way it
Components in Buddhism is derived. In Sanskrit grammar, prefixes or suffixes are
1 duhkha added to roots to denote certain defined senses.
2 duhkha-samudaya Sometimes, several senses can be obtained from the same
root and the same suffix, but as per different rules.
3 duhkha-nirodha
4 duhkha-nirodha-gamini patipada

The root is Vd/tf, noted in Dhdtupdtha as driir preksane.

Table 2 : Buddhist Scheme
yathd cikitsa-Sastram catur-vyuham rogo roga-hetur arogyam
bhaisajyam iti, evam idam api sdstram catur-vyuham eva \
tad-yatha samsarah samsara-hetur mokso moksopaya iti |
etc.
For the Buddha, the four items are (i) duhkha (ii) duhkha-
samudaya (iii) duhkha-nirodha and (iv) duhkha-nirodha-
gdmiriipatipada (Ref. Mahavagga L6.19.22j
4 Padartha -
Dhatupatha is a classified list of Sanskrit roots with
anubandha-s (appendages) giving the meaning of the roots,
and taken as an Appendix to Panini’s Astadhyayi, the
paragon of grammars. Drtir is the technical name for dri;
and preksane, the word in the Locative Case, gives the sense
of the root. Preksana means observation (itself derived from
‘to see’, with the prefixpra, hence meaning ‘to observe’
( the square root symbol ‘V’- read as ‘root’- is used to
indicate that what follows is a grammatical root in
Sanskrit).
- Vijnana 5
 1. Dar&ana: Introduction
1. Darsana: Introduction

The following Table lists a few important senses of the The more popular lexicon viz. Amarakosa, treats five
word dar&ana as per the different rules of Panini’s grammar. words as synonymous, enumerated in Table 6.

Traditional Sanskrit lexica give many more meanings. 1 nirvarnana

Thus the lexicon Medini gives 7 meanings, enumerated in 2 nidhyana
the Table 5. The text is in the metre anustubh, and runs 3 darsana
thus: 4 alokana
darsanam nayanam svapna-buddhi-dharmopalabdhisu \ 5 Iksana
Sastra-darpanayoSca 11
Table 6 : Synonyms of the word darSana
1 2
Root dr& drS .1 Seeing
Sense of the root to see to see 2 Showing
Sense of the suffix Action Instrument 3 Demonstrating
Suffix lyut lyut 4 Looking at
Paninian Rule No 3.3.115 3.3.117 5 Knowing
Text of Paninian karanadhikaranayoS 6 Sight
lyut ca
Rule ca 7 The eye
Final form darSana dariana 8 Inspection
Act of 9 Exhibition
Final sense Eye
seeing 10 Visiting
11 Audience
Table 4 : “Dartona”- Different Derivations 12 Aspect
13 Appearance
14 Vision
1 nayana
15 Discernment
2 svapna
16 Judgment
3 buddhi
17 Religious knowledge
4 dhannpa
18 Doctrine
5 upalabdhi
19 System of philosophy
6 Sdstra
20 Mirror
7 darpana
Table 7 : Senses of the word darSana
Table 5 : Polysemy of the word darSana
6 Padartha - - Vijnana 1
1. Darsana: Introduction
However the Practical Sanskrit-English Dictionary
of Apte gives over 20 senses, presented in Table 7.
It is only as a sample of methods of word-study that
the Tables have been provided here. It is also done in
order to indicate to the serious student the kind of
exploration he must take up for a grasp of the denotations
and connotations of technical words. See Cakrapani on
Carakasamhita 6.25.22-23 for a comment on darSana.
The Importance of Knowledge
and Understanding
A proper understanding/overview of life,
sometimes called samyag-dariana, is considered supremely
important. One who is endowed with the same, ceases to
be shackled by karman-s, and one who is destitute of it is
susceptible to the cycle of births and deaths, says Manu6 *.
Glossing on this verse, Kulluka, the commentator, draws
our attention to some parallel statements in the Upanisad-
s and Brahmasutra. Just as water-drops do not stick to the
lotus-leaf, even so evil acts do not stick to the
comprehensor, says an Upanisad1. Upon attaining
6 Manusmrti 6.74 says :
samyag-darsana-sampannah karmabhir na nibaddhyate \
darSanena vihinas tu samsaram pratipadyate 11
_
<7
Chandogya Upanisad 4.14 says:
yathd puskara-pala&a apo na slisyanta, evam evamvidi papam
karma na Slisyate | |
Cf. Svetasvatara Upanisad 6.15
tam eva viditva atimrtyum eti \
8 Padartha •
1. Darsana: Introduction
knowledge, precedent and subsequent sins are nullified,
says the Brahmasutra8.
It is in our country that the highest importance has
been attached to Knowledge or Comprehension. The
Nyaya and the Vaisesika darSana-s insist on knowledge as
the means to salvation. Gotama says that Right
Knowledge leads to liberation and that with the dispelling
of erroneous cognition (apdya of mithyajhana) will finally
result a cessation of all sorrows, no different from
liberation (apavarga)9. Kanada says that the summum
bonum (niMreyasa) is attained by a true grasp (tattva-
jhanat) of the points of commonality and difference of the
various entities (padartha-s) in the world10.
Ayurveda itself speaks of the dartona (perception) of
the rsi-s (sages) through their jhanacaksus (eye of
wisdom)11.
8 Brahmasutra 4.1.13
tad-adhigama uttara-purvaghayor a&lesa-vinatou tad-
vyapade&at |
9
Nyayasutra
1.1.1 pramdna-prameya-samSaya-prayojana-drstdnta-
siddhantavayava-tarka-nirnaya-vada-jalpa-vitandd-
hetvdbhdsa-chala-jdti-nigraha-sthdndndm tattva-jndnan-
nihSreyasddhigamah |
1.1.2 duhkha-janma-pravrtti-dosa-mithydjndndndm
uttarottara-apaye tad-anantara-apayad apavargah
10 Vaisesikasutra 1.1.4
dharma - v'tiesa-prasutdd dra vya-giina-karma-samanya - v'tiesa -
samavdyanam padarthandm sddharmya-vaidharmydbhydrh
tattva-jndndn-niMreyasam |
11 Carakasamhita 1.1.9 :
tenarsayas te dadriuryathdvaj jndnacaksusa
- Vijhana 9
1. Dartona: Introduction
Origin of Darsana
“DarSana” can have technical sense, as noted by
Madhavacarya. It has reference to a comprehension of
things which may be subtle or screened or distant - not
perceived, that is, in the normal course and with our
naked eye or naked ear etc12.
Three sources of darSana have been noted viz.
Sravana, manana and dhyana. It can be taken as implied
that the three must be concurrently / serially pursued. Of
these the first is a reference to “listening” - of the
scriptures, that is, as taught by a proper preceptor. The
second has a reference to logical analysis - of, that is, what
has thus been listened to, and the third to contemplation -
of, that is, what has been analysed13.
samanyam ca viSesam ca gunan dravyani karma ca \
samavayam ca tajjhatva tantroktam vidhim asthitah 11
Also take note of pafyati (>Idrt), and the role oiyukti in CS
1.11.25, cited later.
12 Sarvadarsanasahgraha Ch.6 (= NakutiSapahipatadarSanam) -
suksma-vyavahita-viprakrstdSesacdksusasparfadi-visayam
jndnath darfanam \
He goes on to enumerate high accomplishments furtheron
such as Sravana, manana, and vijnana. This is comparable to
the Upanisadic sequence of darSana, Sravana, manana, and
nidhidhyasana.
Cf. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 2.4.5 (also 4.5.6)
atmd va are drastavyah Srotavyo mantavyo nididhyasitavyah \
13 Srotavyah Srutivakyebhyo mantavyaS copapattibhih |
matva ca satatam dhyeyah - ete dar&ana-hetavah \ \
Cf. dgamend’numdnena dhyand’bhyasarasena ca \
tridka prakalpayan prajnam labhateyogam uttamam 11
10 Padartha -
1. Darsana: Introduction
Division and Number
The darSana-s have been broadly divided into two -
viz. astika-dariana-s and nastika-darfana-s, sometimes also
referred to as vaidika-dar&ana-s and avaidika-darfana-s.
The words astika and nastika are often taken (or
rendered) as theistic and atheistic.
It is more accurate to say that they refer to ‘one who
believes in the idea that the World Hereafter exists’, and
to ‘one who does not believe that the World Hereafter
exists’14.
Yet another criterion to differentiate the two is the
belief in the Veda15. In the context of the classification of
dartona-s, the latter basis seems to be more pertinent.
Cf. dgamend’numdnena dhyana’bhydsarasena ca |
tridka prakalpayan prajnam labhateyogam uttamam \ |
14 The dissolutions (vigraha-vakya) of the two words are thus
given : (a) asti paralokah iti matih yasya sah and (b) nasti
paralokah iti matih. yasya sah |
The derivations of astika and nastika are as per Panini:
Astadhyayi 4.4.60
asti-nastidistam matih \
whence we have asti matir asya and nasti matir asya
respectively.
15 Manusmrti 2.11
nastiko veda-nindakah \
But also note that Manu himself cojunctively juxtaposes
nastikya and veda-ninda in a single verse. Manusmrti 4.163
nastikyarh veda-nindam ca ... [varjayet]\ \
where KullOka interprets nastikyam as nasti paraloka iti
buddhim. The philosophy of nastika schools is also known
as nastivada.
- Vijnana 11
1. Darsana: Introduction 1. Darsana: Introduction

The astika-darSana-s have been traditionally noted as

six in number. Table 8 gives them.
Of these the last four are different brands of Bauddha
1 Nyaya darSana.
2 VaiSesika
In the text Sarvadarsanasangraha, as many as 15 darSana-s
3 Sankhya
have been discussed. They are provided in the Table 10.
4 Yoga
5 Purva-mimamsa 1 Carvaka DarSana
6 Uttara-mimamsa 2 Bauddha DarSana
3 Arhata Darfana
Table 8 :Astika darSanas 4 Ramanuja DarSana
5 Purnaprajha Darfana
Noting that there is some overlap between three sets
6 NakutdapaSiipata DarSana
of two each, a traditional verse marks them as a pair of
7 Saiva DarSana
yoga-s, a pair of mimamsa-s, and a pair of tarka-s16.
8 Pratyabhijha DarSana
The nastika-darSana-s are also six in number, noted in 9 RaseSvara DarSana
Table 9. 10 Aulukya DarSana
11 Aksapada Dar&ana
1 Carvaka
12 Jaiminlya DarSana
2 Arhata 13 Paniniya Dar&ana
3 Sautrantika 14 Sankhya DarSana
4 Vaibhasika 15 Patahjala Daiiana
5 Yogacara
6 Madhyamika Table 10 : DarSana-s listed in
Sarvadarsanasangraha
Table 9: Nastika-darsana-s
Some of these darSana-s are known by their synonyms
16 dvau yogau dve ca mimamse dvau tarkau - iti sat budhah 11 - also. See Table 11.
is the quote cited in Nyayakosa of Jhajaklkara. The verse
probably took its cue from the last two items which contain
the word mimamsa. The first two items refer to the two
tarka-s, and the middle two, viz. sankhya and yoga are noted
as two yoga-s.

12 Padartha - - Vijhana 13
1. Darsana: Introduction 1. Darsana: Introduction

The astika-dar$ana-s have a Vedic inspiration and On the contrary, there is an ancient saying in Sanskrit
therefore a verse in an ancient epic decries the nastika that the various treatises (Mstra-s) have been written only
attitude as springing from delusion17. to enlighten one about the attainment of peace. He is
hence [to be deemed asl knowledgeable in them all, whose
1 Carvaka =Lokayata mind is always peaceful20.
2 Arhata —Jaina
3 Ramanuja — VRistadvaita 1 §aiva
4 Pumaprajna =Dvaita 2 Vaismva
5 Auliikya = VaUesika 3 §akta
6 Jaiminiya =Mimdmsd
4 Saura
7 Aksapada =Nyaya
5 Vainayaka
8 Paniriiya = Vydkarana
6 Skanda
9 Pdtahjala =Yoga

Table 12 : Six Schools of Bhakti Tradition

Table 11 : Synonyms of some darfana-s

Madhavacarya mentions 6 schools even among the

Bhakti Traditions18. They are presented in the Table 12.

The different schools are bound to differ on various

issues and at times get confrontationist and speak with
prejudice or violate at times certain logical streams. This
has been noted by Vatsyayana19.

17 Mahdbhdrata 12.123.16
prajna-natetmako mohas tatha dharmartha-na&akah \
tasmin nastikata caiva durdcdras ca jayate | |
18 Refer:
Saivarh ca vaisnavam saktam sauram vainayakam tatha \
For a tongue-in-cheek parody of the numerous schools of
skandam ca bhakti-margasya darSanani sadeva hi | |
thought, read Cicero: There is no idea so foolish that some
- Parasaramadhaviya of Vidyaranya (alias Madhava)
philosopher has not thought about it.
19 Nyayabhasya of Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra of Jaimini,
4.2.49): 20 iamdrtham sarva-Sastrani vihitani manisibhih \
anyonya-pratyanikdni pravadukanam darsandni \ svapaksa- sa eva sarva-Sastrajho yasya Santam manah sada 11
ragena caike nyayam ativartante \
14 Padartha - - Vijhana 15
 2. Dravya

Simple Definitions

Actually it is not easy to define dravya in a manner

CHAPTER 2
D/MFE4(SUBSTANCE)
The word dravya is used to stand for substances in
general. Though translated commonly as “Substance”, it
may be more appropriate to retain the word dravya itself.
that will not overlap with other concepts. However, two
definitions will serve the purpose generally. The
definitions are constructed with reference to properties
and functions in which substances are generally seen
involved.
The two simple definitions are given in the table :
1 gunaSrayah. dravyam The substratum of attributes
2 kriyairayah dravyam The substratum of actions

Members of the Set Table 14: Simple definitions of dravya

It is easier to know what dravya is by getting to
These two may in fact be viewed as the reversal of
know the list of items designated dravya, rather than
the definitions of guna and kriya. Attributes cannot stand
attempting a definition first. They are listed below. Their
by themselves and so require a substratum. Similarly
rough equivalents in English are also noted.
actions also need a substratum. Essentially gunavad
dravyam and kriyavad dravyam are the same definitions,
1 prthivi The Earth albeit with slightly different wording.
2 ap The Water
3 tejas The Fire The only reason for not calling the two definitions
4 vayu The Wind in the table simple definitions is that they present a small
technical difficulty, which however is important for
5 akdSa Space
Logicians (i.e Naiyayika-s and VaiSesika-s). When the
6 kola Time
dravya-s are created, they are said to exist without any
7 dLS Direction
attribute for a moment21. What is true of attributes is true
8 atman The Self
of actions also. The Logicians have devised this postulate
9 manas Mind
primarily in order to differentiate between dravya and
guna. For if both come into being simultaneously, there
Table 13: List of dravya-s

While padartha is best rendered by “Category”,

dravya is rendered by “Substance”. 21
Their maxim is
adye ksane nirgunam dravyam tisthati \
16 Padartha - - Vijhana 17

2. Dravya
would be nothing to differentiate the two. Guna and
karma can both be said to have dravya&rayitva.
Technical Definitions
However there are two technical definitions for
dravya listed in this Table :
dravyatva-jatimattvam Possession of the class
1
dravya-laksanam dravyatva
2 samavayi-karanatvam Being an Intimate Cause
dravya-laksanam
Table 15: Technical definitions of dravya
The first definition serves the purposes of a
logician well, and can be said to add no information for
the layman. One can add the expression “-tva-jatimat-
tvam” to any item, more or less, and get such a technical
definition (one has to apply the filter of jati-badhaka-s
(dealt with later) first, though).
Examples for Intimate Cause
The second definition is technically correct as it is
only a dravya that can become a samavayi-karana. In a
later section in Tarkasangraha, the different types of
karana-s are defined and illustrated. The illustration given
for samavayi-karana is the threads. Threads are a cause
for the cloth. The threads constitute the cause, karana;
and the cloth, karya. Annambhatta says there yatha
tantavah patasya. The sentence is elliptic, and when the
needed word is supplied from the context (technically
18 Padartha -
2. Dravya
called adhyahara), we get the full sentence as yatha
tantavah patasya samavayi-karanam tatha.
A second example is also given there - as pataSca
svagata-rupadeh where once again supply the missing word
whence we get pataSca svagata-rupadeh samavayi-karanam
. The relationship noted here is between the cloth (which
now is the karana) and the form of the cloth (the karya).
The definition offered there runs thus:
yat-samavetam karyam utpadyate, tat samavayikaranam \
Note here, that the expression “yat-samavetam” is a
single word, not two words, as yat and samavetam. “yat-
samavetam” is a saptami-tatpurusa compound, hence to be
dissolved as yasmin samavetam. It is easily noticed that
tantu in the first case is a dravya, and pata in the second is
also a dravya. This idea of a dravya alone being the
Intimate Cause is stated explicitly by ViSvanatha :
samavayi-karanatvam dravyasyaiveti vijheyam
(Bhasapariccheda 23).
The problem of defining anything is ultimately in
terms of some essential attributes or essential functions.
But when we try to get very technical, we would like to say
that the substance is in essence different from those
attributes or functions, but in which case we are left with
no criterion at all whatsoever. It is this problem that must
have egged on the Sahkhyan-s and the Grammarians to
think of a definition like guna-samuho dravyam. Patanjali
refers to the view guna-samudayo dravyam (under
Astadhyayi 4.1.3 striyam). A very practical, hence simple
- Vijndna 19
2. Dravya 2. Dravya

and broad, definition is also offered in grammar : 6 Stem dru yat 5.1.66 dravam arhati
whatever can be referred to by a pronoun is a dravya . tadarhati

Table 16: Etymologies for dravya

Etymology

Over half a dozen etymologies are offered for Synonyms

dravya. Most of them are derived from dru (root/noun).
See Table 16.
The material in the table is rather technical. The
only point to be noted here is that in etymologies 1 and 2,
there is a reference to guna / karman in relation to dravya.
The idea is that guna (or karman) “approach (4dru) ”
dravya “for the sake of shelter (afraya)”, or “seek refuge
in” dravya. (other etymologies suit other contexts).
Technical
Suffix
Many synonyms are used for dravya especially in
grammatical literature, and which consequently are used
elsewhere also. See Table 17.
In Ayurveda
The definition given in Ayurveda is not much
different from the one we obtain in Nyaya and VavSesika.
That is why Cakrapani says in the commentary on Caraka
that the Vaitesika definition of dravya and the one here

Rule of are no different23.

Root/Stem Explanation
Astadhyayi
(yigraha-vakya)
1 Root dru yat 3.1.61 acoyat [guna-karmadibhih Etymology
aSrayatvena]
drotum( =praptum)
Actually there are two etymologies for dravya.
yogyam Etymology 1:
2 Root dru yat 3.1.91 acoyat [gunaih] druyate dravati (=gacchati) [ parinamam abhlksnam] iti
(=a§nyate) dravyam
3 Stem dru yat 4.3.161 droSca droh vikarah Etymology 2:
4 Stem dru yat 4.3.161 droica droh avayavah dravati (=gacchati) [samyoga-vibhagadi-gunan] iti
5 Stem dru yat 5.3.104 saumya-guna- dravyam
dravyam ca yuktah druh
bhavye 23 Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 1.1.50
vatfesike’pyucyate - - “kriyavad gunavat samavayi-karanam
22 Vakyapadiya 3.4.3 dravyam (1.1.15)” iti \ tatrapi cayatheha vyakhyatam
vastiipalaksanam yatra sarvanama prayujyate \ tathaiva vyakhyatam.
dravyam ity ucyate so’rtho bhedyatvena vivaksitah \ In fact SuSruta repeats the Vaiiesika definition verbatim.

20 Padartha - • Vijnana 21
2. Dravya 2. Dravya

Synonym Source Usage Dravya is the first among the padartha-s. It is the
1 viSesyam Cf. vikesyam eva ca first among the bhava-padartha-s also. The prime place
Patanjali(pa5i/m)
dravyam accorded to dravya in Ayurveda can be gathered from the
2 sattvam Cf. ayarh sattva- remark of SuSruta that rasa, virya, and vipaka depend all
Patanjali under Sabdo’styeva upon dravya itself.
Astadhyayi 1.4.57 dravya- Caraka defines it as that where reside Actions and
paddrthakah Attributes and which is an Intimate Cause24. Cakrapani
3 karakam Kaiyata under Ci.karaka-Sabdena notes that dravya alone can be the Intimate Cause of
Astadhyayi Saktyadhdro dravya, guna, and karman25. He supplies the definition of
2.1.1 dravyam ity ucyate samavayi-kdrana here and shows how guna and karman do
4 adharah Cf. karma-
Kaiyata under not qualify to become the Intimate Cause26.
Saktyadharo
Astadhyayi 3.1.67 Working out the applicability of the definition on
dravyam
5 adhikaranam Cf. dravyam hi all items listed as Substances, Arunadatta says that all the
Patanjali under points noted in the definition do not apply to all of the
loke ’dhikaranam
Astadhyayi 2.3.50 members of the set of Substances, and that some apply to
ity upacaryate
6 sahkhyeyam NageSa under Cf. sahkhyeyam some, and therefore that they must appropriately be
Astadhyayi 2.2.24 dravyam applied, and illustrated with the cases of mind and air 7.
7 sadhanam Patanjali under Cf. sadhanam vai
Astadhyayi 5.3.55 dravyam eva 24 Carakasamhita 1.1.50
8 vyaktih Cf. vyakty-akrti- yatraSritah karma-gundh karanam samavdyi tat \ tad
Nyayasutra 2.2.9 jatayastu dravyam | Cakrapani explains aMtah as samavetah \
padarthah 25 Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 1.1.50
9 atma Cf. atma vastu dravyam eva hi dravya-guna-karmanam samavayi-kdranam |
10 vastu svabhavafcal
26 Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 1.1.50
11 svabhdvah Sariram tattvam ity
Vakyapadiya samavayi-kdranam ca tad yat sva-samavetarh karyarh janayati
12 Sariram api | dravyam ity
3.2.1 ' ; guna-karmani tu na sva-samavetam karyarh janayatah, ato
13 tattvam asya paryayah/ na te samavdyi-karane |
tacca nityam iti
smrtam \ 27 Arunadatta on Carakasamhita 1.1.50
etani karma-gundSrayitva-samavdyi-kdranatvani yadyapi
sarvani sarvasmin dravye na vidyante. tathapi yadyatra
Table 17: Synonyms of dravya
sambhavati tena tasya dravyatvam kalpyam \ tadyatha -
manasah karma-gundsrayitvena, vayvadinam tu karma-
gundsrayatvena, samavayi-karanatvena ca \ |

22 Padartha - - Vijnana 23
2. Dravya 2. Dravya

Similarly the list of dravya-s is also provided in Significance of the sequence

Ayurvedic texts as in Nyaya/Vaifesika texts though in a
slightly different order as listed below (khadi = the five Cakrapani also sees a lot of significance in the
bhuta-s)2S. order of presentation. He raises a question himself : Why
is the atman, though prominent, not stated first? And
1 kha (—akaia) Ether answers it' .
2 [vdyuj Wind Five items are expressly stated in the list, and the
3 [tejasl Fire remaining four items are implied. The five items are
4 [°PJ Water Eternal Entities (nitya-dravya) viz. Ether (kha), the Self
5 [prthivi] Earth (atman), Mind (manas). Time (kala), and Space (di£). Of
6 Atman The Self these, the last two are universal causal agents, hence
7 Manas Mind placed last, as pointed out by Gangadhara31. Atman,
8 Kala Time manas, kala, and dli are mentioned in order of
9 Dit Space importance/greatness - says Cakrapani32. Similarities and
dissimilarities among dravya-s are listed in Table 19
Table 18: Dravya-s as per Ayurveda (paraphrased/summarised/tabulated from Pathak (19847,
19481)).
The prime importance attached to dravya-s is
discernible from yet another remark made by Cakrapani
in his commentary on Carakasamhita 1.1.48. He says :
speaking of guna-s is only in order here; violating the
same, however, the author (=Caraka) has chosen to 30 Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 1.1.48
indicate [the list of] the dravya-s-, this is only to show the ‘khadini’ ityadau atma kasmat pradhana-bhuto’pi
importance of dravya-s as against the guna-s, for dravya is -
prathamam noktah ? ucyate Sanrasyeha vyadhy-
the substratum of guna29. arogyadhikaranataya pradhanatvat tadarambhakani khadiny
|
eva ucyante; natma, tasya nirvikdratvat vacanam hi
unirvikarah paras tv atma ” ity ddi \
Atman is also a dravya, no doubt, but being unchangeable, it
28 Carakasamhita 1.1.48 is the body that needs to be tackled, and the body is made
khadiny atma manah kalo disas ca dravya-sahgrahah \ of the five bhuta-s starting with kha (ether).
Cf. mahabhutani kharii vayur agnir apah ksitis tatha \ 31 Gangadhara (on Carakasamhita 1.1.48):
{Carakasamhita 4.1.27) kala-difoh sarvatraiva parinami-samavdyi-hetutvena paScan-
2q
Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 1.1.48 nirdesah krtah |
samprati gunabhidhdnam karma-praptam ullahghya dravyani 32 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.48)
nirdiSata, gunadharataya dravyasya pradhanyam ucyate \ dtmadindm ca yathdbhyarhitasya piirva-nirdesah \
24 Padartha - - Vijnana ^5
2. Dravya 2. Dravya

1 All 9 dravya-s (a) dravyatva Types:

(b) sva-samaveta-karya-
janakatva First Classification
(c) gunavattva
(d) karya-karana-virodhatva The number of dravya-s can be countless but the
(e) antya-vtfesavatva basic dravya-s are but a few in number. The primary
2 khadi + manas (a) anekatva dravya-s are called karana-dravya-s and the derived
(b) apara-jatimattva dravya-s are called kdrya-dravya-s. This division finds a
3 khadi (=5 bhuta-s) (a) indriyopadanatva mention in Cakrapani. The verse of Caraka listing the
(b) bahya-ekaikendriya-grahya- dravya-s makes a mention only of karana-dravya-s and the
virosa-gunavatva karya-dravya-s are innumerable. Effects are encapsulated
4 atman, manas, (a) bahyendriya-agrahyatva in causes, he says, the unnumbered in the numbered .
akd&a, kala, di£, The two are shown in Table 20.
bhuta-catustaya-
Type of Items Remarks
paramanu
(a) paricchinna-parimanavattva dravya
5 murta-dravya
1 karana- khadi(=5), atman, A closed set of 9
(b) knya
dravya-s manas, kala, di$ items
(c) vega
2 karya- kara, carana, Open set of
6 bhuta-dravya (a) anya-padartha-karanatva
dravya-s hantakl, trivrta etc innumerable items
7 manas (a) anutva
(b) karanatvabhava (Contrast
Table 20: Types of dravya - Elemental and Derived
with 8)
8 dkdto (a) vibhutva
(b) iabda-kdranatva (Contrast
with 7)
Second Classification
9 prthivi-jala-tejo- (a) murtatva (spar&avattva)
vayu (b) utpadakatva There is a second type of classification, according
(dravyarambhakatva ) to which there are two types of dravya-s viz. animate and
10 prthivi-jala (a) gurutva inanimate. The two are presented in Table 21 along with
(b) rasavattva
their features.

Table 19 : Similarities and Dissimilarities among

dravya-s 33 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.48)
asankhyeya-bheda-bhinnasya karya-dravyasya karana-dvara
sanksepah

26 Paddrtha - • Vijnana 27
2. Dravya 2. Dravya

Type of dravya Characteristic existence of the five indriya-s in plants and trees. In other
1 cetana- Sentient sendriyam Endowed with words, some plants can see, some can smell etc. His
dravya substance sense organs instances are tabulated in Table 2238.
2 acetana- Insentient nirindriyam Not endowed
A third type of classification of dravya-s is on the
dravya substance with sense
basis of the function of the dravya-s inside the human
organs
body. The threefold classification obtained as per this
Table 21: Types of dravya

This classification is on the basis of Caraka34.

38
Cakrapani takes the occasion to define indriya or
the perceptive faculty. It is only when the atman comes
into contact with the faculties that it gets to be endowed
with knowledge. Atman is destitute of knowledge when
bereft of this linking with the faculties35. He cites the
original itself in support of this36.
It is not that human beings alone are endowed with
the perceptive faculties (indriya-s). Animals are also
endowed with them. But what is even more important, but
can be easily missed, is that even plants and trees have the
indriya-s, Cakrapani reminds adducing reasons37.
Not satisfied with an assertion to this effect, he
proffers five inferential instances. The five establish the
34
Carakasamhita 1.1.48
sendriyam cetanam dravyam, nirindriyam acetanam \
35 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.48)
idam eva ca atmanaS cetanatvam yad indriya-yoge sati
jhdnafalitvam, na kevalasya”tmana& cetanatvam |
36 Carakasamhita 4.1.54
atma jhah karanair yogaj jhanam tv asya pravartate \
37 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.48)
atra sendriyatvena vrksddinam api cetanatvam boddhavyam \
28 Padartha -
Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.48)
He makes a case for the above on these grounds :
(a) surya-bhaktayah yatha yathd suryo bhramati, tatha tatha
bhramanad drg anumiyate
(b) tatha lavati meghastanita-iravanat phalavati bhavati
(c) bija-purakam api Srgalddivasagandhena ativa phalavad
bhavati
(d) cutanam ca matsyavasasekat phaladhyatayd rasanam
anumiyate
(e) aSokasya ca kamini-pada-talahati-sukhinah stabakitasya
sparSananumanam
Cakrapani proceeds to offer citations from the smrti texts
(Manu, in fact) for further corroboration and confirmation.
And finally concludes that yukti buttressed by agamay logic
propped up by [secondary] scripture bears out that trees
have life : tena agama - sarhvalitaya yuktya cetana vrksah |
We may add here that a whole chapter in the Mahdbhdrata
is devoted to this theme. Mahdbhdrata 12.184. We also
come across an oftquoted verse prescribing the procedures
for the dohada of plants, though generally classified under
Poetic Convention (kavi-samaya). Read
pddahatah pramadaya vikasaty a§okah
Sokam jahati bakulo mukha-sidhusiktah \
alokitah kurabakah kurute vika&am
aloditas tilaka utkaliko vibhati \ |
cited by Mallinatha on Kumarasambhava 3.26
Vijhana 29
2. Dravya 2. Dravya

scheme is dealt with by Caraka39, and is tabulated in Table Third Classification

23.
1 kincid dosa-pra§amanam Such dravya-s as
Plant / tree Inferib e Faculty
alleviate the dosa-s
1 suryabhakta caksus The eye
2 kincid dhatu-pradusanam Such dravya-s as
2 lavati Sravana The ear
vitiate the dhatu-s
3 bijapuraka nasa The nose
3 kincid svastha-vrttau Such dra\ya-s as
4 ciita rasana The tongue
matam conduce to health
5 aSoka carma The skin
Table 23 : Classification of dravya-s on grounds of
Table 22: Plants and their Faculties
medical role
There can very well be other medical functions too
of the dravya-s, but they will all be subsumed under the
above groupings40. He also sets forth the logical basis for
Fourth Classification
such an assertion41.
There is also a fourth classification of dravya-s, but
again into three. They are listed in Table 24.
39 Garakasamhita 1.1.67 1 jahgama-dravya dravya-s of animal origin
kincid-dosa-pra&amanam kincid-dhatu-pradusanam \ 2 audbhida-dravya dravya-s of vegetable origin
svastha-vrttau matarh kihcid trividham dravyam ucyate \ \
3 parthiva-dravya dravya-s of earthy origin
40 Cakrapani refers to the other roles such as sarhSodhana,
sarhiamana and so on, which are of very many types Table 24: dravya-s classified on source
actually (aneka vidhanam api, as he says), but they can be
brought under these (atraiva avarodhah)
41 With the ordinals expressly taken up, cardinals have indeed
no role. Express mention nevertheless is to indicate Etymological Clues
restriction. “Just three, and no more than three”, is what is
intended. Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 1.1.67 sahkhyeya- The senses of the three words are best grasped by
nirdeSad eva tritve labdhe, trividha-grahanarh niyamartham \ looking into their etymology, listed in Table 25.
Cakrapani further points out the significance of kihcit in
every quarter of the verse (except the last - of course),
dosaharatvadi-karmanam vibhinna-dra vya&rayitva -
which has relevance to the nature of dravya-s. It is not that a
upadarsamulham | eka-kincid-grahane tv ekam eva
single dravya exhibit all the three properties. On the other
dravayam dosahararh dkatu-pradusakam svastha-vrtti-matam
hand, some dravya-s show the first property, some the
ca syat, na ca tad-abhimatam |
second, and some the third, pratipade kincid-grahanam
30 Padartha - - Vijnana 31
4
2. Dravya
2. Dravya

1 jangamam = gacchatlti
2 audbhidam = udbhidya prthivim jayate iti = vrksadi
3 parthivam = ukta-prakara-dvayatiriktah prthivi-
vikarah
Table 25: Etymologies of Technical Words
Caraka first gives two lists - the first and the last -
corresponding to these items. Refer to Table 26 and Table
27.
As regards the second one viz. audbhida, he first
gives some subclassifications and then proceeds to give
the list. See Table 28.

A more detailed list of standardized groups / items

Caraka’s Classifications can be seen in Carakasamhita 1.1.74-119

1 madhuni Different types of honey 1 suvarna gold

2 gorasdh Bovine products 2 tamra samaldh copper
3 pitta bile 3 rajata pancalohah silver
4 vasa Fats of muscle tissue 4 trapu tin
5 majjd marrow 5 slsa lead
6 asrj blood 6 krsnaloha iron
7 amisam flesh 7 malah Byproducts of the
8 vit- faeces above
9 mutra- urine 8 siktah calcites
10 carma skin 9 sudha silica
11 retah semen 10 manahsila red arsenic
12 asthi bone 11 ala yellow arsenic
13 snayu ligament 12 manayah gems
14 Smga horn 13 lavanam salt
15 nakha nail 14 gairikam red-chalk
16 khura hoof 15 ahjanam collyrium
17 ke$a hair of the head
18 loma hair of the other parts of the body Table 27 : parthiva-dravya-s used for Medication
19 rocana ox bile (Minerals)

Table 26 : jangama-dravya-s used for medication

(Animal products)

32 Padartha - - Vijnana 33
 2. Dravya
2. Dravya

not too conspicuous43.

Types of Mark Definition Feature Name Meaning Examples

audbhida
1 samsvedaja creatures krimi-ldta-pipilikd-
1 vanaspati phala phalair Bear fruits
born of sweat prabhrtayah svedajah
vanaspatih only
vlrudh pratana pratanair Spread 2 jardyuja viviparous pafu-manusya-
2
virudhah through creatures vyaladayo jarayujah
smrtdh branches 3 andaja oviparous khaga-sarpa-sarisrpa-
3 vanaspatya puspa puspair Bear flowers creatures prabhrtayo ’ndajah
and vanaspatyah as well as fruits 4 udbhijja vegetable indragopa-manduka -
phala phalair api
creatures prabhriaya udbhijjdh
4 ausadhi phala- osadhyah Die with
pakanta phala- maturation of
Table 29 : Classification of Life Systems
pakantah fruit
(jangama-dravya-s)

Table 28 : Types of audbhida (Vegetational types)

Susruta’s Classification

In Susrutasamhita, we have the classification of life

systems (ibhuta-grama) as in Table 29.42

When it comes to vegetables, that they have

function (cestavattvam) and sense-organs (indriyatvam) is

43 Says Sarikaramisra
42 Susrutasamhita 1.1.23 cestavattvam indriyavattvam ca nodbhidam sphutataram, ato
jahgamah khalv api caturvidha jarayujd’ndaja- tia Sarira-vyavahdrah |
svedajodbhijjah
- Vijhana 35
34 Pad art ha -
 3. Pafwa-bhuta

grasps smell but not the form. And so on. The respective
objects of the sense organs may be broadly listed thus:
Sense Organ Object
CHAPTER 3 1 the nose Smell
2 the tongue Taste
3 the eye Form
THE FIVE BHUTA-S ("ELEMENTS")
4 the skin Touch
All living beings undergo various experiences. Life 5 the ear Sound
is a system which is in constant interaction with the
Table 31: Sense Organs and their Objects
environment. We experience the world around us through
our sense organs. The sense organs are the channels of {indriya-s and their visaya-s)
perception.
The aforesaid objects or domains are also seen as
Sense Organs and Their Objects the primary / predominant "properties" of what are called
the Five Elements. The Properties or Attributes are called
We are all endowed with 5 sense organs. The word guna in Sanskrit, and the Elements are called bhiita. The
for Sense Organ is indriya in Sanskrit. The list below Five Elements are here tabulated against the Properties
shows them {bhiita-s against their guna-s).

Sense Organs
Property Element
1 The eye
1 Smell Earth
2 The ear
2 Taste Water
3 The nose
3 Form Fire
4 The tongue
4 Touch Air
5 The skin
5 Sound Ether

Table 30: Sense Organs {indriya-s)
The sense organs have fixed/specialised domains.
They are called artha or visaya in Sanskrit. The eye grasps
form, but cannot sense smell or taste. Similarly the nose
36 Padartha -
Table 32 : Elements and their Primary Properties
{bhiita-s and their guna-s)
The two tables may now be merged into one as
there is a regular one-is-to-one correspondence. The
common column shows how the indriya-visaya-s coincide
with the bhuta-guna-s.
- Vijnana 37
3. Pahca-bhuta 3. Pahca-bhuta

<- Object of the Sense Organ Synonyms of the Elements

Sense
OR Element
Organ The word for Element is bhuta. We have 5
Property of the Element —>
1 Nose Smell Earth Elements, hence we have panca-bhuta-s. Sometimes these
2 Tongue Taste Water are also known by the term pahca-maha-bhuta. The latter
3 Eye Form Fire name is in fact more accurate, or at least more specific.
4 Skin Touch Air (a) The Earth
Sound Ether Common words denoting the Earth are
5 Ear
1 prthivi (f)
Table 33 : Senses and their Objects as also 2 prthvi(i)
Elements and their Primary Properties 3 bhumi (f)
(indriya-s, indriyavisaya-s/bhutaguna-s and bhuta-s) 4 ksiti( f)

Table 34: Words for Earth

Vocabulary
(b) The Water
Words for the Water are
The basic concepts have been introduced above.
There however are more details to be worked out in each
1 jala (n)
case. Each idea or concept is given a definition in Sanskrit.
2 .
The definitions naturally involve Sanskrit words. As it is
desirable to know the definitions in the original, it is
necessaiy to know the Sanskrit terms employed in the
Table 35 : Words for Water
definitions.
As Sir William Jones remarked, Sanskrit is more (c) The Fire
copious than Latin. Being a rich language, Sanskrit Words for the Fire are
possesses many synonyms for most of the words. It is
therefore necessary to note here sbme of the important 1 tejas (n)
synonyms of the key words involved in the definitions and 2 agni(m)
their explications. 3 vahni (m)
Note: The gender of the words is also indicated in
Table 36 : Words for Fire
brackets with this usual notation :
m - masculine f - feminine n - neuter
38 Padartha - - Vijhana 39
3. Pahca-bhuta 3. Pahca-bhuta

1 Smell gandha (m)

(d) the Wind 2 Taste rasa (m)
Words for the Wind are 3 Form rupa (n)
4 Touch sparka (in)
1 vayu (m) 5 Sound Sabda (m)
2 marut (m)
3 pavana (m) Table 39 : guna-s - English and Sanskrit Words
4 pavamana (m)

Table 37: Words for Wind

The Sense Organs: Sanskrit Names
(e) the Ether
The Sanskrit equivalents of the five Sense Organs
Words for the Ether are
{indriya-s) are as under

1 akaSa (m/n)
1 Nose ghrana (n), ndsika(f),ndsa(f)
2 gagana (n)
2 Tongue rasanaka (n), rasana(f), jihva(i)
3 kha (n)
3 Eye caksus (n), nayana(n), netrain), aksi (n),
4 vyoman (n)
locana(n)
5 nabhas (n)
4 Skin carman (n), tvac (f)
5 Ear krotra (n), $ruti(f), karna(m)
Table 38: Words for Ether

(f) The five bhiita-s are collectively referred to in three Table 40: indriya-s - English and Sanskrit Words
ways as
(i) prthvy-ap-tejo-vayv-akaSa, or briefly as
It may be noticed that the Five elements exhaust all
(ii) prthvyadi (prthvi + adi) or yet briefly as
that is in the world. That is why Caraka says sarvam
(iii) khadi (kha+ adi), i.e the items beginning with the
dravyam pahcabhautikam asminn arthe (CS 1.26.10) :"In
Earth, or the items beginning with the Ether.
this discipline {asmin arthe), all things are made of the
Five Elements"44.

The Properties and their Names

44 Though the word asmin arthe would commonly mean "in this
sense," Cakrapani clarifies that the word artha means
The five properties (guna-s) and their Sanskrit
section/context, asmin arthe = asmin prakarane. The reason
equivalents are noted below
for such an assertion is stated by Sivadasasena.
40 Padartha - - Vijhana 41
3. Pahca-bhuta
3. Pahca-bhiita

Sequence of the creation of the Elements

It is common to speak of the Elements in a
particular order only. It is from the Earth to the Ether, or
the Ether to the Earth. The former is called prthvyadi and
the latter is called khddi. The former may be called the
descending order and the latter may be called the
ascending order. For in the latter case we may perceive a
progression from the subtle to the gross.
Ether is subtlest while the Earth is the grossest.
originate. The next in sequence is the Fire, which has not
only Form, its particular attribute, but also Sound and
Touch. Thus it has three attributes. Similarly the Water
and the Earth may be seen to have the Taste and the
Smell as their specific attributes, but three and four more
attributes respectively.
The above may be tabulated thus:
1 akasa Sabda
tt

This can be corroborated by our own experience. Our 2 vdyu +sparfa

II
experience also confirms the 'subtle nature' of the Water 3 tejas + " + rupa
ft
as against the gross nature of the Earth. Hence there is a 4 ap + " + " + rasa
directionality from the Ether to the Earth, among the Five 5 prthvi
If
+ " + " + " ■Vgandha
Elements.
Table 41: bhuta-s and their ascending guna-s
Cumulative Effect

Technically however, a more important point is

made out. This is comparable to the concept of
Inheritance set forth in representations of hierarchy as in
ontological discussions obtaining in Computer Science.
Thus if the Ether has only Sound as its attribute, the Wind
has not only its own particular attribute viz. the Touch,
but also that of the Ether from which it is said to
Sivadasasena has written a commentary called
Tattvapradipika; extracts from this commentary have been
given as footnotes in the Yadavasarma Edition (1941
Bombay, Nirnayasagara Press). Sivadasasena says that the
essential quintuplicity of all that is in Nature is a cardinal
doctrine of Ayurveda. Stress is laid on this fact owing to the
absence of a corresponding idea in, for instance, the Nydya
School of Philosophy, who do not accept that idea. He says
naiyayikadibhih pancabhautikatvadyanabhyupagamat.
42 Padartha -
The last item in each row shows the distinct
attribute in each case.
There is a beautiful corroboration of the particular
sequence in the Five Elements, obtaining in Taittinya
Upanisad. The Upanisad sets forth the steps in the
sequence of creation. The items preceding and succeeding
the Five elements are also given there but we shall extract
here only those lines that are of relevance to us here. The
Upanisad says -
“From Ether originates Wind; from Wind originates Fire;
from Fire originates Water; from Water originates the
Earth.”45
45 Taittiriya Upanisad 2.1.1
abated vayuh / vdyor agnih / agner dpah / adbhyah prthvi
- Vijnana 43
3. Panca-bhuta 3. Panca-bhuta

One can discern a logic in the above sequence.

However, Ayurvedk^Vedantic texts portray a further
Element Sonic Feature
detail in which we discern a more distinct logic. The
1 akaia echo (pratidhvani)
phenomenon has been called Quintuplication
2 vayu “bis” sound
{Pancikarana).
3 tejas “bhugubhugu” sound
4 OR “bulubulu” sound
5 prthvi “kadakada”sound
Quintuplication (Pancikarana)
Table 42 : bhiUa-s and their Sonic Features
Pancikarana is a concept that obtains in Vedanta,
and is a corollary or extension of what is called trivrtkarana Alternative representations of the relationship
which is Triplication. Three items combining with each between bhuta-s and guna-s may be shown thus :
other and causing varied products thereby is trivrtkarana. bhuta guna-s
This idea of the increasing attributes from one to kabda sparsa rupa rasa gandha
five in the Five Elements (starting from Ether) is noted in akasa • - - - -

Pancadafi.46 vayu - • - - -

tejas - - • - -
Illustrating the Principle of Inheritance, the text
goes on to show the existence of Sound, for example, in all ap - - - • -

the succeeding bhuta-s. The details are tabulated in Table prthvi - - - - •

42.
Table 43 : bhuta-s and their guna-s
The above idea and the idea of inheritance or
cumulative attributes is stated in Pahcadafi.47 bhuta guna-s
Sabda sparia rupa rasa gandha
akaSa • - - - -
46 Pahcadasi 2.2:
vayu • • - - -
Sabda-sparSau riipa-rasau gandho bhutaguna ime \
eka-dvi-tri-catuh-pahca-guna vyomadisu kramat | | tejas • • • - -
47 Pahcadasi: ap • • • • -
2.3 pratidhvanir viyac chabdo vayau bisiti iabdanam | prthvi • • • • •
anusndsita-samsparso vahnau bhugubhugudhvanih \
2.4 usnas sparsah prabharupam jale bidubidudhvanih | Table 44: bhuta-s and their cumulative guna-s
iitas spalias suklarupam raso madhuryam iritam \
2.5 bhumau kadakaddiabdah kathinyam sparsa isyate \
riiladikam citrariipam madhurdmladiko rasah \ \ surabhitaragandhau dvau gunas samyag vivecitdh \ \
44 Padartha - - Vijhana 45
 3. Pahca-bhuta
3. Panca-bhuta

While Table 42 focuses on the distinct attributes of Similarly, the ap-mahabhuta has half of ap-bhuta,
the bhuta-s, Tables 43 & 44 shows the cumulative the remaining ones all contributing in equal proportion to
progression of the bhiita-s in the course of their evolution. make the other half. The results of this representation
may thus be tabulated :
Actually speaking, both the Tables refer to the
subtle stage (suksma-avastha) of the bhiita-s. Similarly Bhiita Components
combining to produce compounded elements is pahcikrta apahcikrta other 4 (apahcikrta)
pahcikarana. The essential idea is that the Five Elements mahabhuta mahabhuta bhiita constituents
are nowhere available in Nature in their 1/8 ( p a t v)
akaia (a) V2 a
pure/unitary/isolated/unalloyed forms. All the five betray
vayu (v) Vi v 1/8 ( p a t a)
the properties of all of them, some prominently, some not
tejas (t) V2 t 1/8 (p a v a)
prominently. Water, for example, can show smell. The five
apja) V2 a 1/8 ( p t v a)
as they come within the ambit of our experience are
Pithvi (p)_ 2 p
V 1/8 ( a t v a)
maha-bhuta-s. Vedantic texts even posit a certain ratio in
the intermingling of components.
Table 45 : maha-bhuta-s and their bhuta components
Composition

In every maha-bhuta, the other bhiita-s are also

present, but to a lesser degree. Each maha-bhuta has a
50% constitution of itself (= the bhuta) and 12.5% each
of all the other. Expressed fractionwise better, rather than
decimal-wise it comes to l/i of itself and l/8th each of the
other bhuta-s. Mathematically, two l/8ths make a quarter
(=1/4) and two quarters makes a half (=1/2). Thus one
half is constituted by the particular bhiita and other half
by all the other bhuta-s.
Thus
prthvi-maha-bhuta = V2 (prthvi-bhuta)
+ 1/8 (ab-bhuta)
+ 1/8 (tejas-bhiita)
-I- 1/8 (vayu-bhuta)
+ 1/8 (akaSa-bhiita)
ADDENDUM
An Additional Note on Pahcikarana
The concept of Pahcikarana is also dealt with in
PahcadaSi, its commentary Tatparyadipika (of
Ramakrsna), and Tattvamuktakalapa of VedantadeSika.
Pahcadasl on Pahcikarana
Pahcadasl:
1.26 pahcikaroti bhagavan pratyekam viyad-adikam \
27 dvidha vidhaya caikaikam caturdha prathamam
punah |
svasvetaradvitiyamSair yojanat pahca pahca te 11
Says Tatparyadipika (of Ramakrsna) thereon :
svasvetaradvitiyamsaih svasmat svasmad itaresdm caturnam
caturnam bhutanamyoyo dvitiyas sthiilo bhagah, tena saha

Padartha - - Vijhdna 47
46
3. Panca-bhuta
prathamaprathamabhdgdmMndm caturnam madhye
ekaikasya yojanat, te viyad-adayah pratyekam
pahcapahcatmaka bhavanti \ \
In the verse to follow, Vidyaranya states that the
entire universe is born out of these quintuplicated bhuta-s,
comprising both the living and the non-living (represented
as bhogyafraya and bhogdsraya).
1.28 tair andas tatra bhuvanam bhogya-
bhogatrayodbha vah 11
As the commentary explicates:
taih panclkrtabhutair upadanakaranabhutair ando
brahmdnda utpadyate \ tatra brahmandantarbhuvanany
uparibhage vartmdna bhumyddayas saptaloka, bhumer
adhas sthitany ataladlni tat-tallokocitaSarirani ca tair eva
panclkrtabhutair Uvarajhaya jayante |
Tattvamuktakalapa on Pahclkarana
All the above ideas are succinctly set forth in this
pithy verse in Tattvamuktakalapa of VedantadeSika thus
(verse 17):
dvedha bhutani bhittva, punar api ca bhinatty ardham ekarin
caturdha /
tair ekaikasya bhagaih param anukalayaty ardham ardham
caturbhih \
ittham pahcikrtais tair janayati sa jagaddhetur
andadikaryany /
aidamparye trivrttva-Srutir adhikagiram aksamaikd
niroddhum \ \
The verse has been very well explicated in the
commentary Sarvahkasa of Navyamangala Varadacarya
48 Paddrtha -
3. Panca-bhuta
of our own times. The commentary very well brings out
the difference between prthivibhuta and prthivitattva,
between samastisrsti and vyastisrsti.
Caraka on Pahclkarana
The relevant passages from Caraka are as follows :
Carakasamhita 4.1.27
mahabhutani kham vayur agnir dpah ksitis tatha |
Sabdas sparsai ca ruparh ca raso gandhaS ca tad-gunah \ \
Caraka refers to Sabda as naisargikaguna of akciSa
(= sound as the natural attribute of space). And sparSa etc
of vayu etc. correspondingly.
Cumulation
The cumulation of attributes is thus noted by
Caraka in the next verse (4.1.28) :
tesam ekagunah purvo gunavrddhih pare pare |
purvah purvagunas caiva krama&o gunisu smrtah 11
The first one of the five Elements has one guna,
and the succeeding ones have one more each. As the
attribute is called guna, the substance has been called
gunin, “having the attribute(s)” in this verse.
Two Types of Guna
Cakrapani on this verse notes the difference
between the previous verse and this verse though both
deal with the gunin and the guna or the substance (the
- Vijhana 49
3. Pahca-bhuta
bhuta, Element) and the feature (guna, attribute). The
previous verse spoke of the naisargikaguna of the
Elements whereas this speaks of the
bhutantarapravefakrta-guna of the same. In other words,
the attribute pure and simple of each Element was set
forth in the previous verse, whereas this verse speaks of
the attributes consequent to the commingling with the
other Elements. Cakrapani also notes the essence of the
yathasahkhya, “respectively”, thus : yatha yatha ca
paratvam, tatha tatha ca gunavrddhir yathasahkhyam.
The commentary of Cakrapani is so careful that he
notes as small and yet subtle a point as the propriety in
using the masculine in purvah while referring to the bhuta-
s : for kham is neuter, and apah and ksitih are feminine.
He says, Caraka bears in mind that all these dhatu-s (and
“dhatu” is masculine in Sanskrit). Read: pumlihgata ca
khadinam dhdturupatabuddhisthikrtatvdt.
Holography
SuSruta notes how the Five Elements are actually
holographic as they are all inextricably intertwined,
mutually influential and mutually concomitant.
Susrutasamhitd 1.42.4 paraspara-samsargat paraspara-
anugrahat paraspara-anupraveSac ca sarvesu sarvesarh
samnidhyam asti, utkarsa-apakarsat tu grahanam.
Why we have the two designations namely maha-
bhiita and mere bhuta (or rather suksma-bhuta) is brought
out by Upaskara. He says mahattvam sarvavikara-vyapitvat.
It means that the qualification maha- is justified on the
ground that the item envelopes (vyapi) all the
modifications (sarva-vikara).
50 Padartha -
3. Panca-bhuta
Corollaries
He also draws these corollaries.
1. kham ekagunam (Ether has but one attribute)
2. vayuh dvigunah (Wind has two attributes)
3. agnih trigunah (Fire has three attributes)
4. caturguna apah (Water has four attributes)
5. pahcaguna ksitih (Earth has five attributes)
Inheritance
The principle of inheritance of the attribute of an
anterior item in a posterior one is also well-explained by
him. This phenomenon is known as guna-vrddhi. Each
item has its Natural Attribute, naisargika-guna, coupled
with the Inherited Attributes, purva-guna. These are his
remarks:
khadisu kramaSah purvah purva-purva-gunah smrtah.
evam ca
(i) sparfo-guno vayuh purva-bhutasydkdiasya
gunam Sabdam asthaya dvigunah, Sabda-
spar§a-guno bhavati.
(ii) rupa-guno’gnihpurva-bhutayoh kha-vayvoh
Sabda-sparta -gunayoh gunau §abda-spar§av
addya trigunah, §abda-spar$a-rupa-gunah.
(iii) rasa-guna apah purvesam kha-vayv-agninam
gunan sabda-sparSa-rupdny adaya
caturgunah.
(iv) gandha-guna ksitih purva-bhuta-gunaih
§a bda -sparSa-rupa -rasaih pahcaguna.
- Vijhana 51
3. Panca-bhuta
Interpenetration
Dalhana calls this ekottard vrddhih, “increased by one
[attribute]”. He also refers to the interpenetration of the
bhuta-s by the expression sarvesveva bhutesu sarva-
bhutdnam sannidhyam asti.
“In Ayurveda, the term dravya has a specialized meaning.
It stands for nine “basic generic forms or states” of
substances that comprise the universe. These nine substantial
forms are states are in fact transformations of each other but
having distinct and distinguishable formal identities. They
occur in an ascending order from gross states of substances
to extremely subtle forms viz. solid, liquid, gaseous, plasma,
ether-like, mental state, time, direction, and culminate in an
unmanifest state, viz. atman. However in a lay context
outside the world of Ayurveda, the word dravya may refer to
any substance which is derived from the basic nine generic
forms. ”
Darshan Shankar
52 Padartha -
CHAPTER 4
PRTHIVI (EARTH;
Definition
The Element prthivi has been defined in
Tarkasahgraha as “one having gandha (smell)”48. Gandha
is a guna. Actually speaking here are 14 guna-s in prthivi,
starting from rupa, or Form, as ViSvanatha says49.
However gandha occupies a cardinal place among them.
None among the dravya-s can have gandha, except on
account of an association with prthivi. This has been taken
note of by Kanada50, as also by his commentator51.
Types
Prthivi is of two types - nitya (Eternal) and anitya
48 Tarkasahgraha
tatra gandhavatl prthivi \
49
Bhasapariccheda 32
sneha-hina gandhayutah ksitavete caturdaSa | |
50 Vaisesikasutra 2.2.2
vyavasthitah prthivyam gandhah \
51 The commentator asserts this in the obverse and reverse
fashions. Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 2.2.2) bhavati hi
prthivi gandhavaty eva, prthivy eva gandhavatiti.
- Vijnana 53
4. Prthvi 4. Prthvi

(Temporary)52. The Eternal is atomic53, and the

Temporary is in the form of an effect54. This is tabulated This may be tabulated thus59:
thus: The expression in the middle column are from
Tarkasahgraha
Type Nature Further types
1 nitya prthivl paramanurupa Nil
2 anitya prthivl karyarupa Three and Kdrikavali
visayo dvyanukadtfca brahmandanta udahrtah \
Table 46 : Types of prthivl
59 Tarkasahgraha
The karya prthivl is divided into 3 types55 - (i) as in (a) toriram asmadadlnam |
(b) indriyarh gandha-grahakam ghranam nasagravarti [
our physical body56, (ii) as in the sense organs57, and (iii)
(c) visayo mrtpdsanadih |
as in the objects of the world58.
asmadadlnam -
Dissolve: vayam adayoyesam te, tesam.
The reference is to what may be called parthivaloka (as
52 Nityatva is defined sometimes as traikalika-samsarga- against vaninaloka etc supra)
avacchinnatva = marked by a connection with the three gandhagrahakam - Dissolve: gandhasya grahakam . This
times ( = past, present, and future). Anityatva is its word shows the purpose. Dipika says
opposite. gandhagrahakam - iti prayojanakathanam \
53 Tarkasahgraha sa [prthivl] dvividha - nitya anitya ca \ nitya
paramanu-rupa \ anitya karyarupa | The parthivendriya is not the nose itself, what Annambhatta
describes as nasagravarti (v.l. ndsagravrtti). Dissolved as
54 By saying something to be in the form of an effect what is nasayah agrarh, tatra vartate (or nasagre vrttih yasya tat)
meant is that it has birth and death, sometimes stated as
karya-$abdasya utpada-vinaSaiati - ityarthah mrtpasanadi - Dissolve; mrt ca pasanaSca mrtpasanau | tau
adi yasya sah
55 Vaisesikasutra 4.2.1
tatpunah prthivyddi karya-dravyam trividham - farirendriya- ‘Body’ is defined by Tarkasahgrahadipikd thus:
visaya-samjhakam \
atmanah bhogayatanam toriram |
Again bhogayatana is defined as
56 Cf. Siddhantamuktdvali yadavacchinnatmani bhogo jayate tat |
bhogayatanatve sati gandhavattvam parthiva-Sariram The word bhoga itself is thus defined ;
siikha-duhkhddyanyatarasdksatkdrah |
57 Cf. Siddhantamuktdvali
gandhavattve sati gandha-jnana-kdranatvam There is a beauty in the threefold division. The body is
parthivendriyatvam made of the five elements and the world is also made of the
five elements. The sense-organs are particular points of
58 Cf. Siddhantamuktdvali
sensitivity.
gandhavattve sati upayogasadhanatvam parthivavisayatvam \
54 Padartha ■ - Vijhana 55
4. Prthvi 4. Prthvi

Type of prthivi Locus Other properties are also noted64. As regards the
1 §ariravidha Body such as asmadadinam types of rupa in it, as also those of rasa, gandha, and
prthivi ours sparSa.
2 indriyavidha Nose gandha-grahakarh
Taking a Samkhyan approach, SuSruta notes that
prthivi ghranam
prthivi has a predominance of tamas65.
3 visayavidha Mud, stone etc mrtpdsdnadih
pythivi
1 rupa
Table 47 : Types of karyarupa prthivi 2 rasa
3 gandha
Helaraja points out how from a small lump of mud 4 sparSa
to a mountain, everything is felt as prthivi alone60. For 5 samkhya
PraSastapada three grades can be perceived in visaya- 6 parimana
prthiv?1. He further notes two types of Sarira-prthivt2.
7 prthaktva
8 samyoga
9 vibhaga
Properties
10 paratva
Prthivi has 14 guna-s listed in Table 4863: 11 aparatva
12 gurutva
13 dravatva
14 samskara
60 Helaraja on Vdkyapadiya (3.1.41)
(a) losto’pi prthivi-mpena pratiyate,
(b) mrtsamiiho’pi,
Table 48 : Guna-s of prthivi
(c) ghato’pij
(d) parvato’pi \ 64Siddhdntamuktavali -

61 (a) bhuprade§ah prdkdrestakadayo mrt-prakarah | tatra ksitir gandha-hetuh nana-nipavati mata \

(b) pasandh upala-mani-vajrddayah
(c) sthavardh trnausadhi-vrksa-gidma-vitdina-vanaspatayah \
62 Sariram dvividham -yonijam ayonijam ca \ tatrayonijam
anapeksya mkra-Sonitarh dharma-vtfesa-sahitebhyo’nubhyo
jdyate \ ksudra-jantundrh yditandi-Saiirdmi adharma -
vdesasahitebhyo ’nubhyo jayante \
63 Refer PraSastapada on this issue (on Vaisesikasutra 2.1.1)
sadvidhas tu rasas tatra gandhas tu dvividho matah | |
sparfas tasyas tu vijneyo hy anusnafita-pakajah |
nityanitya ca sa dvedha nitya syad anulaksana | |
unitya tu tadanya sydt saivavayava-yogini |
sa ca tridha bhaved deha indriyam visayas tatha | |
65 Susrutasarhhitd 3.1.9
tamo-bahula prthivi

56 Padartha - - Vijhana 57
4. Prthvi

Origin

According to Taittiriya Upanisad, prthivi has its origin

in ap66. In the Brhadaranyaka Upanisad, the process of the
formation of the foam of water into a cohesive unit, CHAPTER 5
leading to a solid is termed prthivi61.
WATER(/AL4)
Much of what applies to prthivi applies to jala
analogically, as will become clear subsequently.

Definition & Types

Annambhatta defines Water as having a cold

touch68. Kanada had already noted this69.
The division of the Water into Eternal and Non-

68 Tarkasahgraha
§ita-spar&avatyah apah
(Dissolve the first word thus :
Si lascasan sparsaS ca Sita-spariah | sah asu astiti Sita-
sparfavatyah).
Note that apah is grammatically Feminine Plural; the word
is always plural.
69 Vaisesikasutra 2.2.5
apsu fitata |
As Water may be hot also (when heated), SankaramiSra
qualifies it, saying water betrays a natural coldness. Thus
66 Taittiriya Upanisad 2.1.1 says Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 2.2.5) :
adbhyah prthivi | svabhavika-Sitata apam laksanam |
Cf. Kalidasa’s Raghuvaritsa 5.54
67
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 1.2.2 usnatvam anyatapa-samprayogat
tadyad apam §ara asid. tat samahanyata, sa prthivyabhavat | Saityam hiyatsa prakrtih jalasya |
58 Padartha - - Vijnana 59
5. Jala 5. Jala

eternal, nitya and anitya is as with the Earth. Hence a perceived as water73.
similar tabulation.
Nature Further Types Properties
Type
1 nitya apah paramanuriipah Nil
The various properties of Water are listed by
2 anitya apah kdryariipdh Three
PraSastapada thus.

Table 49 : Two Types of apah 1 rupa

2 rasa
3 sparSa
The karyajala is divided into three types70. 4 dravatva
5 sneha
Type of apah Locus
6 sahkhya
1 sanra- varunaloke Body as in
7 parimana
vidhah apah Varunaloka
8 prthaktva
2 indriya- rasa-grahakam The tongue
9 samyoga
vidhdh apah rasanam
10 vibhaga
3 visaya- sarit- Rivers, oceans etc
11 paratva
vidhah apah samudradih
12 aparatva
Table 50: Types of karyajala 13 gurutva
14 samskara
Beings in the Varuna Realm are supposed to have
watery bodies, which are of non-copulatory origin71. The Table 51: guna-s of apah
locus of the sense organs is actually the tip of the tongue72.
Helaraja says whether it is a mere drop or an ocean, it is
73 Helaraja (on Vakyapadiya 3.1.41)
samudro’pi bindurapi ca udakatvenapratiyate \
Cf. Punyaraja saying similarly (on Vakyapadiya 2.160)
ekapi jala-kanika apah, bahulam api - sarit-srotah
70 The expressions in the middle column are from tathaivocyate \
Tarkasahgraha.
74
The properties are noted thus in Karikavali
71 KdrikdvaR 40 39 varnah fuklo rasa-sparso jala-madhiira-sitalau \
kintu deham ayonijam snehas tatra dravatvam tu samsiddhikam uddhrtam \ \
72 Tarkasahgraha says : 40 nityatadiprathamavat kintu deham ayonijam \
jihvagravarti indriyam rasanam sindhu-himadir visayo matah \ \

60 Padartha - Vijhana 61
5. Jala
5. Jala

Caraka further notes that such dravya-s are to be

SuSruta notes (on Sankhyan lines) that Water has a
called watery (apya) as exhibit features such as liquidity
predominance of sattva-guna and tamo-guna15.
and cohesion8®. From Water springs the Earth. The
Caraka notes how water has a primary role in the soothing effect of Water is noted by Caraka81.
various flavours (rasa-s). Soma presides over the Waters.
They are cold and light by nature and their taste is Origin
unmanifest (at the point of their issue in the sky). Coming
into contact with the five Elements, they nourish the body The Upanisad takes note of the origin of ap as from
of beings, by when they will have become the various agni“.
rasa-s76.

There is one exclusive guna in water viz. sneha,

responsible for cohesion, says Annambhatta77. The quality
namely liquidity (dravatva) is responsible for the flow of
water78. Kanada also notes that behind cohesion
(solidification), and diffusion(melting), the role of the
element Fire is discernible79.

75 Susrutasamhita 3.1.19
sattva-tamo-bahula apah \

76 Carakasamhita 1.26.39
saumyah khalv apah antariksa-prabhavah prakrti-Sitah
laghvyaSca avyakta-rasaS ca, tas tu antariksad bhrafyamanah
bhrastaSca pahca-mahabhuta-guna-samanvitah, jahgama-
sthavarandm bhiitanam murtih abhipnnayanti, tasu murtisu
sad abhimurcchanti rasah \ \ 80 Carakasamhita 1.26.11
77 drava-snigdha-Jita-manda-mrdu-picchila-rasa-guna-bahulani
Tarkasahgraha
apyani | tarty upakleda-sneha-bandha-visyanda-mardava-
curnadi-pindibhava-hetiih giinah snehah | jala-matra-vrttih | prahlddakardni |
70

Vaisesikasiitra 5.2.4 81 Carakasamhita 1.25.39

dravatvat syandanam \ udakam dJvasa-kardnam
79 Vaisesikasiitra 5.2.8 82 Taittiriya Upanisad 2.1.1
aparh sahghato vilayanam ca tejah-samyogdt \ adbhyah prthivi | agnerapah |
62 Padartha -
- Vijnana 63
 6. Tejas

Type Nature Further types

1 nityam tejah paramanu-rupam Nil
2 anityam tejah karya-rupam Three

CHAPTER 6 Table 52: Types of tejas

The karya-tejas is further divided into three.

TEJAS (FIRE)
Type of tejah < Locus >
1 janra-vidham tejah adityaloke
Definition & Types 2 indriya-vidham tejah rupagrahakam caksuh
3 visaya-vidham tejah caturvidham
Tejas has been defined by Annambhatta as 'one
having hot touch'83. For Kanada, it is one that has rupa
Table 53 : Types of karya-tejas
and sparto, form and touch84, explained by the
commentator as having a bright form (bhasvara)*5. The body is in adityaloka where the denizens have
As with prthivi and ap, we have the two divisions a fiery body. The location of the eye is the forepart of the
into nitya and anitya. black pupil of the eye86.

The types of visayatejas

83
There are 4 types of visaya here : the names of
Tarkasangraha these and their etymologies are noted in Table 54.
usna-spartavat tejah |
Dissolve the compound: While Annambhatta gives two examples each for
ustiaScasau spartaSca = usnaspartah \ so'syasti = the visaya of prthivi and ap, he mentions 4 types of visaya¬
usnaspartavat \ tejas. There are some peculiarities of the naiyayika
Note that tejas is Neuter in gender. doctrine here.
84 Vaisesikasutra 2.1.3 Among the illustrations offered, one or two need
tejo rupa-spartavat \ some explanations. Lightning is said to issue from a
Of

Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 2.1.3)

riipam bhasvaram, spartaSca usnah, tadvat tejah \
Kanada repeats the idea as tejasa usnena (in Vaisesikasutra
2.2.4) duly explained by Upaskara as 86
svabhavi/a usnata tejaso laksanam, riipam api Sukla- Tarkasangraha
bhasvaram upalaksyate | caksuh krsna-taragravarti

Padartha - - Vijhdna 65
64
 6. Tejas
6. Tejas

watery fuel87. Owing to their shining surface, minerals like

them and can show itself too89, and gives it as an
gold are classified under taijasa type. illustration.
Name of Sense Etymology Cases
visayatejas
1 rupa
1 bhaumam Earthly bhumau vahnyadi Fire etc 2 spar&a
bhavam
3 sahkhya
2 divyam Heavenly divi abindhanam lightning
4 parimana
bhavam vidyudadi etc
5 prthaktva
3 audaryam Gastric udare bhuktasya digestive
6 samyoga
bhavam parinama- cause
7 vibhaga
hetuh
4 8 paratva
dkarajam Mineral akare suvarnadi gold etc
9 aparatva
jayate iti
10 dravatva
Table 54: Types of visayatejas 11 samskaravattva

Table 55 : Properties of tejas

Properties
The properties of tejas are listed in Table 55 as per
PraSastapada88.
Bhartrhari notices that there are two distinct
properties viz. it can shed light on other objects and show
87
The word used is ab-indhanam, which dissolves as apah
indhanani yasya tat j indhana is derived from the root indhi
diptau. An alternative dissolution is also suggested :
adbhih indhanarh yasya tat.
88 Cf. Kdrikavati 41
usnah sparSah tejasastu syad riipam Sukla-bhasvaram \
naimittikam dravatvam tu nityatadi ca purvavat 11
66 Padartha -
Another notion in the Naiyayika theory of
perception is that when an object is seen, the eyes send
rays to the object, and when the object is reached,
information about the same is generated .
89 Vdkyapadiya 1.55
grahyatvam grahakatvarh ca dvetokti tejaso yatha
90
Says PraSastapada (on Vaisesikasutra 2.3.28)
caksur indriyam tejo-nlpam prapya visaya-grahitvat prasada-
deSad apakramya visayam gacchati \
Grammarians also championed this idea says Bhartrhari
(Vdkyapadiya 1.80)
caksusah prapyakaritve tejasa tu dvayorapi |
visayendriyayor istah samskarah ( sa kramo dhvaneh) \ |
Cf. NageSa (Udyota (on Astadhyayi 2.3.28)):
visaya-grahino nayana-raSmayah surya raSmivat prdsdda-
- Vijitdna , 57
 6. Tejas
6. Tejas

Tejas gives rise to apah , as already noted91. SuSruta

notes that tejas has sattva and rajas predominately92.
Caraka lists the properties of 'fiery substances' -
such as heat and sharpness.93

Origin

Table 56 : Types of agni and Effects

In the Upanisad, the source of tejas is given as
- 94
vayu .

Ayurvedic Aspects

Caraka notes the functions of agni in the body, in

its actions from inside pitta - which are actually seven(in
fact, more) pairs of opposites issuing from the four types
of agni, tabulated below. The good and bad effects arise
out of the normal and abnormal states of agni95.

detostha -pumsa-nayanad apakramya yavad visayadeSam

gacchanti \

91 Taittiiiya Upanisad 2.1.1

agnerapah
92
Suirutasamhita
sattva-rajo-bahulo'gnih \

93 Carakasarhhitd 1.26.11
usnatiksna-siiksma-laghu-niksa-vifada-rupa-giina-
bahulanydgneydni, tdni ddha-paka-prabha-prakato-
varnakardni |

94 Taittiriya Upanisad 2.1.1

vayor agnih
karoti - tadyatha paktim apaktim... ityevamadini caparani
95 Carakasarhhitd 1.12.11 dvandvaniti |
agner eva dartre pittantargatah kupitakupitah kibhdkibhani
Vijnana 69
68 Padartha -
 6. Tejas

Caraka also refers to the antaragni (Inner Fire)

responsible for digestion of consuming varied types of
food96.

Speaking of over a hundred and fifty functions of CHAPTER 7

various drugs etc, Caraka says of agni as the best for
curing indigestion etc97. Similarly the digestive fire is said VAYU (WIND)
to improve with proper food intake98.
Definition

Annambhatta defines vayu as what has touch but

no colour99. PraSastapada qualifies the sense of touch with
'neither hot nor cold'*00.

Types

Like Prthvi and Ap, Vayu is first divided into two

types. Viz. nitya and anitya, eternal and non-eternal.
As with other Elements, vayu is also divided into
three - as body, sense and object.

96 CarakasamhUa 1.28.3 99
vividham aiitam pitam lidham khaditam jantorhitam Tarkasahgraha
antaragni-sandhuksita-balena yathasvenosmand samyag riipa-rahita-spariavan vayuh \
vipacyamanam kalavad anavasthita-sarva-dhatu-pakam Dissolve:
anupahata-sarva-dhdtu$ma-mdruta-srota-kevalam iariram riipena rahitah rupa-rahitah \ spariah asya astlti spariavan |
upacaya-bala-varna-sukhdyusd yojayati, ianra-dhatun riipa-rahitai casau spariavdrhica = riipa-rahita-spariavdn j
iirjayatica \ Touching on the essential quality of vayu, Kanada refers to
it as spariavan vayuh (VaiiesikasiUra 2.1.4)
97 CarakasamhUa 1.25.40 100
agnih dmastambha-iita-iidodvepana-praiamandndm Pra&astapddabhasya (on Vaisesikasutra 2.1.4)
[ires(ham] | spar&o'syanusna-§itatve sati apakajah |
98 ViSvanatha reorders the words here to suit his metrical
CarakasamhUa 1.25.40 presentation (verse 42) :
yathdgnyabhyavahdro'gni-sandhukyandndm | apakxijo'nusnaSita-sparias tu pavane matah \
70 Padartha • - Vijndna 71
7. Vayu 7. Vayu

Type Nature names such as prana, owing to the adjuncts, says

1 nitya-vayu paramanu-rupa Annambhatta104.
2 anitya-vdyu karya-rupa
To go a little more into it, “prana etc” are five in
Table 57: Types of vayu number, and they have five locations105, one each. Each
has a function of its own, tabulated below.
Type of vayu Locus
Satira-vayu vayuloke Aerial world Sthdna Kriya
1
1 prana hrd mukha-nasikabhyarh
2 indriya-vdyu sparSa- Skin that can
niskramana-praveSanat
grahakarh apprehend touch
tvak 2 apana guda maladinam
adhonayanat
3 visaya-vayu vrksadi- The cause of the
3 samdna nabhi aharesu pakartharh
kampana- shaking of trees
hetuh
vahneh samunnayanat
4 udana kanthadeSa urdhvam nayanat
Table 58: Types of karyavayu 5 vyana sarvaSariraga nadi-mukhesu
vitananat
Unlike other sense organs, the skin is all over the
body101. The visaya-vayu is discernible in the shaking of Table 59: The Vital Airs - Locations , Functions
trees102.
Inside the body, the visaya-vayu that moves is
called pranam. This Vital Principle is unitary, yet it gets 104 Tarkasangraha
sa ca eko’pi upadhibhedatpranadi-samjhdm labhate \ sah
here refers to Sarirantahsancari vayuh \
Dissolve “upadhi-bhedat” as upadhinam bhedah upadhi-
bhedah, tasmat |
101 Annambhatta refers to this as sarva-Sarira-vrtti | Dissolve : Also dissolve pranadi-sarhjhdrh as pranah adih yasyah sa
sarvani ca tani Sarirani - sarva-Sarirani \ tesu vrttih yasya tat \ pranadih \ pranadiSca sa sarhjha ca | tam |
The text Tarkasangraha does not define what is pranadi (=
102 Dissolve: prana etc). In his Dipika, Annambhatta explains upadhi as
vrksali adihyesarh te = vrksadayah j tesam kampanam; sthana{\ocaiion), whereas PraSastapada prefers
tasya hetuh vrksadi-kampana-hetuh \ kriyabhedadibhih apana-sarhjharh labhate \ Annambhatta’s
103 Tarkasangraha upadhi includes sthdna as well as kriya.
Sarirantahsahcari vayuh pranah | 105 Cf. Amarakosa listing the locations
Dissolve: hrdiprano, glide’panah, samano nabhi-sarhsthitah \
Saiirasya antah, tatra sahcaratiti \ udanah kantha-deSastho, vyanah sarva-Sariragah \ \
72 Padartha -
- Vijnana 73
 7. Vayu 7. Vayu

Properties
Paraphrasing Bhartrhari, Helaraja says that prana
accomplishes various activities such as going and coming, SuSruta notes that Vayu has a predominance of
being located in the joints of the various limbs106. rajo-guna10*. PraSastapada lists the properties thus:
Sometimes five more subdivisions (called
1 sparSa
upaprana-s) are stated with different functions listed
below. 2 samkhya
3 parimdna
upaprana Function 4 prthaktva
1 ndga udgara Belching 5 sarhyoga
2 kurma unmilana Opening eyes 6 vibhaga
3 krkara ksut Hunger 7 paratva
4 devadatta vijrmbhana Yawning 8 aparatva
5 dhanahjaya sarvavyapi Reaching all over 9 samskara

Table 60: Functions of Upaprana-s

Table 61: Properties of vayu

Note that prana etc constitute the fourth type of

visayavayu. That this has been already noted in the
“[Great] Source”, Akara (=PraSastapada), is stated by In Ayurveda
ViSvanatha107.
A whole chapter is devoted by Caraka on
vatavyddhi and the chapter itself is called vatavyadhi-
cikitsitam (=6.28) and has nearly 250 verses, as also
vatakalakaKyddhydya (=1.12). Caraka waxes eloquent at
the outset regarding the significant role of vayu : “It is life
itself. It is the strength and sustenance of the body. All of
106 Helaraja (on Vakyapadiya 3.9.42) :
pranakhyo vayuh Sanrinam antaravaya-sandhisu avasthitah
gamana”gamanadi cestah sadhayati |
107
SiddhantamuktavaU (on Karikavali 44)
caturthl vidha pranadir ityuktam akare \ tathapi samksepad 108 Susrutasamhitd 3.1.19
atra traividhyam ukiam | rajo-bahulo vayuh
74 Paddrtha - - Vijnana 75
7. Vayu 7. Vayu

this is vayu, and vayu is the overlord”, he says109. Equating

ayus and vayu is not quite proper, yet the importance of
vayu makes one feel so - says Cakrapani110. The overall (a) Prana
importance of vayu is hinted at by the oft-quoted dictum
Prana has six locations in the body113 listed below.
to the effect that the mala-s and dhatu-s are all “lame”,
and it is vayu that stirs them and quickens them* * 111.
1 murdhan Head
2 uras Chest
3 kantha Throat
Locations and Functions
4 jihva Tongue
The location and function of the five vayu-s inside 5 asya Mouth
the body are naturally worked out in greater detail in 6 nasika Nose
Ayurveda. This is stated, prefaced by a general remark that
the unimpeded movement of vayu in the body is what Table 62: Locations of prana
regulates the body112.
There are over five functions114, listed below.

1 sthivana Spitting
2 ksavathu Sneezing
109 Carakasamhita 6.28.3 3 udgara Belching
vayur ayuh, balam vayuh, vayur dhata Saririnam | 4 §vdsa Respiration
vayuh viivam idam sarvam, prabhur vayidca kirtitah \ \
5 ahara Food intake
110 Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 6.28.3 + adi Jetc)_
yadyapi Sanrendriya-sattvatma-samyoga ayuh, tathapi tadria-
samyoge pradhanatvat prakrtistho vayur apy ayur ucyate \ Table 63 : Functions of prana
Cf. the maxim pradhanyena vyapadeia bhavanti \
which may be rendered as “Designations issue out of (b) Udana
predominance.”
111 pittam pahgu, kapham pahgu, pahgavo mala-dhatavah | Udana has three locations listed below115. It has
vayuna yatra riiyante tatra gacchanti meghavat \ \ over five functions116.
Also Cf. Carakasamhita 6.28.60
vayureva hi siksmatvdd dvayos tatrapy udiranah \ 113 Carakasamhita 6.28.6
112 Carakasamhita 6.28.5 sthanam pranasya murdhorahkantha-jihvdsya-ndsikah |
pranodana-samdndkhya-vydndpdnait ca pahcadha | 114 Carakasamhita 6.28.6
deham tantrayate samyak sthanesv avydhatai caran \ \ sthivana-ksavathudgdra-ivdsdhdradi karma ca \
76 Padartha - Vijhana 77
7. Vdyu 7. Vdyu

1 nabhi Navel Samana has four locations117, and one function118.

2 urns Chest
3 kantha Throat
1 I agnibalapruda | Enhances digestive power
Table 64: Locations of udana

1 vakpravrtti
Table 67: Functions of samana
Urge to speak
2 prayatna Endeavour
3 urjas Enthusiasm (d) Vyana
4 bala Strength
5 varna Complexion Vyana, the swift wind, has its location all over the
+ (adi) body119, and has over four functions120.
_

Table 65: Functions of udana 1 1 sarva-deha-vyapi [ Pervasion all over the body

(c) Santana Table 68: Location of vyana

1 mti Motion
1 sveda-vahi-srotas Channels that carry sweat 2 prasarana Extension
2 dosa-vahi-srotas Channels that carry dosa-s aksepa Sudden movements
3
3 ambu-vahi-srotas Channels that carry liquid 4 nimesa Winking of eyes
material
+ (adi) (etc)
4 antaragni-pariva Neighbourhood of the
digestive fire Table 69: Functions of vyana

Table 66: Locations of samana 117 Carakasamhita 6.28.8

sveda-dosambu-vahini srotarhsi samadhiythitah |
antar-agneSca parSvasthah. samanah
118 Carakasamhita 6.28.8
samano ’gnibala-pradah
115 Carakasamhita 6.28.7 119 Carakasamhita 6.28.9
udanasya punah-sthanam ndbhy-urah-kantha eva ca \ deham vyapnoti sarvam tu vyanah Sighra-gatir nmam \
116 Carakasamhita 6.28.7 120 Carakasamhita 6.28.9
vakpravrttih prayatnorjo-bala-varnadi karma ca \ \ gati-prasaranaksepa-nimesadi-kriyah sada \ \
78 Padartha • - Vijndna 79
 7. Vdyu 7. Vdyu

(e) Apana analogy123. He also explains what is meant by adi in

aharadi, varnadi, and nimesadi etc.
Apana has eight locations121, and has five
In vdtakaUyadhydya (=1.12) , the prime importance
functions122.
and role of the corporeal wind has been highlighted. We
extract just a few items among the many. When
1 vrsanaTesticles unagitatcd(akupitah), vdyu sustains the body in all
2 basti
Urinary bladder aspects124. It impels all activities, high and low125. It
3 medhra Phallus
regulates and impels all mental activities126, throws out
4 nabhi Navel excreta127. It shapes the embryo128.
5 uru Thighs
6 vamksana Groin
When agitated, it affects one’s life129; agitates the
7 mind130, gives rise to fear, sorrow, delusion, servility, and
guda Anus
8 ranting131.
antra Entrail

Table 70: Locations of apana 123 See Cakrapani on Carakasamhita 6.28.7. Also go through
Astahgahrdaya 1.20
1 Sukra-sarga Ejaculation
124 Carakasamhita 1.12.8
2 mutra-sarga Urination vayus tantra-yantra-dharah
3 Sakrt-sarga Evacuation
4 artava-sarga 125 Carakasamhita 1.12.8
Menstruation
pravartakaS cestanam uccavacdnam
5 garbha-sarga Parturition
126 Carakasamhita 1.12.8
Table 71: Functions of apana niyanta praneta ca manasah

127 Carakasamhita 1.12.8

Cakrapani has discussed how both prana and ksepta bahir malanam
udana can have the same location viz. uras, and yet there
can be no contradiction, by offering an excellent 128 Carakasamhita 1.12.8
karta garbhdkrtinam
121
Carakasamhita 6.28.10 129 Carakasamhita 1.12.8
vrsanau basti-medhram ca nabhyurii vamksanau gndam | ayusam upaghataya
apanasthanam antrasthah 130 Carakasamhita 1.12.8
122
Carakasamhita 6.28*10 mano vyaharsayati
§ukramutra-§akrnti ca | 131 Carakasamhita 1.12.9
Carakasamhita 6.28.11 srjaty artava-garbhau ca | bhaya-$oka-moha-dainydtipraldpan janayati
80 Padartha - - Vijnana 81
 7. Vayu

Caraka goes on to document the normal functions

of air, as also the abnormal ones132. The expressions and
epithets reflect on a whole, vayu in its multiple planes
internal and external, as also as a divinity.
A detailed description of vayu, especially the role CHAPTER 8
of the five vital breaths is given by SuSruta .
AKASA (ETHER)
Origin
Definition
As the Upanisad notes, vayu originates from akd$a,
Tarkasahgraha defines it as having sound as its
the subtler Element134. In its own turn, it generates agni135.
distinct quality136.

Properties

PraSastapada lists certain guna-s of dka&a shown in

Table 72.
Grammarians consider Ether as the Primary
substratum (adhara/adhikarana) of everything137. Space as

1^9
Carakasamhita 1.12.8 136 Tarkasahgraha
kranta lokanam vayureva bhagavan iti. Sabda-gunakam akatom |
Also Cf. Carakasamhita 1.17.118 Cf. Bhasapariccheda 44
sarva hi cesta vatena sa pranah praninam smrtah \ akaSasya tu vijheyah iabdo vaifesiko gunah |
Cf. Carakasamhita 1.12.10 Also read Siddhantamuktdvali thereon :
vaiiesika iti kathanam tu vifesa-gunantara-vyavacchedaya.
133 See Susrutasamhita 2.1.4-11, and 12-17
Commenting on the first MaheSvarasiitra, Pataiijali notes
134 Taittiiiya Upanisad 2.1.1 the same idea
akaSad vdyuh Srotropalabdhih buddhi-nirgrahyah prayogenabhijvalitah
dkaSa-deiah Sabdah |
135 Taittiiiya Upanisad 2.1.1
vdyoragnih |
The inseparability of guna and gunin is hinted at by saying
dka&a-deiah Sabdah. Cf. Nirukta 14.4
The general maxim viz. vistam hyaparam parena works here
akaSa-gunah Sabdah \
as elsewhere.
82 Padartha - - Vijhana 83
8.Akdsa 8. Akasa

the substratum of stars and planets is rather well-known. possibility of the murta-dravya-s being blocked by dkaka140.
But when we say a portion of the earth is the substratum Annambhatta notes that there is but one akato, all-
for a chariot, ultimately, it is Ether that is the substratum pervasive and eternal141. All-pervasiveness is to have
for even this, says Helaraja, elucidating Bhartrhari138. contact with all items that have form (murta). The murta-
dravya-s are five, shown below.
1 Habda
2 samkhya
3 parimana
4 prthaktva
5 samyoga
6 vibhdga

Table 72 : Attributes of akasa Table 73 : List of murta-dravya-s

Stated more explicitly, aka&a is the common SuSruta notes the abundance of sattva in aka&a142.
substratum if all murta items139. The murta substances
block one another whereas there can be no such

137 Vakyapadiya 3.7.151

dikdisam eva kesamcid desa - bheda -prakalpandt \
ddhdra-kiktih prathama sarva-samyoginam matd | |
138 Helaraja (on Vakyapadiya 3.7.151)
graha-naksatra-vimanddindm tavad akaSam eva
adhikaranam prasiddham \ yesamapi prthivy-ekadeSo
rathadinam adhikaranam, tesam api tasya prthivy-ekade&asya
dkdSadhdratvat paramparyena akakimeva adharah \
His further comments are also pertinent. For akd$a as an
entity read Vakyapadiya 3.7.152, and more importantly
Helaraja thereon.
140 Helaraja (on Vakyapadiya 3.1.15)
murtastu bhavah parasparam pratibandhakah - iti na
te 'vakd.iaddyinah |
Hence it is that akaSa is called sarva-murta-dravya-samyogji.
141 Tarkasangraha
tac caikarh vibhu nityam ca.
In turn vibhutva is defined as sarva-murta-dravya-
samyogitvam (Tarkasahgrahadipika). Miirtatva is defined as
paricchinna-parimanatvam va kriyavattvam va, i.e. of limited
dimension and having action.

139
Helaraja (on Vakyapadiya 3.J.15) 142 Susrutasamhita
dkdkuh hi sarvesam miirtanam adhikaranam \ sattva-bahulatn dkdSam.

84 Padartha - - Vijnana 85
 8. Akasa 8. Akasa

Etymology Origin

Reflecting on the lexical and semantic cognateness, Ether emanates from the Self (atman)147, as the
Helaraja says akaSa is so called because it gives room / Upanisad remarks. The Sankhya texts refer to the
space (avakafa)143. origination from the tanmatra-s14*. Caraka draws a parallel
between the genesis of the world and the genesis of the
Types child in the womb - macrocosm and microcosm, referring
thereby to the origin of akato149.
We have only one type viz. the organ (the ear)144.
Kaiyata elucidates this thus :
Types of akasa Locus yatha prthivya ekatve’pi Snighna-Mathuradi-deSa-vyavaharah,
1 torirakafo X evam dkatasyapi samyogi-ghatadi-padarthavacchedena
2 indriyaka&a bheda-vyavaharah \ For Bhartfhari on this, see Vakyapadiya
Srotra the ear
3.6.5. For related notions of samyoga/vibhdga/ upadhit
3 visayakato X
vyapyavrtti / digavaccheda / purva / apara, see Helaraja
Table 74: akasa Types thereon.

Ether is but one : however owing to adjuncts it
appears as numerous, as with numerous ears145. Patanjali
had also noticed this146.
143 Helaraja (on Vakyapadiya 3.1.15)
civaka&a-danaddhi tad-akdiam
144
Siddhantamulctavali (preface to Bhdsapariccheda 45) tatra
farirasya visayasya cdbhavad indriyam darfayati \
145
Siddhdntamuktavali (preface to Bhdsapariccheda 45)
akaSa eka eva sannapi upadheh karna-Saskulyader bhedad
bhinnam Srotratmakam bhavatity arthah \
Upaskdra asserts this thus (commenting on Vaisesikasutra
2.1.29 tattvam bhavena):
bhavah satta, sa yathaika, tatha dka&am apy ekam eva |
146 Mahabhasya (on Mahe&varasiitra no.l)
ekam ca punarakafom, akaSa-de&a api bahavah |
86 Padartha -
147 Taittinya Upanisad 2.1.1
tasmad va etasmad atmana akaSah sambhutah |
148 Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sankhyakdrika 3) pahca-
tanmatrani bhutanam dkd&ddinam prakrtayah \ where the
tanmatra is stated as the cause of the bhfita, in alignment
with the Sdhkhyasutra (of Kapila) 1.60 tanmatrebhyah
sthula-bhutani
149 Carakasamhita A A.8 yatha pralayatyaye sisriksuh bhutani
aksara-bhuta atma sattvopadanah piirvataram dkaSarh srjati,
tatah kramem vyaktatara-gunan dhatiin vayvadikami
caturah, tatha deha-grahane’pipravartamanah piirvataram
akd&am eva upadatte, tatah kramena avyaktatara-gunan
dhatiin vdyvddikdrhi caturah \ Commenting on this,
Cakrapapi makes many points of which two deserve
mention - that the genesis of akd&a is to be looked for in
Sankhya texts; and that the embryological concept has more
of an agamic base than a yukti base.
- Vijnana 87
 9. Kala

As grammarians note, Time is that factor which is

instrumental in our noticing the growth and decay of
things, to cite Patanjali154. Elucidating this, Kaiyata shows
how trees, grass, and creepers all show their increase and
CHAPTER 9 decrease; other factors being equal, Time is the factor that
is the cause of this difference1. The concepts of creation,
KALA (TIME) maintenance, and destruction, commonly spoken of as
srsti, sthiti, and vinaSa, or elaborated as sadbhavavikara -
Definition are all grounded on the notion of Time .

Annambhatta defines kala (Time) as that by means

Etymology
of which we are able to speak of things such as the past150.
„In his autocommentary, he adds that Time is the universal The etymology of kala has engaged even Yaska.
substratum and is the Instrumental Cause of all actions151. For him, Time is what wears out everything157. In his
For ViSvanatha, Time is the generator of all things commentary on Amarakosa, the commentator Ksirasvamin
generated, and is a support for all the worlds152. The gives the etymology as meaning that which causes the
notions of simultaneity, swiftness, and priority - as also progress of the age (ayus) of all158. Three roots in Panini
their negations emanate from Time, notes account for the word kala, and they mean ‘to sound’ / ‘to
SankaramiSra153.

154 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 2.2.5)

150 Tarkasahgraha yena murtinam upacaya-apacayaS ca laksyante, tam kalam
atitadi-vyavahara-hetuh kalah \
ahuh |
The word vyavahara is glossed as jnanajanaka-Sabda-
prayogah - “such expression as generates the idea” of the 155 Pradipa (on Mahabhasya on Astadhyayi 2.2.5)
thing taken up for consideration. tani-trna-lata-prabhrtindm kadacid upacayah, anyada
tvapacayah \ sah pratyayantaravtfese’piyatkrtah sail kalah \
151 Tarkasahgrahadipika
Cf. Vakyapadiya 3.9.13
sarvadharah kalah \ sarva-karye nimitta-karanarh ca \
154 Vakyapadiya 3.9.3 and 1.3
1=2 Bhasapariccheda 45
janyanam janakah kalah jagatam a&rayo matah 11 157 Nirukta 2.25.1
kalah kalayater gati-karmanah \
153 SankaratniSra (on Vaisesikasutra 7.1.25)
This has been explained in Nighantubhasya as
pardpara-vyatikara-yaugapadyayaugapadya-ciraksipra-
sa hi [kalah hi] sarvdnyeva bhutani kalayati ksayam nayatiti \
pratyayakaranam dravam kalah \
Cf. Vaisesikasutra 2.2.6, marking the ‘marks’ of Time : 158 Ksirasvamin (on Amarakosa)
aparasmin aparam, yugapat ciram ksipram - iti kdla-lihgdni \ kalayati dyuh - iti kalah \
88 Padartha - • Vijnana 89
9. Kola
count’ /’to throw’ /’to move’ etc159. SuSruta gives three
etymologies listed below160.
159 Cf. Dhatupatha -
(a) kala gatau sankhyane ca,
(b) kala §abda - sahkhyanayoh, and
(c) kala ksepe.
140 There is some lack of clarity in the etymology - the first one.
That is why Dalhana offers, as though himself not quite
satisfied with his own explanation, a variant reading. Read
suksmam api (= stokdm api) kalam (=bhagam) na liyate
[gatimattvat] (=$listo na bhavati) \ anye tu ‘na liyate’ ityatra
‘kaliyate’ itipathanti, vyakhydnayanti ca - kaliyate
sahkhyayate - iti kdlah |
The idea seems to be that Time keeps moving; nothing of it,
not the least portion of it, ‘sticks’ anywhere or with
anything. More than a grammatical derivation, it is after the
fashion of the Nirukta derivation, based on isophonic words,
often spoken of pejoratively as ‘folk etymology’, though
quite common in Vedic/Upanisadic literature. An
alternative etymology offered by Haranacandra is also
given viz.
suksmamapi kalam liyate, thus explained by himself:
suksmam api kalam kdlariifa-viSesam liyate Slisyati - kalasya
sarva-miirta-samyogitvdt \
The advantage with Haranacandra is, there is no adhyahara
of “na”, negation which is rather an awkward “supply”.
The other etymologies are simple: sankalayati
(=samharanad ekara§ikaroti) bhutani iti va kdlah | At the
time of Dissolution, all beings are made into a single heap
by Time. Or bhutani sankalayati (=yojayati) [sukha-
duhkhabhyam] iti | i.e. what unites beings with joys and
sorrows. Or kalayati (samksipati) iti | i.e what condenses.
Or, kalayati (=mrtyusamipam nayati) iti | i.e what takes
[creatures] to Death. Dalhana suggests one more
alternative reading kalayati iti, and says it is explained as
sahkhyati (Time reckons, or knows well, all things).
90 Padartha -
9. Kala
1 [suksmamapi] kalam [na] liyate iti
2 sankalayati [bhutani] iti
3 kalayati [bhutani] iti
Table 75 : Etymologies offered by Susruta for kala
Properties
The most evident property of Time is the division
into anterior/posterior, antecedent /subsequent. That is
why Kanada says these are the ‘marks’ {lihga) of Time161.
The vital role of the movement of the sun (tapana-
parispanda) is the background of the mutual relativity of
the old and the young, or what is the same, paratva and
aparatva, as the commentator remarks162. The factor of
Time, he goes on to add, functions as the Non-intimate
Causal (asamavdyi-karana) with regard to the above
pair163. Five properties are noted by Kanada listed
below164.
161 Vaisesikasutra 2.2.6
aparasminnaparam yugapat dram ksipram iti kala-lihgani
162 Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 2.2.6)
bahutara-tapana-parispandantarita-janmani sthavire
yuvanam avadhim krtva paratvam utpadyate \ evam
sthaviram avadhim krtva yuni aparatvotpattih iti \
163 Upaskara continues:
kalasyaiva martanda-sarhyuktasya pindena samyogah
paratva-aparatvayoh asamavdyi-karanam \
164 Vaisesikasutra
tasya gunah sahkhyd-parimdna-prthaktva-samyoga-vibhdgah |
- Vijiiana 91
9. Kola
1 sahkhya
2 parimana
3 prthaktva
4 sarhyoga
5 vibhaga
Table 76 : Properties of kala
Time has nothing to contribute towards what are
called vibhu-dravya-s - the all-pervasive items - whereas
with regard to all non-vibhu-dravya-s, it has an ineluctable
causal role to play. Kanada notes this dual role165.
Time is the factor, grammarians remark, that
marks off the boundary of an action. Actually speaking
Time itself is an ascertained action having its own
specified contours, and is used to match with and describe
another action. In other words, this known functions as
the determinant of the unknown.166
165 Vaisesikasutra 2.2.9
nityesu abhavad, anityesu bhavat karane kalakhyd \
Note the maxim which says that Time, the Lord, the Adrsta
(“The Unseen” ; loosely rendered as “luck”) and such items
are deemed universal causes :
karya-samanyam prati kdlesvarddrstadindni karanatvam \
164 Pradipa ( on Mahabhasya on Astadhyayi 1.1.70)
kdlo hi prasiddha-parimand kriya \ aprasiddha-parimanasya
kriyantarasya paricchedika \ yatha - divasam adhite iti \
divasa-Sabdena udayadih astamayantah aditya-gati-
prabandhah ucyate | sa ca adhyayanasya paricchedakatvat
kalah \
The idea is this : when we say a student studies for the
whole day, the duration of the day is what is known, and the
92 Padartha -
9. Kola
Types / Divisions
Day and night are the most evident divisions of
Time. Endowed with a certain action. Time gets the label
of the day, and endowed with certain another, it gets that
of night. This is what Patanjali says167. The same repeating
in cycles leads to the month, and again, to the year168.
Bhartrhari makes out how different durations (avadhi)
make for Time as a moment, a month, or a season169.
It is not merely the movement of the Sun that can
engender boundaries. Planets and stars do it too .
An equally evident, but somewhat more abstract
division of Time is into the Past, the Present, and the
Future. When something commenced (pravrtta) is yet to
duration of the study of the student is what has been
unknown. The duration of the day is known because it is
defined as the duration bracketed by and encompassing
sunrise and sunset which are universally known. The known
is the measurer of the unknown.
167 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 2.2.5)
kalasyaiva hi kayacit kriyaya yuktasya ahar iti ca bhavati,
ratririva ca \
I6S Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 2.2.5)
tayaiva asakrd-avrtya masah iti bhavati, samvatsarah iti ca \
169 Vakyapadiya 3.9.68
viSistam avadhim tam tam upadaya prakalpate \
kalah kalavatam ekah ksana-masartu-bheda-bhak \ |
170 This is noted by Bhartrhari. See Vakyapadiya 3.9.76
aditya-graha-naksatra-parispandam athapare \
bhinnam avrtti-bhedena kdlarh kalavido viduh \ \
- Vijnana 93
9. Kola
be over (avirama), it is referred to as the Present171. This
is an easy instance of the Present. But there are usages
such as “Rivers flow, or Mountains stand” where the
actions are more or less for all times (nityapravftta). These
are also to be reckoned as the Present172. The Present is,
again as Patahjali says, when the Past and the Future are
not173.
In Ayurveda
In Ayurveda also kala is a dravya. And like every
dravya, it has guna and karma. Some of the gum-s of kala
have already been noted.
SuSruta reveres kala as a veritable Lord who has no
beginning, no middle, and no end, and self-originate174.
171 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 3.2.123)
pravrttasyavirame Sasitavya bhavantl |
The word bhavantl is used as a synonym for the Present
Tense (vartamana).
172 This is in fact a Linguistic Universal. To cite Patahjali again :
Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 3.2.123)
nitya-pravrtte ca Sasitavya bhavantl | tisthantiparvatah
\sravanti nadyah - iti |
173 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 3.2.123)
iha bhuta-bhavisyat-pratidvandvi vartamanah kalah \ na
catra bhuta-bhavisyantau kalau stah |
174 Susrutasamhita 1.6.3
kalo hi nama bhagavan-svayambhuh anadi-madhya-
nidhanah \
Some manuscripts do not have bhagavan, but the other
words convey the idea of Lordship.
94 Padartha -
9. Kala
Speaking of its vital role he says the very life and death of
human beings is dependent on it175.
Units of Time
SuSruta takes note of the primary basis for the
various units of time. The movement of the sun over a
year generates all units, and the duration of a year
presents Time as a whole as it were176. The units noted by
him are listed in Table 77.
175 Susrutasamhita 1.6.3
atra rasa-vyapat-sampatti jivita-marane ca manusyanam
ayatte \
The word ‘rasa ’ stands for ‘madhura etc’, and by extension,
and more importantly, the drugs which possess properties
of being ‘madhura etc’. The potency and impotency (vyapat
and sampatti) of drugs depend on this. In other words,
proper administration of drugs also involves administering
them in the right season of the year in the right hour of the
day: samyagyoga and mithyayoga and consequences of right
and wrong administrations. Cakrapani extends the meaning
of manusyanam as to cover paivadinam api.
176 SuSruta calls Time as samvatsaratma. Dalhana glosses atma
as svarupa ‘nature’, and cites another’s gloss as Sarira,
‘body\tasya [=kalasya] samvatsaratmano bhagavan adityah
gati-viSesena aksi-nimesa-kdstha-kald-muhurta-ahoratra-
paksa-mdsa-rtu-ayana-sarhvatsara-yuga-pravibhagarh karoti \
Dalhana takes the Sun as only typical (upalaksana) and says
the Moon is also to be taken, by implication :
bhagavan aditya ityupalaksanam \ tena candro’pi grhyate \
Alternatively, the Sun may alone be taken as explaining
everything, he says. The duration of the utterance of a short
syllable is what is called aksinimesa (literally ‘the blink of an
eye’). A day has been divided in other words into 27,000
units. Ahoratra = 30 muhurta-s = 30x 20 kala-s = 60x 30
- Vijhana 95
9. Kola
9. Kola

division of the samvatsara into rtu-s is the way Time has its

Abbr.
Name Ratio impact upon us with regard to our ahara and cestd (food
and other habits), technically described in terms of rasa
1 aksinimesa a LUM* and bala177.
2 kastha b 15 x a
3 kala c 30 xb = tapas + tapasya
SiSira
4 muhurta d 20 x c — magha + phalguna
5 ahoratra e 30 xd = madhu + madhava
vasanta
6 paksa f 15 x e = caitra + vaiSakha
7 masa 2xf = §uci + Sukra
§ grisma
8 rtu h 2xg = jyestha + asadha
9 ayana i 3xh = nabhas + nabhasya
varsa
10 samvatsara 2xi = Sravana + bhadrapada
j
11 yuga k = isa + urja
_ Sarat
= aSvina + kartika
* LUM = laghvaksaroccarana-matra = sahas + sahasya
hemanta
= margaSirsa + pausa
Table 77: Units of Time according to Susruta

Table 78: The 6 seasons and components

Seasons To illustrate: SuSruta notes certain natural

tendencies in certain seasons. Diseases pertaining to pitta
Susruta gives the names and the components of the have a natural tendency to get cured (upaSama) in the
six seasons, tabulated in Table 78, along with the gist of Hemanta; those of Hlesman in Nidagha (=Gnsma); and
Dalhana’s commentary. those of vata in $aratl7S. The seasonal patterns are not to

The nature of the seasons is described in detail in

Carakasamhita 1.6, and Susrutasamhitd. The basis for the
kastha-s = 1800 x 15 aksinimesa-s = 27,000 aksinimesa-s. In
this context, Dalhana raises and answers the question - as
to whether the motion of the Sun is the basis for the various
divisions of time, aksinimesa. Cf. Astdhgasahgraha 1.4.5
96 Padartha -
177 Dalhana makes this remark on Susrutasamhitd 1.6.6 thus :
SLfiradir ayam rtu-vibhago rasabalam adhikrtya uktah \
Cf. Carakasamhita 1.6.49
ityuktam rtusamyam yat cestdhara-vyapa&rayam \ etc.
178 Susrutasamhitd 1.6.13
tatra paittikanam vyadhinam upa&amo hemante,
Slesmikanarii nidaghe, vatikanam Saradi - svabhavatah eva |
The seasonal influences with regard to upaSama of diseases
- Vijnana 97
9. Kola 9. Kola

be viewed as pertaining to the span of a whole year alone; Cyclicity - Linearity

even a single day betrays these patterns holographically
asserts SuSruta, presented here as a table179. SuSruta is clearly aware of the cyclicity of Time,
and, of course, its linearity180. There is also the concept of
rtu rtulihga the Junction of Seasons in Ayurveda for the body is prone
purvahna vasanta to diseases then181: a gradual transition (kramat) in
madhyahna grisma lifestyle (especially food) is suggested then by
aparahna pravrs Vagbhata182. As a general advice, Vagbhata says all the
rasa-s should be relished on a daily basis183
pradosa varsika
ardharatra sarada
pratyusas haimanta
Medication: When
Table 79 : Correspondence between the Seasons
There is also another classification of time with
and Parts of the Day
regard to consuming medicine, stated by Vagbhata184,
listed in Table 81.
Similar is his matching of the age-group and
predominance of dhatu.

Age Group dM/u-Dominance

upto 16 years Slesman 180 Susrutasamhitd 1.6.8
kdkrf cakravad parivartamanah kalacakram ucyate |
upto 60 years pitta
Cf. kdlah cakravad bhramanena avirata-gamana-Sila-
upto 100 years vayu
svabhavah | (Gangadhara)
181 Satapathabrahmana
Table 80 : Age Group and dhatu Predominance rtu-sandhau jayante vyadhayah \
182 Astahgahrdaya 1.3.58
rt\>oh antyadisaptahau rtusandhir iti smrtah \
has been spoken of here; this may be taken as illustrative of tatrapurvo vidhis tyajyah sevaniyo’parah kramat 11
such influences with regard to sahcaya and prakopa also, he asdtmyaja hi rogdh syuh sahasa tyagasilandt 11
suggests : te ete sahcava-prakopa-uperfamah vyakhydtah \
Cf. Carakasamhita 4.1.110-115 for some details of disease, 183 Astahgahrdaya 1.3.57
decay and death as related to Time. Cf. more particularly nityarh sarva-rasabhyasah
kalaja vividha gadah and kale hyesdm balagamah \ 184 Astahgahrdaya 1.13.37
179 Susrutasamhitd 1.6.14 For another holographic idea, Cf. yuhjyad anannam annaaau madhye’nte kavalantare |
Carakasamhita 3.8.122 grase grase muhuh sdnnam samudgam nisi causadham 11

98 Padartha - - Vijnana 99
9. Kola 9. Kola

1 ananna stomach empty Time: Internal and External

2 annadi commencement of food
3 madhya middle of meal Caraka notes together the twin aspects of time,
4 anta end of meal which are the external and internal189. The unit of a year is
5 kavalantara between morsels variously subdivided as is well known190. The internal one
6 grasam grasam each morsel is based on the condition of the patient191.
7 muhuh again and again
8 sannam mixed with food In sum, medicine should be timely neither
9 samudgam both before and after food premature nor delayed. Time determines the success of
10 niSi bedtime medication192.

Table 81: Occasions for Medication

- aparipakva-dhatuh asodaSa-varsat, tatha vardhamana-
dhatuh dtrimSattamdt \

Age
Caraka also notes certain divisions of time within
the lifespan of an individual. This is necessitated by the
fact that the parameter of age is to be reckoned with,
among the ten parameters that a doctor is advised to take
stock of before he administers medicine185. We have
broadly three divisions of age186, but in matter of fact,
more divisions are possible187. The classification could
vary with respect to the entire span188.
185 Carakasamhita 3.8.94 For the ten parameters, including
vayastaSca, “age-wise”. He defines vayas thus (3.8.22):
kala-pramana-vi$esdpeksini hi iarirdvastha vayo’bhidhiyate \
186 Carakasamhita 3.8.122
tadvayo yathasthula-bhedena (v.l. yathavastha-bhedena)
trividham - balam, madhyarh, jirnam iti \
187 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 3.8.122)
yathasthidabhedeneti-vacanad bala-balatara-ddi-avasthd-
bhedad adhikam api vayo bhavatiti dar&ayati | balo dvividhah
1®® Padartha -
188 If one lives for 120 years, the units alter : He is bala for 36
years, madhya for 72 years, and vrddha for the rest.
Cakrapani (on 3.8.122) discusses these, as also those who
die at 20.
189 Carakasamhita 3.8.125
kdlah punah sarhvatsaraSca, dturavastha ca \
1,0 Carakasamhita 3.8.125
sarhvatsaro dvidhd tridha Sodha dvada&adhd bhuya&capyatah
pravibhajyate tattat-kdryam abhisamiksya | etc.
The reference is to the two ayana-s, to the three spans of
heat, cold and rain, to the six seasons, and to the twelve
months.
1,1 Carakasamhita 3.8.128
asyam avasthayam asya bhesajasya akdlah, kdlah punar
anyasyeti | etadapi hi bhavaty avastha-vtfesena... muhur
muhur aturasya sarvavastha-vitesaveksanam yathavad-
bhesaja-prayogartham |
The division here is thus two-fold - kala and akala, timely
and untimely.
192 Carakasamhita 3.8.128
na hi atipatita-kalam aprapta-kalam vd bhesajam
- Vijnana 101
9.Kdla 9. Kola

Even sleep and sexual intercourse and even good
delivery will involve considerations of time193. Thus sleep
during daytime is generally condemned, yet there are
numerous exceptions194. Duration of sleep is determined
by seasons also.
In the very first few sections of his text, BhavamiSra
defines ayus itself in terms of time - in the context of
defining Ayurveda196. Caraka mentions kala as a factor
that governs all - life, diseases and the world itself in
general197.

Discussing the nature and types of diseases,

SuSruta mentions 7 types, of which the fifth one is kala-
bala-pravrtta, issuing from the season etc. He discusses
them under the adhidaivika classification195.

iipayujyamanam yaugikam bhavati | kalo hi bhaisajya-

piayojana-paryaptim abhinirvartayati \
There are allocations of time such as - before taking meals
(pragbhukti), post-meals (bhojanottara), or just ‘again and
again’ (muhur muhur). Also note the half a dozen kriyakala-
s (timings of medication) mentioned in Susmtasamhita
1.21.18-35
193 Carakasamhitd 1.21.37 Happiness and life span can get
adversely affected by untimely / immoderate sleep
akale’tiprasahgdcca na ca nidra nisevita |
sukhayusi parakuryat kalaratrir ivapara \ \
The contrary situation is set forth in the next verse
(Carakasamhitd 1.21.38). Also Cf. Carakasamhitd 4.2.6 for
kdlasampat as regards garbha.
194 See Carakasamhitd 1.21.39 - 43. Cakrapani quotes Ksarapani
to the effect that sleep missed during nights should be made The latter is explained by Cakrapani as
up by half its duration during the following day kdla-svabhava-krta-pittddi-cayddi-krtdh \
yavatkalam na suptah syad ratrau svapnad yathocitam |
196 Bhavaprakdsa 1.1.4
tato ’rdhamatram tatkalam divasvapno vidhiyate \ \
sarira-jivayoh yogah jivanam \ tena avacchinnah kalah ayuh \
But even this should be at a pre-meals hour.
etc
195 Susmtasamhita 1.24 7
197 Carakasamhitd 1.25.25
kala-bala-pravrtta ye fita-usna-vdta-varsa-atapa-prabhrti-
kdlajastvesa purusah kalajas tasya camayah \
nimittdh | te’pi dvividhah - vyapannartu-krtah,
jagat kalavaSam sarvam kalah sarvatra kdranam \ \
avyapannartu-krtaSceti j
102 Padartha - - Vijhana 103
 10. Dis

The definition given by ViSvanatha is “that which

causes the notions of the distant and the proximate”200.
The concept of the East (praci) etc. which is involved in
Annambhalta’s definition, figures in the types of diS in
CHAPTER 10 ViSvanatha’s treatment.
The very basis for the supposition (linga) of the
DIS (DIRECTION) concept of direction is stated by Kaqada as that by which
something is spoken of as nearer (or even farther) with
Definition respect to some other thing201.

The definition of diS given by Annambhatta is “that

which is the cause for such verbal references as the East
and so on”198. By the expression “East and so on”199, the 200 Kdrikavad 46
durantikadi-dhi-hetuh eka nitya dig ucyate \ \
reference is made to 3 more directions viz. the South, the
As remarked by Bodas (1918 :132) this definition is “more
West, and the North. The following list provides the
comprehensive and accurate”.
names of the directions.
201 Vaisesikasutra 2.2.10
1 praci East “itah idam” - itiyatah, tad defyaril lihgam |
2 avaci South The explanation given by Upaskdra shows the keenness of
3 pratici West his intellect. Consider two things (pinda-s) which are stable
4 udlci North - i.e in some fixed (niyata) position. Though it should go
without saying, he makes a mention of the simultaneity
Table 82: Sanskrit names of Directions (samanakala) of the things referred to. The things being
compared, are naturally substrata (aSraya / adhikarana) of
198 the simple relationship called samyukta-samyoga which can
Tarkasangraha
be qualified as alpatara in case of an object which is close
pracyadi-vyavahara-hetuh dik \
by, and as bahutara which is afar - spoken of also as
dik is the Nominative Singular form of the base
alpiyastva and bhuyastva. Read Upaskdra (on Vaisesikasutra
(pratipadika) diS. As the base is the standard of reference,
the palatal ending (= T ending) word di£ is used here as 2.2.10)
ito’lpatara-samyukta-samyogdSraydd, idam bahutara-
the title. Note the parallel in the wordings of definitions of
samyukta-samyogadhikaranam varam (= explanation ofitah
kala and diS. The two are similar concepts.
idam param) \ itaj ca samyukta-samyoga-
199 praci (East) + adi. Like diS, the word praci is also feminine. bhuyastvadhikaranad, idam sarhyukta-
The words for the other directions are also given in the samyogd’lpiyastvadhikaranam qparam (= explanation of
feminine gender. The other three words ending in -ci are itah idam aparam) - id niyata-dig-deSayoh samana-kdlayoh
feminine. pindayoh yato dravyad bhavati, sa dik (=definition of diS)
104 Padartha - - Vijhana 105
10. Dis
10. Dii

Types and are all derivable from the iti of the Vaisesikasiitra, he
says205. See Table 83.
Direction is but one. But it is considered as
multiple. The cause of the divisions is the presence of the A different nomenclature is adopted by
adjunct. This has been mentioned by ViSvanatha202. The PraSastapada who refers to the various directions in terms
nomenclature as “the East” and “the West” has a of the divinities that are said to preside over them. His list
common basis viz. proximity or otherwise to the Rising is as in Table 84.
Mountain203. The nomenclature, again, of “the North”
and “the South” has another common basis viz. proximity 1 asmad idam purvam East
or otherwise to the Sumeru Mountain204. 2 asmad idam daksinam South
3 asmad idam pakcimam West
Direction is divided into ten, and is detailed by
4 asmad idam uttaram North
SankaramiSra, and contains what is meant by “East etc”
5 asmad idam daksina-paicimam Southwest
(pracyadi). The eight cardinal points plus the directions
6 asmad idam pa&cimottaram Northwest
“Above” and “Below” constitute the ten, tabulated below,
7 asmad idam uttarapurvam Northeast
8 asmad idam purvadaksinam Southeast
9 asmad idam adhastat Above
10 asmad idam uparistat Below
202 Karikavafi 46
upadhi-bhedad ekapi pracyadi-vyapade&abhak \ Table 83 : The Ten Directions
Cf. Vaisesikasiitra 2.2.13
karya-viSesena nanatvam j
The Grammarians (Vaiyakarana) are in full
203 The mountain behind which the Sun seems to rise is called agreement with the Logicians (Naiyayika/Vaitesika) and
the Rising Mountain (udayagiri); the mountain behind
which the Sun seems to set is the Setting Mountain
(astagiri) - though this latter has not been mentioned here.
Says Siddhanlamuktavali (on Karikdvali 46) :
yat-pumsasya udaya-giri-sannihita yd dik sa tasya pracl \
evam udaya-giri-vyavahita yd dik sa pratici \
205
204 Mt. Sumeru (or Meru) is the Northernmost mountain, as Upaskara (on Vaisesikasiitra 2.2.10)
Siddantamuktavali cites : etepratyayah uita idam” iti sautretind sangrhitah |
sarvesdm eva varsdnam menir uttaratah sthitah \ Cf. Amarakosa regarding the presiding Deities over the 8
Siddantamuktavali (on Karikavati 46) directions:
evam yat-purusasya sumeru-sannihita yd dik sd udici \ tad- indro vahnih pitrpatih nairrto vanino marat |
vyavahita tu avaci | kiibera i$ah patayah purvadinam ditem kramat | |
106 Padartha - - Vijhana 107
 10. DU
10. Dis

Again Caraka says one has to have a knowledge of

Direction Properties the different geographical regions. If one knows the
of vdyu lifestyles of people from various places he can administer
1 pragvayu 1. usnah
medicine better211. Cakrapani cites remarks of Harita
Eastern 2. abhisyandi
which makes remarks on the properties of water from
3. kopayet tvagdosa-ar$o-
particular spots212.
4. visakrmin |
5. sannipdtajvara-Svdsam Even diseases are sometimes classified on the basis
6. amavayurh ca kopayet of directions. Thus fevers emanating from South East,
2 pa&cimah 1. sitirarh hand North West etc. have been studied213.
Western 2. murcham There again are procedures in which taking
3. daham medicine facing a certain direction is enjoined214. This is
4. trsam
5. visam
3 daksinah 1. Sresthah
Southern 2. netryah 211 Carakasamhita 3.8.92-93
3. anga-bala-vardhanah. deSastu bhumir aturaSca \ tatra bhumi-patiksa atura-
4. rakta-pitta-praSamanah parijndna-hetor vd syad ausadha-parijhdna-hetor vd | tatra
5. na ca vata-prakopanah tavad idarh dtura-parijndna-hetoh \ tadyathd - ayam kasmiti
uttarah 1. snigdho bhumideSe (a) jatah (b) samvrddho (c) vyadhito vd \
4
2. mrdu tasmirhSca bhumideSe manusyanam (a) idam aharajatam (b)
Northern
idam viharajatam (c) idam dcdrajatam (d) etdvat ca balam
3. madhurah
(e) evam-vidharh sattvam (f) evam-vidham satmyam (g)
evam-vidho dosah (h) bhaktir iyam (i) ime vyadhayah (j)
hitam idam (k) ahitam idam - iti prayograhanena |
Table 87: Particular Properties of Winds of different
Directions 212 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.27.214) quotes Harita:
anupadeSe yad-vari guru tat Slesma-vardhanam \ vipantam
Similarly Vagbhata mentions properties of water ato mukhyarh jangalam laghu cocyate \ \
Also Cf. Kdsyapasamhitd 9.29
from different sources - such as waters of rivers going to
ksarodah praksrta nadyah etc.
the Western ocean, those taking birth in mountains such
as the Himalayas or Malaya, and sea water itself210. 213 Kdsyapasamhitd 9.1.45
agneyah syat satatako vayavyo hi dvitiyakah \
vaifvadevah trtiyah syad aiSanastu caturthakah 11
210 Astangasahgraha 1.6.16-20 214 See the importance assigned to North / Eastern direction in
paScimodadhigah etc. Carakasamhita 7.1.10,7.1.11, 7.1.14 etc.
Cf. Carakasamhita 1.27.209-212
- Vijnana 111
110 Padartha -
lO.Dii lO.Dii

so even with regard to childbirth215. The initiation of the direction, seen in a dream are indicators of good things to
disciple into Ayurveda also involves a ritual in which happen221. The Southern direction is ominous222.
direction plays a role216. __
Medicines made of trees in gardens to the south of
The Eastern wind and Sun’s heat must be which are water-spots, are praiseworthy223. Even the
eschewed217. j medical stores must be in an auspicious direction224.
The notions of above/below/horizontal also play When an operation is to be performed, the
roles as in the movement of breath218, the movement of directions faced by the patient and the doctor are also to
dosa-s219 etc. be proper225.
The considerations of direction also figure in the
“science of omens”, made use of in Ayurveda. Auspicious In this manner the sense of direction, whether
sounds and a gentle Southern wind forebode good external or internal has a significant role to play in
health220. Vehicular movement in the North or Eastern Ayurveda. And in many respects, thus, time and space, or
kdla and rftf, betray similarity in their properties and
215 Cf. Carakasariihita 4.8.50 functions.
prak-iirasam udak-iirasarh va samvefya
216 Susrutasariihita 1.2.4
upanayaniyarh tu brahmanam praiastesu tithikarana-
muhurta-naksatresupraiastayarh diiiiucau samedeie ...
Also Cf. Carakasamhita 3.8.11
deieprakpravane udakpravane... prarimukhah iucih 221 Carakasariihita 5.12.86
adhyayanavidhim anuvidhaya yanarh purvottarena ca |
217 Carakasamhita 1.8.19 222 Carakasariihita 5.5.8
purovata-atapa-avaiydya-atipravatan jahyat \ Svabir ustrair khagair vapi yati yo daksinarh dvSam |
218 Susrutasariihita 2.1.60 svapne yaksmanam asadya jivitarh sa vimuricati 11
adhogamah satiryaggdh dhamanih urdhvadehagah etc 223 Carakasariihita 7.1.9
219 Carakasariihita 1.17.112 pradaksodake... balavattarair drumaih ausadhani jdtdni
urdhvarh cadhaica tiryak ca vijheyo trividha gatih | praSasyante \
2JA
Cf. Carakasariihita 2.8.38 Susrutasariihita 1.36.17
prayas tiryaggatah dosah kletoyanty aturaih&ciram 11 praSastayarh diii Sucau bhesajagaram isyate \
220 Carakasariihita 5.12.79 225 Susrutasariihita 1.5.7
vedadhyayana-SabdaS ca sukho vayuh pradaksinah \ prahmukham aturam upaveSya, yantrayitva, pratyarimukho
pathi veSmapraveSe tu vidyad arogya-laksamm \ \ vaidyo... anulomarh &astrarh nidadhyat...
112 Padartha • - Vijnana 113
 11. Atman

closing and the opening of eyes also need an entity

without whose endeavour they cannot function, all by
themselves; the entity being atman229.

CHAPTER 11 1 prana
2 apana
ATMAN (THE SELF) 3 nimesa
4 unmesa
Definition 5 jivana
6 manogati
Annambhafta defines atman as ‘the substratum of
7 indriyantaravikarah
knowledge’226. ViSvanatha defines it as “the Principle
8 sukha
presiding over sense organs etc”227.
9 duhkha
Kanada lists a dozen items that betray the atman 10 iccha
(“dtmano lingani”) e.g breathing, blinking, joys, and 11 dvesa
sorrows. They are listed in Table 88. 12 prayatna
$ankarami&ra argues that raising a pestle and
letting it fall are actions requiring some effort; the entity Table 88: Features of atman
whose is the effort is atman 2*. He goes on to add that the

Types and Differences

226 Tarkasangraha
jndnddhikaranam dtma \ Annambhafta divides atman into two types viz.
The word adhikarana implies here that the atman is the jivatman and paramatman. The characteristics of
adhara and that jnana is the adheya. As sentience and paramatman is that He is the overlord, that He is
selfhood are inseparable, the relation is one of samavaya omniscient, and is but one230. In contrast, the jivatman is
between the two. Dissolve jndnddhikaranam as different in each body231.
jhanasya adhikaranam |
227 KdrikavaU 47 229 Upaskdra ( on Vaifesikasutra 3.2.4)
atmendriyddy-adhif(hdtd.
230 Tarkasangraha
As SiddhantamuktavaR notes the significance of adi, and
tatra iivarah sarvajhah paramatma eka eva |
adds:
indriyartam Sanrasya ca paramparaya caitanya-sampadakah 231 Tarkasangraha
jivastu pratiSanram bhinnah \
228 Upaskdra ( on Vaiiesikasutra 3.2.4)
Dissolve “pratiiariram” as - iarire Satire |
114 Padartha -
- Vijnana 115
11. Atman 11. Atman

In Ayurveda Explaining these, Cakrapani says that the first two

items in the list above refer to inhalation and exhalation.
1 prana The fifth item is to indicate mental travel, from place to
2 apana place. Item 6 is when our attention is diverted from one
3 nimesadi sense organ to another. 7 and 8 have to do with mind, 10 is
4 jivana perception of death. 11 refers to identification of the
5 manaso gatih object as the same.
6 indriyantarasahcara SuSruta refers to the attributes of atman, which
7 prerana cover many of the items that we find in Caraka. They are
8 dharana listed in Table 90233.
9 svapne deSantaragatih
The movement of air upwards and downwards in
10 pahcatvagrahana
terms of exhalation and inhalation is viewed as an
11 daksinenakyna drstasya
extraordinary thing, as vayu is generally noted as having
savyena avagamah
horizontal motion only. On this ground, Yogindra Nath
12 icchd
Sen comments in his commentary on Caraksamhita, that
13 dvesa
these cannot arise without effort, hence a significant proof
14 sukha
of the existence of atman, the Impeller234.
15 duhkha
16 prayatna
17 cetana
71 deiantara-gatih svapne, pancatva-grahanam tatha |
18 dhrti
drstasya dak$inenaksna savyenavagamas tatha 11
19 buddhi 72 icchd dvesah sukham duhkharh prayatnaS cetana dhrtih \
20 smrti buddhih smrtir ahahkaro lihgani paramatmanah | |
21 ahahkara 73 yasmat samupalabhyante lihgany etani jivatah \
na mrtasyatmalihgdni tasmad ahur maharsayah \ \
Table 89: Indicators of atman 233 SusrutasamhUd 3.1.17 As a prefatory to this in his
commentary, Dalhana says
Caraka has made a catalogue of items that indicate karma-punisasya sariratmanoh samyoga-karakena manasa
the existence of the atman232, presented as a table above. samyoge ye gana utpadyante tan aha |
He also quotes Gayin with the concluding statement
ete karma-punisasya sodaSa gunah \ ata eva kala ityucyante \
232 Carakasamhita 4.1.70-73
70 pranapanau nimesadya jivanam manaso gatih \ 234 Upaskara (on Carakasamhita 4.1.70)
indriyantara-sahcarah preranam dharanam ca yat 11 SarirantaScarini samirane pranapana-laksane lirdhvadhogati
116 Padartha - - Vijnana 117
 11. Atman
11. Atman

Paramatman
1 sukha The word Paramatman may be rendered as the
2 duhkha Supreme Self. Annambhatta characterises this Self by two
3 iccha expressions viz. Hvara and Sarvajha.
4 dvesa
The word Hvara applies to one who performs 3
5 prayatna
actions unique to Himself viz. sr$ti, sthiti, and samhara, or
6 prana
creation, maintenance, and dissolution236. The second
7 apana
word implies that He is omniscient237. He is called
8 unmesa
Paramatman for 3 reasons : (i) He is the Self of all
9 nimesa
creatures (ii) None can be His Self (iii) He is the Lord of
10 buddhi
the Selves238.
11 manas-sahkalpa
Paramatman is also known by the word
12 vicarana
Brahman239. Caraka refers to this as attainable by the Pure
13 smrti Intellect or the True Intellect240. It is this Intellect that
14 vijnana leads to Brahman as Never-getting-old, Never-dying,
15 adhyavasaya Never-changing, and Tranquil241. Caraka refers also to the
16 visayopalabdhi fact that the pure jiva can become Brahman, and

Table 90: Properties of atman

The comparisons of the house and the householder

or the puppet and the puppeteer are often presented235.
prayatnam vina aniipapadyamane yasya prayatnad bhavatah,
sanunamalmd \
235 Cf. Carakasamhitd 4.1.74. Cf. Upaskdra (on Carakasamhitd
4.1.70) on
nimesadyah yatha daru-putra-nartanam kasyacit prayatnena,
tathd aksi-paksma-vartanam api \
236 Dissolve: i$te iti iSvarah |
237 Dissolve : sarvam jandti iti sarvajnah
238 Cf. yena bhutdny atmavanti nayam anyena catmavan | ato
hydtmeSvaratvacca paramatma prakirtitah \
Dissolve : paramaScasau atma ca \
239 The etymology is given as brhattvat bnhhanatvacca brahma.
Hence what is brhat, huge, is Brahman; and what has
growth, brmhana, as its characteristic feature is Brahman.
240 Carakasamhitd 4.5.16 refers to Buddha satya buddhih
241 Carakasamhitd 4.5.19
yati brahma yaya nityam ajaram Santam avyayam \

118 Padartha - - Vijharm 119

11. Atman
becoming That, transcends bonds of joys and sorrows242.
The Supreme Self is beyond all change, which is to say,
free from diseases243. The Supreme Self can have no
origin or cause for He is beginningless244.
Jivatman
The word tu in Tarkasangraha after describing
Paramatman, brings out the contrast from the latter245.
The quintessential point about the jivatman is
noted in the pithy statement of Caraka that the Self
242 Carakasamhita 4.5.21
brahma-bhutasya sarhyogo na kiddhasyopapadyate \
Cakrapani takes samyoga as
sukha-duhkha-hetu-dharmddharma-samyogah,
for it is the link with dharma and adharma that triggers
sukha and duhkha. For him, brahma-bhuta is tantamount to
jivanmukta, “Alive [yet] Liberated”.
243 Carakasamhita 1.1.56
nirvikdrah parastv atma.
Here Cakrapani implies that vikara is rogah. Read
nirvikaro nirvikrtih, tena nirogatvam atmanah \
He also takes para here as Subtle/Great:
para iti suksmah Srestho va
244 Carakasamhita 4.1.53
prabhavo na hyanaditvad vidyate paramatmanah \
This feature sets Him against the raSipumsa.
Cf. Carakasamhita 4.1.59
anadih puniso nityah, viparitas tu hetujah \
245 tu-Sabdasya paramatma-vailaksanyam arthah \
Ref. Commentary of Giryacarya on Tarkasangraha
120
11. Atman
knows246. Simple as it is, the statement requires certain
qualifications. The knowledge is set into motion only with
a conjunction with the “instruments”247. If there is no such
conjunction, knowledge cannot be possible; nor is it
possible if the instruments are impure248. He gives two
analogies - of a dusty mirror or dirty water that cannot
reflect properly249. He takes the context to define the
karana-s - as the mind, the intellect, and the sensory and
motor organs250.
The relation between the Self and Knowledge is
brought out through a few more categorical, nevertheless
paradoxical, statements. The mere presence of sense
organs does not ensure the occurrence of knowledge;
equally, the self does not become ignorant when the
senses fail. For the Self is never without Knowledge, and a
particular type of sensory knowledge obtains when a
particular mind (-the one flowing through that channel)
246 Carakasamhita 4.1.54
atma jhah \
247 Carakasamhita 4.1.54
karanaih yogat jhanarh tvasya pravartate \
248 Carakasamhita 4.1.54
karananam avaimalyad, ayogad va, na vartate \
249 Carakasamhita 4.1.55
paiyato 'pi yathddario sahkliste nasti darSanam |
tattvam jale va kaluse cetasyupahate tatha \ \
250 Carakasamhita 4.1.54
karanani mano buddhih buddhi-karmendriyani ca 11
The word buddhi-karmendriya is to be understood as
buddhindriya (same as jhanendriya), and karmendriya.
Padartha • - Vijhana 121
 11. Atman
11. Atman

Synonyms
exists251. In other words, even when senses do not
function, a certain mental knowledge always exists, never
Nearly 30 synonyms of atman are listed by
forsaking the Self - as Cakrapani elucidates252.
Caraka256, listed in Table 91.
In the following sections, Caraka speaks about two
Caraka discusses many more issues pertaining to
Knowledges - (a) the Knowledge of the Self or spiritual
the Self such as - the inaccessibility of the [Supreme] Self
Knowledge and (b) the Knowledge during dreams. We
via the usual marks; how even screened things can get to
shall sketch only the former here, as he says that it is a
be visible; and how the atman is circumscribed within a
great one253. Further, this is also a paradoxical one.
body257.
Withdrawing the senses, and withdrawing the mind, and
getting established in the Knowledge of one’s own self 1 hetuh
alone, one comes to attain omniscience!254 2 karanam
3 nimittam
The Self is generally referred to as ‘Knowing the
4 aksaram
Field’ (ksetrajha) and as Witness(sdfc?w), among other
5 karta
things255.
6 manta
7 vedita
251 Carakasamhita 4.3.18 8 boddha
na catma satsv indriyesu jhah, asatsu va bhavaty ajhah; na
9 drastd,
hyasattvah kadacid atma, sattva-vi.iesac copalabhyate
jhanaviSesah - iti | 10 dhata
11 brahma
252 Cakrapani ( on Carakasamhita 4.3.18)
12 viSvakarma
yat tu etad-bahya-visayagatam jhanarh, tat sattvasya
indriyddhi$thana-vi$e$ad bhavati | tern, indriya-bhave 13 vi&varupah
indriya-janyam viSistarh jhanam bhavati; yat tu kevala- 14 purusah
manojanyam atmajhanam, tad bhavatyeva sarvada |

253 Carakasamhita 4.3.20 niskriyam ca svatantram ca vaSinam sarvagam vibhum |

atma-jhana-balam mahat |
254 Carakasamhita 4.3.21-22
21 indriyani ca samkfipya, manah samksipya cahcalam |
pravifyadhyatmam atmajhah sve jnaneparyavasthitah \ \
22 sarvatravahita-jhanah sarvabhavan pafiksate 11
For a brief note on dreams, see Carakasamhita 4.3.23-24.
255 Caraka lists over half a dozen characteristics of the selves.
Carakasamhita 4.1.5
122 Padartha
vadanty atmanam atmajhah ksetrajham sakfinam tatha 11
Questions are raised regarding the validity of every one of
these adjectives, and ably answered in the text itself, and
are also elucidated by Cakraparii. See also 4.1.75-77 for
discussion/clarification on some of the issues above.
256 Carakasamhita 4.4.8
257 Carakasamhita 4.1.79-85
- Vijnana 123
-
11. Atman 11. Atman

15 prabhavah take different births as per their own deeds, depending

16 avyayah upon how the deeds conduce to dharma or its opposite,
17 nityah and be born as animal/human/divine being259.
18 guni
19 grahanam Ativahika-purusa
20 pradhanam
Ativahika-purusa is synonymous with lihga-forira
21 avyaktam
and suksma-Sarira. This is the invisible subtle “body” that
22 jivah
the Self carries upon death, while proceeding to occupy
23 jhah
another body. The Self takes along the Elements (bhuta)
24 pudgalah
except Ether (akafa) and traverses with the mind. Its
25 cetanavan
previous karman-s guide it towards the destination. The
26 vibhuh
Element of Life (cetana-dhatu) is capable of going
27 bhutatma
anywhere and assuming any form or shape and perform
28 indriyatma
any action260.
29 antaratma

259 Susrutasamhita 3.1.16

Table 91: List of Synonyms of Self
On the Multiplicity of Selves (purusa-s)
SuSruta makes an express mention of the numerous
selves in the world258. He also points out how the selves
dyurveda -Sastresu asarvagatah ksetrajnah nitya&ca, tiryag-
yoni-manusa-devesu sancaranti dharmadharma-nimittam \
Dalhana points out the rationale in the sequence of listing
and says
tatra prayenadharma-nimittam tiryag-yonayah,
dharmadharma-nimittam manusyah, dharma-nimittam
devah.

260 SuSruta first raises the question regarding transmigration

2S® Susrutasamhita 3.1.9
bahavas tu purusah cetanavantah \
As Dalhana notes, in consonance with the Sankhya
philosophy, the fact of non-simultaneous death of all is
proof of the multiplicity of selves. Cf. Sdhkhyakarikd
janana-marana-karandnarh pratiniyamad ayugapat
pravrtteSca \ purusa-bahutvam siddham \
He further derives purusa thus :
‘pur’ Sabdena mahadadikrtam lihga-fariram ucyate, tacca
yogindm eva driyam, tatra puri Sete iti purusah |
124 Padartha •
and seeks to know the modus operandi in Susrutasamhita
3.2.28:
dehat katham deham upaiti canyam, atma sada kair
anubadhyate ca ?
This is answered in the verses to follow, of which three are
rather pertinent here.
31 bhiitaiS caturbhih sahitah susuksmaih
manojavo deham upaiti dehat |
karmatmakatvat na tu tasya drfyarh
divyam vina darSanam asti riipam \ |
32 sa sarvagah sarva-Sanrabhrcca
- Vijnana 125
11. Atman
11. Atman

The suksma-Sarira is generally described as

constituted of 18 items, listed in Table 92261. 1 mahat = buddhi
2 ahahkdra 3 Inner Faculties
3 manas
sa viSvakarma sa ca vitvariipah \ 4 caksus
sa cetana-dhatur atlndriyaS ca 5 Srotra
sa nityayuk samdayah sa eva 11
6 ghrana 5 Sense organs
35 bhiitdni catvari tu karmajani
yanyatmatinani viSanti garbham \ 7 rasana
sa bljadharma hyaparaparani 8 carman
dehantarany atmaniyatiyati 11 9 vac

As Cakrapaiii (on 31) points out, it is called susuksma hence 10 pani

implying atlndriyatva (suprasensory stuff); only four bhuta-s 11 pada 5 Motor organs
are mentioned - as akafo would have no role here, as it is 12 payu
functionless (akriyatvena); and karmatmakatvat means 13 upastha
karmadhinatvat. He works out the implication thus : karman 14 sabda-tanmatra
is in the form of dharma and adharma; that drags the Self to 15 vayu-tanmatra
the appropriate body. While it is not visible to the naked 5 Subtle
16 tejas-tanmatra
eye of people, it is visible only to yogic sight : divyam Elements
datianam, explained by Cakrapani as yogi-caksuh. In the
17 jala-tanmatra
Sahkhya system, the nature and function of the lihga-Satira 18 prthvi-tanmatra
has been categorically stated.
Table 92 : Constituents of linga-sarira
Sdhkhyakdrika
40 purvotpannam asaktam niyatam Caraka has also worked out how such a Self enters
mahadddi-suksma-paryantam \
another body - what factors guide it to another embryo
sarhsarati nirupabhogam
bhavair adhivasitarh lingam \ \
etc - with details of what is derived from the father, and
41 citram yathaSrayam rte sthanvadibhyo vina yatha cchaya | from the mother262.
tadvad vina viSesair na tisthati nira&rayam lingam \ \ There is an inbuilt mechanism among living beings
The constituents of the linga-Sarira are from mahat to
such that they are led to the particular kind of birth,
bhuta-siikfma. No picture can be drawn without a canvas,
depending upon their own karman-s in the past263. Rajas
and no shadows without a ground to fall upon. Even so, the
linga requires support.
262 See Carakasamhita 4.2.33 and 34
261 Sometimes ahahkdra is omitted from the list, hence linga is
said to comprise 17 items, as in the Sahkhyasutra which says 263 Carakasamhita 4.1.77
saptadaSam lingam. Caraka has ignored akaSa. yathdsvend”tmana”tmdnam sarvah sarvasuyonisu \
pranais tantrayate prani na hy anyo’sty asya tantrakah \ \
126 Padartha -
• Vijhana 127
11. Atman 11. Atman

and tamas constantly bind the mind till the attainment of

full knowledge, and until then, one or the other of the All action indicated in this Discipline of Health, is
defects beset the mind. The inclinations/destinies in respect of the Self, the purusa. For the Self is the
(pravrtti/gati) of the selves are bound up with rajas and substratum. As Dalhana points out, the Self is the
tamas264. substratum of either - of illnesses or of health266.

Cikitsya-purusa/karma-purusal
sad-dhatvatmaka-purusa Tridanda

Going by the Sankhyan approach, a living being
must be said to comprise the 25 tattva-s. Yet in Ayurveda
sometimes the being is considered as comprising 6 dhatu-
s. The 6 are shown as the 5 Elements with the 6th as the
Self265, tabulated below.
The same question of the substratum is dealt with
by Caraka also in the very opening chapter of his work as
by SuSruta. Caraka brings in the analogy of tridanda or
Triple Staff. Mind, Self and body are the three that
constitute the same. All creatures need the conjunction of
the three. And of the three it is the Self that is the
substrate. And the very discipline of Ayurveda revolves
around him267.
The purpose of the analogy of the Triple Staff is
that they can act but in unison alone, and were even one
fail to act appropriately, all collapse. This is stated by
Cakrapani268.

Table 93 : List of 6 dhatu-s in a purusa

264 Carakasamhita 4.2.38
rajas-tamobhyam hi mano’nubaddham
jhanam vina tatra hi sarva-dosah \
gati-pravrttyos tu nimittam uktarh
manah sadosam balavacca karma |
Cakrapani glosses gati as dehantara-gamanam and pravrtti as
dharmadharma-kriyasu pravrttih \
265 Susrutasamhita 1.1.22
asmin sdstre pahca-mahdbhuta-sa n n-sa ma vdya h purusa
ityucyate |
128 Padartha -
266 See Dalhana (on Susrutasamhita 1.1.22) He explains that
asmin stands for
kriyadhikare vyadhy-adhisthana-prastave ca \
The kriya is bhesaja.. .nirvartyam and svasthya-vrttikaram ca
| and purusah adhisthanam - vyadheh svdsthyasya ca \
267 Carakasamhita 1.1.46-47
46 sattvam atmd §anram ca trayam etat tridandavat \
lokas tisthati samyogdt tatra sarvam pratisthitam \ \
47 sa pumamS cetanam tac ca tac cadhikaranam smrtam \
vedasydsya, tadartham hi vedo’yam samprakaSitah \ \
268 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.46)
tridandah paraspara-samyoga-vidhrtah kumbhadi-dharakah,
• Vijhana 129
11. Atman 11. Atman

24 “Principles” 24 purusa/prakrti
23 mahat
Elsewhere Caraka gives alternative formulations. 22 ahamkara
The Self is taken up as the dhatu-s, six in number, or as 21 manas
the sentient Principle alone; or, going by the Sankhyan 20 caksus
approach, the 24‘" Principle269. The 24 Principles of 19 srotra
Sankhya are listed in Table 94. 18 prana
17 rasana
16 sparsanaka
15 vac
tadvat | etena, yatha tridande’nyatamdpdye navasthanam, 14 pani
tatha sattvadinam anyatamapaye’pi na loka-sthitih - ityuktam
13 pada
hhavati \
12 payu
(By ‘lokahe takes ‘bhuta-grama’, ‘collection of creatures’)
‘samyogat tisthati’ - iti, parasparopagrahakat samyogat 11 upastha
svartha-kriyam kurvat na visakalitath bhavati. “They must all 10 sabda-tanmatra
hang together, or will all hang separately”! 9 sparsa-tanmdtra
8 rupa-tanmatra
269 Carakasamhita 4.1.16
16 khadayah cetanasasthah dhatavah purusah smrtah \ 7 rasa-tanmatra
cetanadhatur apy ekah smrtah punisa-samjnakah \ \ 6 gandha-tanmdtra
17 punas ca dhatu-bhedena caturvimsatikah smrtah | 5 dkdsa
The word khadayah means, as Caraka himself would state 4 vayu
later on, the five Elements (bhuta-s) viz. kha, vayu, agni, ap, 3 tejas
and ksiti (=Ether, Air, Fire, Water, and Earth). These five
2 ap
dhatu-s (Basic Constituents) together with the Principle of
1 prthvl
Sentience (cetana) constitute pumsa. As pointed out
earlier, the quintessential item is the Sentient One
(cetanadhatu). For Cakrapani, the word cetana implies Table 94: The 24 Principles of Sankhya
samanaskah atma, the Self along with Mind; secondly, the
second idea that cetanadhatu alone is also “remembered” as The 24th item here is avyakta, an umbrella term
pumsa means that the author is only citing another school that includes purusa and prakrti (separately reckoning the
of thought (Sdstrantara-vyavaharanurodhat). Caraka himself two, it is more common to speak of the purusa as the 25th
points out later(in 4.1.36) that due to the involvement of in Sankhya).
rajas and tamas, the samyoga(pumsa) will have endless
possibilities rajas-tamobhydm yuktasya samyogo’yam
anantavan |

130 Padartha - - Vijnana 131

11. Atman
Now the purusa has been called karma-purusa or
cikitsya-purusa on the basis of the explicit statement of
SuSruta to that effect270.
Again, Caraka notes how the conjunction of six
constituents constitute the purusa-, whence purusa can also
be referred to as a sextet, the sad-dhatvatmaka-purusa211.
Elsewhere, the same purusa of the half-a-dozen
constituents, or the 24th Entity is termed ra$i-samjhaka, or
even samyoga-purusa, pitted hence against Paramatman.
The contrast is that the former is triggered by the causal
concatenation - of Delusion(mo/w), Relish and
Repulsion(icc/ifl and dvesa), and the consequent actions
(karman); whereas the latter is beginningless (anadi),
hence uncaused272.
270 Susrutasamhita 3.1.16
sa esa karma-pumsah cikitsadhikrtah \
271 Carakasamhita 4.5.4
prthivy-apas-tejo vayur akaiath brahma cavyaktam id, ete eva
ca sad-dhatavah samuditah “purusa”id Sabdam labhante \
272 Carakasamhita 4.1.35, 36 & 53
35 buddhindriya-mano ’rthdnam vidyad yogadharamparam \
caturvimfatiko hyesah raSih purusa-samjhakah \ \
36 rajas-tamobhydm yuktasya samyogo’yam anantavan \
(tabhyam nirakrtabhyam tu sattvavrddhya nivartate\ \)
53 prabhavo na hyanaditvad vidyateparamatmanah \
puruso rdsi-sarhjhas tu moheccha-dvesa-karmajah \ \
The trinity of raga, dvesa, and moha finds mention in
Nyayasutra also (4.1.3)
tat trairafyam raga-dvesa-mohantarabhavat \
The usage here of rasi could have triggered the concept of
the rcrfi-sariyhaka-purusa. Also read Carakasamhita 4.1.37-
38
132 Padartha •
11. Atman
Existence of purusa
Whether it is the tridanda analogy or sad-dhatuka
idea or caturvimtodka concept, one invariable component
of all these is that of the Self (purusa) - sometimes
deemed as the most essential one. Doubts have been
raised, and ably answered in Sankhya texts as well as
Ayurvedic works, regarding the actual existence of the
purusa.
In the course of establishing purusa, both via
positiva and via negativa methods are resorted to. What
items are explained by accepting the existence of the
purusa are discussed. What consequences arise by
assuming or imagining the non-existence of purusa are
also explained.
The ideas of karman, the fruit (phala) of action, etc
are explicable only upon this acceptance of the Self. The
ideas of delusion, joy and sorrow, and even life and death
are accountable only thus273.
Caraka raises the issue of “the case of a
nonexistent purusa”, and shows the absurdities it leads to.
The ideas of Originality and Dullness (bhah and tamah),
the Vedas and the auspicious / inauspicious karman-s, the
notion of the Agent (kartr) and knowers (boddha ca) will
all prove useless. Caraka prepares a big list of such
contingencies, out of which we may mention but a few
273 Carakasamhita 4.1.37
atra karma phalarh cdtra jhanam cdtra pratisthitam \
atra mohah sukham duhkham jivitam maranam tatha \
Cakrapani is careful enough to add here that jhana can be
possible only to one who is indifferent, which is to say the
25 th tattva.
- Vijhana 133
11. Atman
here: the Knowledge of the Sastra-s , ideas of bandha and
moksa will all get nullified274.
Two Analogies
Apart from showing how such notions can lead to
absurdities, Caraka continues his reductio ad absurdum via
two strong analogies. As Cakrapani notes, the two
analogies are important for establishing an important
thesis275.
Should somebody try to assert that the Faculties
(karana-s) by themselves could coagulate and constitute
the body, it is tantamount, he argues, to saying that a pot
gets done by means of the mud (mrt), the staff(danda) and
the wheel(at^ra), all by themselves - even without a
potter (kumbhakara); equally, a house would get built by
mud, grass (tma) and wood {kastha) all by themselves,
bereft of the constructor of the house (grhakara).
Any such assertion can spring only out of
ignorance. It would have the basis neither of proper logic
(yukti) nor Scriptural authority(<2garaa)276. The contrary
274 Carakasamhitd 4.1.39 & 40
39 bhas-tamah satyam anrtarh vedah karma subhasubham \
na syuh karta ca boddhd ca pumso na bhaved yadi \
40 ndSrayo na sukham nartir na gatir nagatir na vak |
na vijhdnam na sdstrdni na janma maranam na ca \
na bandho na ca moksah syat pumso na bhaved yadi \ \
275 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.43)
atmanam vina sanranutpade drstanta-dvayam prameya-
gauravadaha \
276 Carakasamhitd 4.1.43-44
43 krtam mrd-danda-cakrai$ ca kumbhakarad lie ghatam \
134 Padartha -
11. Atman
position has its sanction both from the Scriptures and the
other valid sources of Knowledge (pramana)211.
Nihilism Refuted
Caraka presents and refutes the view of the
nastika-s, ( kecit - who are actually Buddhists, as
confirmed by Cakrapani, the commentator). The view of
momentary existence of entities and momentary
replacement by similar-looking (tatsadrSa) entities serially
(paramparya) does not hold water278. To argue that one
does some deed and another one arrives to eat its fruit
does not sound logical279.
Caraka furnishes further proofs to strengthen his
case. Conceding easily to the momentary thesis
(nimesakdlad bhavdnam) and in fact, building upon it, he
krtam mrt-trna-kdsthaii ca grhakarad vina grham \ \
44 yo vadet sa vaded deham sambhuya karanaih krtam \
vina kartdram ajhanad yukty-agama-bahiskrtah \ \
277 Carakasamhitd4.1.45
kdranam punisah sarvaih pramanair upalabhyate |
yebhyah prameyam sarvebhyah agamebhyah pramiyate \ |
Commenting on this verse, Cakrapani derives dgama as
agamayanti (=bodhayanti) iti agamah \
278 Carakasamhitd 3.1
46 na te tatsadrsds tvanye pdrampaiya-samutthitah \
sariipydd ye ta eveti mrdisyante nava navdh 11
47 bhavas tesdm samudayo ninsah sattva-samjhakah \
karta bhokla na sa puman - iti kecid vyavasthitah \ \
279 Carakasamhitd 3.1.48
tesdm anyaih krtasydnye bhdvd bhavair navdh phalam \
bhuhjate sadrsdh praptam - yair dtmd nopadisyate |
- Vijnana 135
11. Atman
says that there is nothing to spur the destroyed things to
resume their earlier form and shape (bhagnanam na
punarbhavah). It stands to reason that one reaps just as
one sows. And this at least is the stand taken by the men
of wisdom (tattvavidam)2S0.
280 Carakasamhita 3.1
50 nimesa-kalad bhavanam kdlah fighrataro’tyaye \
bhagnanam na punarbhavah krtam nanyam upaiti ca 11
51 matam tattvavidam etadyasmat tasmat sa kdranam \
kriyopabhoge bhutanam nityah pumsa-samjhakah \ \
136 Padartha
CHAPTER 12
MANAS (MIND)
Definition
Annambhatta defines manas as the organ which
acts as the instrument of the cognition of pleasure and
kindred items281. For ViSvanatha it is the instrument for
realizing pleasure etc, no different from the definition of
Annambhatta282.
Kanada notes how joys and sorrows (sukha and
duhkha) spring from an alignment of the Self, the sense
281
Tarkasahgraha
sukhddy-upalabdhi-sddhanam indriyam manah |
Dissolve the first word here as
sukham adih yesam te sukhddayah \ sukhadindm upalabdhih
= sukhddy-upalabdhih | tasydh sadhancim = sukhddy-
upalabdhi-sddhanam |
The word upalabdhi is glossed as saksatkara.
Cf. Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasahgraha)
sukha-duhkhddi-sdksdtkdra-kdranatve sati indriyatvam
manaso laksanam \
282 Karikavali 85
saksatkaro sukhadindm karanam mana ucyate \
The words karana and sadhana are synonymous, as are
upalabdhi and saksatkara.
- Vijhana 137
12. Manas
organ(s), the mind, and the object283. While
Annambhatta mentioned sukha alone, Kanada added
duhkha; Upaskara adds jnana and prayatna etc. too, taking
Kanada's words as but upalaksana, “illustrative
instances”284.
The issue of the presence and absence of jnana is
taken up by Kanada285, and Caraka reiterates the same286.
283 Vaisesikasutra 5.2.15
atmendriya-mano'rtha-sannikarsdit sukha-duhkhe \
284 Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 5.2.15)
sukha-duhkhe prati manasah karanatvam - ityupalaksanam,
tena jhdna-prayatndidyapi \
285 Vaisesikasutra 3.2.1
atmendriyartha-sannikarse jhanasya bhdvo'bhdivas ca manaso
lihgam |
Cf. Nyayasutra 1.1.16
yugapaj-jhdndnutpattir manaso lihgam.
Gotama banks on the non-simultaneity of perceptions.
286 Carakasamhita 4.1.18
laksanam manaso jhdnasydbhdvo bhava eva ca |
sati hyatmendriyarthandm sannikarse na vartate | |
vaivrttydnmanasojhdnam sannidhydt tacca vartate | |
Describing the 24 entities (tattva-s), Caraka first takes up
manas, reflecting thereby its primary role. The idea of
Kanada and the idea of Caraka fully tally. Even when
atman and the indriydrtha, the perceiver and percipient,
have sannikarsa, proximity, perception may not come about;
for, the mediation of manas is the critical factor here. The
sannidhya, nearness and existence/function, of mind brings
about jhdnabhdva or jhdnotpatti, perception; whereas its
vaivrttya, non-function, blocks it, leading to ajhana. Read
Cakrapani
jhana-bhavabhavau jhdna-karandntaram darsayatah | yacca
138 Padartha
12. Manas
In Ayurveda
The word sattva is regularly used in Ayurveda for
manas, which is trans-sensory287. In order to refer to 'mind
and body', for example, Caraka uses the expression sattva-
Sarirayoh1**.
tat karanantaram tanmanah |
For the concurrence of Patanjali on this, read Mahabhasya
(on Astadhyayi 3.2.115):
manasd samyuktani indriyani upalabdhau karananani
bhavanti, manaso'sannidhydt na |
In the Sahkhya philosophy also this is well-recognised.
Thus, listing over half a dozen reasons for something not to
be perceived, Isvarakrsna makes out absence of mind as an
important cause. An absent-minded person is inattentive to
his very surroundings : Sahkhyakdrikd 7 : atidurdt samipyad
indriyaghatat mano’navasthanat. The vital role of mind is
also stated in a via positiva manner by Caraka thus :
Carakasamhita 1.8.7
manah-purahsardni indriyani arthagrahana-sarmarthani
bhavanti |
287
Carakasamhita 1.8.4
atindriyam punar-manah sattva-samjhakam \ cetah ityahur
eke |
288 Cf. Carakasamhita 4.4.33
nirvikarah parastvatma satva-bhiitanam niivisesah \ sattva-
sanrayos tu viSesad viiesopalabdhih \
Cf. Carakasamhita 1.1.42
farirendriya-sattvdtma-samyogo dhdri jivitam \
-
Vijtiana 139
12. Manas
Reckoning factors that vitiate the body and the
mind, Caraka says that two factors vitiate sattva, the mind,
289
viz. rajas and tamas .
The mind has no sentience but is nevertheless
active290. There is an Impeller (cetayita) of the mind, and
animated by the Impeller alone can the mind act. And for
this reason - going, that is, beneath the surface - it is that
Impeller alone that can be justly spoken of as the Agent,
kartr191.
Were there no Impeller who is also the Controller
('va&in), there would be no withdrawal of mind at will292.
289 Carakasarhhita 4.4.34
dvau punah sattvadosau rajas tamaf ca \ tau sattvarh
dusayatah \ tdbhydth ca sattva-Sarirabhyarh dustabhyarh
vikrtir upajayate nopajdyate capradustabhyam \
Cf. Carakasamhita 4.2.38
rajas-tamobhyam hi mano'nubaddham |
290 Carakasarhhita 4.1.75
acetanarh kriyavacca manah
291 Carakasarhhita 4.1.75
cetayita parah |
yuktasya manasa tasya nirdisyante vibhoh kriyah \
76 cetanavan yata.fcdtmd tatah karta nimcyate \
acetanatvdcca manah kriyavadapi nocyate \ \
The commentator Cakrapani supplies the missing word
“adhyahdra” in the last line viz. kartr, which amounts to
saying kriydvat api manah kartr nocyate - active though the
mind is, is not [to be] spoken of as the Agent, for the reason
that it lacks sentience.
292 Carakasarhhita 4.1.78
vaSi cetah samadhatte \
Cakrapani explains well:
140 Padartha -
12. Manas
Taking this factor of their regulation of mind to the state
of supreme concentration called samadhana, the Yogin
can perceive even inhibited objects293. This has come to be
looked upon as an exceptional situation for the reason
that the mind is all the time (nitya) under limitations,
highly circumscribed, for the actions are such in fact,
confining it to but a body294.
The condition of the mind figures as a factor even
in the definition of health295. Mental ailments are best
handled through the expansion of knowledge, cultivation
of courage, improvement in concentration, and so on296.
aniste'rthe va.fi san ayarh mano nivartayati \ yadi hyayarh va.fi
na syat, na mano nivartayiturh .fakmtydi \
293 Carakasarhhita 4.1.80
manasas ca samadhanat pafyatyatma tiraskrtam \
Cf. NageSa says
sarva-vrtti-nirodhena yoginam sarva-vastu-jhanam |
If the mind is well-focused, as in the case of the Yogin-s, it is
possible even to probe another's mind - called cetaso
jhanath - among the 8 powers that the Yogin obtains.
Carakasarhhita 4..140-141. .ft i ddh a -sattva -sa m d dh dndt
tatsarvam upajayate \ manah sahksipya cahcalam | ... sarva-
bhavan pariksate \ \ Also Cf. Carakasarhhita 4.3.21-22
294
Carakasarhhita 4.1.81
nityanubandham manasa deha-karmanupatina |
sarva-yonigatam vidyad ekayonavapi sthitam \ \
Such actions as lead to take newer bodies - newer births to
wit (<dehakarma) - limit the mind temporally and spatially.
Contrast nitya and sarva with these two respectively.
295 Susrutasamhita 1.15.41
samadosah samdgniS ca samadhatu-mala-kriyah |
prasannatmendriya-manah svastha ityabhidhiyate \ |
296 Cf. manaso jhdna-vijhana-dhaiiya-smrti-samddhibhih |
- Vijhana 141
12. Manas 12. Manas

Synonyms and Etymology (lit: atomicity)), and its unitary nature {ekatva). These two
Amarasimha lists half a dozen words as synonyms features are deduced on the basis of the fact that
of mind297, noted below. simultaneous knowledges are not possible, which would
rather be possible were the mind all-encompassing or
1 cittam multiple300.
2 cetah
In the situation of transmigration, it is the mind
3 hrdayam
which plays an important role, to the accompaniment of
4 svantam
the 4 bhuta-s, the Elements301.
5 hrt
6 manasam Mind has five objects, called artha-s302, tabulated in
7 manah,
Table 96.

Table 95 : Sanskrit Synonyms for Mind

The word mams, of these, is derived from Vman298.

Attributes
The most easily notable attribute of mind is that it
is fickle (cahcala)299. Two features of the mind are
categorically stated by Caraka viz. its subtleness (anutva
(lit: atomicity)), and its unitary nature {ekatva). These two
297
Amarakosa
cittam tu ceto hrdayam svantam hm-manasam manah \
298 Dhatupatha mentions two roots mana inane and manu
avabodhane from both of which manas can be derived. The
two roots being more or less synonymous, there is little
difference in the semantics. Dissolve :
manyate jhayate anena - iti manah (thus a karana-vyutpatti)
300 The argument of Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 4.1.19 :
anutvam atha caikatvam dvau gnnau manasah smrtau)
to this effect may be cited here:
if (1) tacca karanam manoriipam yadi atmavad yugapat
sarvendriya-vyapakam svikriyate;
if (2) kimva aneka-sahkhyam indriyavat svikriyate
Then (1) punar api yugapad indriyartha-sambandhe
pahcabhir jhanair bhavitavyam vibhuna va manasa.
Then (2) anekair va manobhih yugapad-adhisthitatvad
indriyanam.
As neither happens na ca bhavanti yugapaj-jhanani tasmad
yugapaj-jhananudayat lihgat, the conclusion is
mano'nurupam ekam ca siddhyati
301 Carakasamhita 4.2.31
bhutaih caturbhih sahitah susuksmaih manojavo deham
upaiti dehat 11

299 Cf. Carakasamhita 4.3.21 302 Carakasamhita 4.1.20

manah (samksipya) cahcalam | cintyam vicaryam lihyam ca dhyeyam sahkalpyam eva ca \
Cf. BhagavadgUa 6.34 yat kihcit manaso jheyam tat sarvam hyarthasamjhakam \ \
cahcalam hi manah (krsna) Beyond these is the realm of the Intellect.
142 Padartha - Vijnana 143
 12. Manas
12. Manas

The treatment of bodily ailments can be through

what have been called daiva-vyapa$raya-bhesaja and yukti-
cintya things to be kartavyaml
vyapairaya-bhesaja, but when it comes to mental ailments,
thought over akartavyam iti
it is essentially through proper mental exercises, and
vicarya things to be upapannam/
increasing understanding30 . Sattvavajaya or conquest of
checked for sensibility anupapannam iti
mind is the cure for the mental ailments, and consists in
iihya things to be sambhavyam
primarily withdrawing the mind from matters that are
conjectured baleful306.
dhyeya things to be bhavanayd jneyam
Prescribing the recipe for never falling ill, Caraka
contemplated suggests certain measures, a majority of which are mental
sankalpya things to be gunavat/dosavat iti habits and cultivations. One is advised to be circumspect
ascertained
Most of the diseases are psychosomatic. Some can be, as
Table 96 :Artha-s (Objects) of Maww(Mind)
Cakrapani notes, merely somatic or merely psychic. He
gives kustha as an example for the merely bodily, and kama
for the merely mental, and unmada for both bodily and
The Functions of Mind mental, ailment.
kusthadayah Sarira eva, kdmadayas tu manasah,
Caraka says manas has 4 functions303 listed below. unmadadayaS ca dvayacrayah |

indriyabhigraha control of the senses 305 Carakasamhita 1.1.58

pratemyatyausadhaih purvo daiva-yukti-vyapaSrayaih \
svanigraha self-control
manaso jhdna-vijhdna-dhairya-smrti-samddhibhih \ |
uha conjectures
Cakrapani gives balimahgaladi as an example for daiva-
vicara deliberation vyapasraya-bhesaja and saiModhana-saiMamana as that for
yukti-vyapdAraya-bhesaja. His explanations, for the five
Table 97 : Functions of Manas means are thus:
jhanam = adhyatma-jhanam (Knowledge of the Self);
Diseases can be at the level of the body or the vijhanam = Sdstra-jhanam (Knowledge of the Treatises);
mind, and so can happiness be304. dhairyam = anunnatih cetasah (steadiness of mind);
smrtih = anubhiitartha-smaranam (memory);
303 Beyond these four is the Realm of the Intellect, says Caraka. and samadhih = visayebhyo nivartya atmani manaso
Carakasamhita 4.1.21 niyamanam (withdrawal of mind from sensual objects and
tatah param buddhih pravartate \ its restriction but to the Self).

304 Carakasamhita 1.1.55 306 Carakasamhita 1.11.54

Sariram sattvasamjham ca vyadhinam aSrayo matah \ tatha sattvavajayah punah ahitebhyo'rthebhyo manonigrahah |
sukhanam \ \
- Vijhana 145
144 Padartha -

12. Manas
in action (samiksyakari), be unaddicted to pleasures
(visayesvasaktah), generous, equanimous, patient, and
serving apta-s (men of age and wisdom)307; the mind and
the intellect should be properly attuned, directed towards
knowledge, austerity(tapa.v), and yoga .
If the mind is ailing from bad conditions such as
jealousy, even food will not be well-digested309.
The mind thus plays a vital role in creating and
maintaining excellent health.
Location of Manas
There is some debate regarding the location of
mams. There are two theories, one claiming that the locus
is the heart, and the other that it is the brain.
307 Carakasamhita 4.2.46
naro hitahdra-viharasevi samiksyakan visayesvasaktah |
data samah satyaparah ksamavan aptopasevi ca bhavaty
arogah 11
308 Carakasamhita 4.2.47
matir vacah karma-sukhanubandham sattvam vidheyam
viSada ca buddhih \
jhanam tapah tatparata ca yoge yasyasti tarn nanupatanti
rogah 11
1AQ
Says Mddhavanidana :
irsya-bhaya-krodha-pariplutena lubdhena mg-dainya-
nipiditena |
pradvesa-yuktena ca sevyamanam annam na samyak
paripakam eti \ |
146 Padartha
12. Manas
Bhela says that the brain is the source of manas
(mind)310. Another statement of Bhela himself notes the
spot as the citta (heart)311.
In the Atharvaveda, there is a statement linking the
brain and the mind312.
The word hrdaya itself is sometimes used to stand
for the navel (ndbhi), as in SuSruta313. Caraka notes that
the head (Siras) is where all the vital breaths and all the
310 Siras-talvantaragatam sarvendriyaparam manah \
tatrastham taddhi visayan indriyanam rasadikan 11
samipasthan vijanati tiin bhavandca niyacchati \
tanmanah-prabhavam capi sarvendriyamayam balam \ \
311 karanam sarva-buddhinam cittam hrdaya-samsthitam \
kriyanam cetasam capi cittam sarvasya karanam \ |
Cf. Mddhavanidana 20.5 buddher nivasam hrdayam
pradusya... pramohayantyaSu narasya cetah |
312 Atharvaveda 10.2.27
tadva atharvanah Siro devako&ah samubjitah \
tat prano abhi raksati tiro annamatho manah 11
313 Susrutasamhita 1.14.3
aneka-gunasyopayuktasyaharasya samyak-parinatasya yas
tejobhutah sarah parama-suksmah sa rasa ityucyate \ tasya
hrdayam sthanam \ sa hrdayat caturvimfati-dhamanih
anupraviSya urdhvaga dasa adhogaminyah catasraSca
tiryaggdh krtsnam Sariram aharahah tarpayati vardhayati
dharayatiyapayatica...
Also Susrutasamhita 3.9.3
caturvimiatir dhamanyo nabhi-prabhava abhihitah |
3.9.4 tasam tu khalu nabhi-prabhavanam dhamariinam
urdhvaga dasa, date cadhogaminyah, catasrah tiryaggdh \
Cf. Bhavaprakasa 1.3.264
dhamanyo nabhito jatah caturvirnSati-sankhyayd |
dafordhvagah daSadhogah. Sesdh tiryaggatah smrtah 11
- Vijnana 147
-
12. Manas

sense organs take refuge314. SuSruta states that the hrdaya

is the most excellent site of life (cetana)3is.
Vedic and epic literature show how both the brain
and the heart have synchronized roles to play316. CHAPTER 13

GUNA (ATTRIBUTES)

Polysemy

The word for quality or property in Sanskrit is

guna. However the word is polysemic317. A concise
discussion of multiple senses of this word is taken up in
the Mahabhasya itself. He deals with 5 main senses318
listed in Table 98, along with some examples.

317 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 5.1.110)

guna-Sabdo’yam bahvarthah |
314 Carakasamhita 1.17
pranah prdnabhrtdm yatra sritdh sarvendriyani ca | 318 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 5.1.110)
yaduttamahgam ahganam Sirah tad abhidhiyate 11 (a) astyeva samesvavayavesu vartate \ tadyatha - dviguna
rajjuh, triguna rajjuh iti |
315 Susrutasamhitd 3.4.34 (b) asti dravya-padarthah \ tadyatha - gunavan ayam deiah -
hrdayam cetana-sthanam uktam suSruta dehinam |
ityucyate, yasmin gavah iasydni ca vartante |
Susrutasamhitd 3.4.31 (c) astyapradhane vartate \ tadyatha -yo’trapradhanam
tad [hrdayam] viSesena cetana-sthanam \ bhavati sa aha -gnnabhuta vayamatra \
Cf. Yogasutra 3.34 (d) astyacare vartate \ tadyatha - gunavan ayam brahmanah
hrdaye cittasamvit | - ityucyate, yah samyag-acaram karoti |
316 (Vedic) Atharvaveda 10.2.26 (e) asti samskare vartate \ tadyatha sarhskrtam annam
murdhanam atha samsivyatharva hrdayam ca yat \ ginavad - ityucyate \
mastiskad urdhvamprairayatpavamano’dhiSirsatah \ \ Cf. Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.50)
(Epic) Bhagavadgitd 8.12 apradhane ca gunasabdoyathd - ginibhuto’yam iti,
sarva-dvarani samyamya mano hrdi niradhya ca \ apradhanam ityarthah \
murdhny-adhayatmanah pranam asthito yoga-dharanam \ \
- Vijhana 149
148 Paddrtha -
13. Guna 13. Guna

13 dravatva fluidity
Sense Example 14 sneha viscosity
1 sama-avayava Limb dviguna rajjuh 15 Sabda sound
2 dravya Substance gunavan ayam 16 buddhi intellect
deiah 17 sukha pleasure
3 apradhana Subordination gunabhutah vayam 18 duhkha pain
atra 19 iccha desire
4 acara Conduct gunavan ayam
20 dvesa hatred
brahmartah
21 prayatna effort
5 samskara Quality samskrtam annam
22 dharma merit
gp.na.vat
23 adharma demerit
Table 98: Senses of guna and examples 24 samskara imprint

Table 99: List of 24 guna-s as per Annambhatta

List
1 rupa
Rather than attempting to define guna, 2 rasa
Annambhajta makes an exhaustive list of guna-s, 3 gandha
amounting to 24 in number. They are listed in Table 99. 4 sparto
5 sankhya
Name Idea 6 parimana
1 rupa form 7 prthaktva
2 rasa taste 8 samyoga
3 gandha odour 9 vibhaga
4 sparSa touch 10 paratva
5 sankhya number 11 aparatva
6 parimana magnitude 12 buddhi
7 prthaktva severality 13 sukha
samyoga 14 duhkha
8 conjunction
9 vibhaga 15 iccha
disjunction
paratva 16 dvesa
10 priority
17 prayatna
11 aparatva posteriority
12 gurutva heaviness
150 Padartha - - Vijndna 151
13. Guna 13. Guna

Table 100 : List of 17 guna-s as per Kanada
Kanada originally listed only 17, shown in Table
100.
From a comparison of the two Tables, we can
deduce the 7 items added to the Kanada-list by
Annambhatta, which are shown here:
The definition offered by grammarians agrees
largely with the above definitions321. That guna has no
independent existence is illustrated by an example by
Kaiyata : When you say “Bring the white [one]”, you
necessarily have to bring a white cloth or such; not
otherwise522.

1 gurutva In Ayurveda
2 dravatva
3 sneha The primary role of Ayurveda is to change a living
4 iabda being from a diseased state to a healthy state. This can be
5 dharma effected by means of administering medicines, for the
6 adharma selfsame Properties (guna) that are in Substances(dravya)
7 samskara are also the ones in the body also, as SuSruta states323. It is

Table 101: 7 items added to the List of Kanada

ViSvanatha defines guna, Attribute, as what resides
in substances (dravya), and is itself attributeless and
actionless319. The definition given by Kanada has the same
purport320.
,l9 Karikavali 86
atha dravyaMta jheyd nirguna niskriya gunah \
320 Vaisesikasutra 1.1.16
dravyaSrayi agunavan samyoga-vibhagesu akaranam
anapeksa iti guna-laksanam |
explained by the commentator thus (Upasktira):
samyoga-vibhagesv anapeksah san kdranam yo na bhavati, sa
gunah
152 Padartha
321 Mahdbhasya (on Astadhyayi 4.1.44) There are two definitions
in the form of verses ($loka-vartika-s)
(a) sattve niviiate 'paiti prthag jatisu drfyate \
adheyaScakriyajaSca so’sattvaprakrtirgunah \ \
(b) upaity anyajjahaty anyad drsto dravyantaresvapi \
vacakah sarva-lihganam dravyad anyo gunah. smrtah \ |
322 Pradipa (on Mahdbhasya (on Astadhyayi 5.1.59))
kiklam anaya -ityukte kriyayam dravya-paratantram -
dravya-anayanam antarena guna-anayana-asambhavad - iti
Sauklyam gunah \
Cf. Mahdbhasya (on Astadhyayi 5.1.119)
kith punar dravyam ke gunah ? sa bda -spa rsa - rftpa - ra sa -
gandha gunah, tato’nyad dravyam \
Cf. Vakyapadiya 3.5.1
323 Susrutasariihitd 1.41.12
guna ya ukta dravyesu Sariresvapi te tatha \
sthana-vrddhi-ksyayas tasmad dehinam dravya-hetukah \ \
Juxtapose this with Susrutasamhita 1.46.526
paheabhutatmake dehe hyaharah pancabhautikah \
-
- Vijnana 153
13. Guna
13. Guna

owing to this essential consubstantiality of the body of

natural elements and the body of living beings that it is
possible to assert that there is nothing in the universe that
cannot act the role of a medicine324.
As Caraka notes the material things are
modifications of the Five Elements (bhuta-s) and the
aspects perceived are the Attributes {guna-s) . As
vipakvah pahcadhd samyag gundn svdn abliivardhayet | |
This verse speaks of the essential assimilability of the
elements within and without, as too, their properties. On a
global scale, the eaten “becomes” the eater. Stated
technically, the saumya can become agneya.
Cf. Taittiriya Upanisad 2.2.1
adyate’tti ca bhutdni tasmdd annam taducyate
Cakrapani spells out, Sabda is the modification (parindma)
of akaSa etc326. Presenting the purport of the statement of
Caraka, he says that whatever we can hear is at once
Space and Sound {akasa and Sabda), and so on327.
The definition given by Caraka is concordant with
that provided by the VaiSesika-s. Guna is an Intimate
Cause (samavayi-karana) and itself actionless328.
Guna-s - Number and Types
Caraka groups guna-s into three subgroups329
shown in Table 102.

324 Susrutasamhita 1.41.5

anena nidartonena ndnausadhibhutam jagati kincid dravyam
326 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.31)
astiti krtvay tam tarn yuktiviSesam artham ca abhisamiksya
dkd$a-parinama eva iabdah, vata-parinama eva sparfah -
svaviryaguna-yuktdni dravyani karmukani bhavanti | But of
ityadi darfatiam |
course the factors that need to be reckoned with are many :
kala/karma/vuya/adhikarana/upaya/phala. Also Cf. the 327 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.31)
famous maxim etena yat frotra-grahyam tat sarvam dkd&am $abda§ ca | yat
(amantram aksaram ndsti) ndsti mulam anausadham | spar&ena grhyate tat sarvam vayuh sparsaS ca - ityadi jheyam |
(ayogyah puniso ndsti) yojakas tatra durlabhah | |
328 Carakasamhitd 1.1.51
Also Cf. Carakasamhitd 1.26.12
samavayi tu niScestah karanam gunah |
anenopadesena nanausadhibhutam jagati kincid dravyam
The word samavayi is well-explained by Cakrapani.
upalabhyate, tam tam yuktimf ailham ca tam tam abhipretya |
Substances {dravya) can also be called samavayin, and there
Here Cakrapani elucidates anenopadesena by the
is a difference between the way dravya-s can be samavayin,
expression pratiniyata-dravya-gunopadefena; in other words,
and a guna can be one. So he says elucidatorily : samavayiti
it has been taught here how the properties / attributes of
samavayadheyah |... na hyakaSadayah samavayadheyah |
Substances {dravya-s) are fixed each to the other
Similarly ‘niScestah’ marks guna off from karman, as also
(pratiniyata), and there is no element of indefiniteness/
murta-dravya-s; and ‘karanam' marks it off from samanya,
uncertainty/ unpredictability. The Laws of Nature, it is as
viSesa, and samavdya. He also qualifies karanam further.
much to say, are not arbitrary.
329 Carakasamhitd 1.1.49
325 Carakasamhitd 4.1.31
sartha gurvadayo buddhih prayatnantah paradayah \ gunah
arthdh sabdadayo jheydh gocarah visayah gunah \
proktah | |
154 Padartha -

- Vijnana 155
13. Guna 13. Guna

Commenting on Caraka, Cakrapani supplies labels

(a) Vaisesika List
for the all-exhaustive subgroups of guna-s . They are
listed in Table 103. The VaiSesika guna-s may thus be listed:

1 gurvadi guna-s beginning with guru 1 sabda

2 buddhih guna-s from buddhi to 2 spar&a
prayatnantah prayatna , 3 rupa
3 paradayah guna-s beginning with para 4 rasa
5 gandha
Table 102 : Subgroups of guna-s as per Caraka
Table 104: Vaisesika guna-s

1 vaifesika-guna
2 samanya-guna
3 atma-guna
Table 103 : Classification of guna-s as per Cakrapani
Certain guna-s are Vaisesika, ‘unique’.. Thus Sabda
is the guna, predominantly of akasa alone; sparto
predominantly of vayu alone; and so on331.
If other qualities
* are also found, it is because of the
interpenetration of bhuta-s" .
(b) Gurvadi List of Pairs
The gurvadi-guna-s are 20 in number, and may
actually be shown as 10 pairs of opposite features333 .
All these, Cakrapani notes, are Common
Attributes (sadharana-guna-s), as they are common to
Earth etc334.
332 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.49)
anya-gunanam canyatra darSanam bhiitdntardnupraveSdt |
vacanam hi uvistam hyaparam parena | ” (Nyayasutra 3.1.66)

333 The list provided by Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.49)

330 Cakrapani (on Carakasarhhitd 1.1.49)
anena trividhd api vaisesikah samdnya atma-gundS
coddistah |
331 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.49)
ete ca vaisesikah yatah dkdSasyaiva Sabdah pradhdnyena,
vayor eva sparSah pradhdnyena \ evam agnyadisu rupadayah \
The word vaiSesika here, it must be warned, has nothing to
do with VaiSesika philosophy.
156 Padartha
must actually be traced to Carakasamhita 1.25.36 in the
context of discussion about food. As Cakrapani notes :
guru-laghavadayo yugmah paraspara-virodhino jheyah \
It would be more appropriate to call gumtva etc. as guna
(i.e heaviness etc) - in their abstract noun form, that is.
Cf. Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.12.4)
niksadayo bhdva-pradhanah \ tena mksatvadayo guna
mantavydh \
Also note his use of “laghava” in lieu of “laghu” in the
previous quote (on Carakasamhita 1.25.36)
-
157
Vijhana
13. Guna 13. Guna

The paradi list consisting of 10 items is presented

heavy guru 1 2 laghu light above335:
cold Sita 3 4 usna hot While the previous list of gurvadi items had to do
unctuous snigdha 5 6 ruksa rough with the quality of food (ahara), this list has to do with
dull manda 7 8 tiksna sharp rasa-s336.
firm sthira 9 10 sara transient
soft mrdu 11 12 kathina hard
limpid visada 13 14 picchala viscous (d) Budhyadi List
smooth Slaksna 15 16 khara coarse
gross sthula 17 18 suksma subtle Cakrapani considers that the word buddhi is not to
dense sandra 19 20 drava liquid be taken as ‘knowing’ pure and simple, but in all its
particular modes/aspects (viSesa / prakara) alongside listed
Table 105: gurvadi-guna-s below337.
1 buddhi
2 smrti
(c) Paradi List -* 3 cetana
4 dhrti
1 paratva superiority
5 ahahkara
2 aparatva inferiority
+ etc
3 yukti aptness in application
4 sankhya enumeration
Table 107: buddhi and Cognate Items
5 samyoga combination
6 vibhaga division
7 prthaktva separation j35 The list obtains in Carakasamhitd 1.26.29-30.
8 parimana magnitude 336 Cf. Cakrapani (on Carakasamhitd 1.26.29)
9 samskara modification paratvaparatvadin daSagunan rasa-dharmatvenopadestavyan
10 abhydsa repetition aha
J
337 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhitd 1.1.49)
Table 106: paradi-guna-s buddhih jhanam | anena ca smrti-cetana-dhrti-
ahankarddinam buddhi-viSesanam grahanam |
Also Cf. Cakrapani (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.72)
atra yadyapi buddhi-iabdena cetana-dhrti-smrty-ahahkdrdh
334 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhitd 1.1.49) prapyanta eva baddhi-prakaratvena, tathapi prthak-prthag
ete ca samanya-gunah, prthivyadinarh sadhdranatvdt | artha-gamakatvena punah prthag updttdh \

158 Padartha - - Vijnana 159

13. Guna 13. Guna

(e) Prayatnanta List

1 rupa
The expression prayatnantah (in Carakasamhita 2 rasa
1.1.49) actually has reference to a later section of 3 sparSa
Carakasamhita from where we get a list of another five 4 gandha
items338, shown below. 5 paratva
6 aparatva
1 iccha 7 dravatva
2 dvesa
8 sneha
3 sukha
9 vega
4 duhkha
5 prayatna Table 109: List of murta-guna-s

Table 108 : prayatnanta items

(g) Amurta List

ViSvanatha makes some groupings of the guna-s. i dharma

They are provided here as different lists. Some of them339 2 adharma

are 3 bhavana
(a) list of miirta-guria-s 4 Sabda
(b) list of amurta-guna-s 5 buddhyadi
(c) list of murtamurta-guna-s
(d) list of vatfesika-guna-s Table 110: List of amurta-guna-s
(e) list of samanya-guna-s
(f) list of karmaja-guna-s (h) Murtamurta List
*

(f) Miirta List 1 sahkhya

2 parimana
3 prthaktva
338 Carakasamhita 4.1.72 4 samyoga
iccha dvesah sukham duhkham prayatnaS cetand dhrtih \ 5 vibhaga
buddhih smrtir ahankdro lingani paramatmanah \ \
These items are shown as marks of punisa. Table 111: List of murtamurta-guna-s
339
Kdrikavali gives some ten more classifications and lists.

160 Padartha - - Vijhana 161

13. Guna 13. Guna

(i) Karmaja List (A) Samanya-guna-s

1 samyoga As there are 10 pairs of opposite qualities, we will

2 vibhaga take them pair by pair.
3 vega
(i) Gurutva and dravatva
Table 112: List of karmaja-guna-s

(j) Vaisesika List - 2

Annambhatta defines gurutva (Gravity) as the Non¬
intimate Cause (asamavayi-karana) of the first falling
1 buddhi
down340. He defines dravatva (Viscidity) as the Non¬
2 sukha
intimate Cause of the first flow341.
3 duhkha
4 iccha While gurutva resides in Earth and Water only,
5 dvesa dravatva resides in Fire also342.
6 prayatna The role of adya, ‘first’, in both the definitions is to
7 rupa avert the definition being applicable to vega, ‘speed’,
8 rasa which is said to be responsible for the fall or the flow from
9 gandha the second moment onwards.
10 spar&a
The descriptive definition provided by Kanada is
11 dravatva
“Falling is owing to Gravity, provided there is no
Table 113 : List of vaisesika-guna-s blockage”343. The blockage is as when a fruit is still

(k) Samanya List

340 Tarkasahgraha
1 sahkhya
adya-patana-asamavayi-kdranam gumtvam |
2 parimana
3 prthaktva
341 Tarkasahgraha
ddya-syandana-asamavdyi-karanam dravatvam |
4 samyoga
5 vibhaga 342 Tarkasahgraha
6 paratva [gumtvam]prthivl-jala-vrtti | and [dravatvam] prthivi-jala-
tejo-vrtti |
7 aparatva
Vaisesikasutra 5.1.7
Table 114: List of samanya-guna-s samyogabhave gumtvat patanam |

162 Padartha - - Vijhana 153

13. Guna 13. Guna

attached to the tree344. Similarly he says “Flow is due to SuSruta deals with 20 guna-s and their impact in the
liquidity”345. last chapter of Sutrasthana. Before dealing with them, he
makes a general remark to the effect that the guna-s
residing in varied dravya-s are inferable through their
There are two types under dravatva viz. Natural
actions347.
{samsiddhika) and Artificial (naimittika). The example for
the first is water, and of the second, melted ghee346. Of the guna-s he speaks thus of, gurutva
(Heaviness) imparts lackadaisicalness, increases exertion,
engenders strength, is appeasing and causes heftiness348.
344 As SankaramiSra explains, samyoga is a cover term for all (-
matra) blocking factors: Upaskara (on VaiSesikasutra 5.1.7) Dravatva, moistens349. For SnmiSrabhava, the guru items
samyoga-padena pratibandhaka-matram upalaksayati \ tone down vata, cause nourishment, increase Slesman and
He gives the examples of the fruit and the bird. The latter take long to digest350.
makes a sustaining effort (vidharakah prayatnah) so as not
to fall. In the next aphorism Kanada says that even
(ii) Laghutva and sandratva
samskara can prevent falling. Vaisesikasutra 5.1.8
sarhskarabhave gunitvat patanam \
Laghutva and sandratva do not figure in
where sariiskdra = vega. As the commentator says :
Tarkasahgraha.
Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 5.1.8)
gumtvam sarhskarena pratimddham patanam najijanat \ SuSruta dismisses laghutva with a simple remark
An example for water not so falling is when it is held in that its effects are the opposite of gurutva351. Denseness
check by the cloud : megha-samyogasyabhave as
makes it thick and strong .
Sarikaramisra puts it (in Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 5.2.3
apam samyogabhave gurutvat patanam))
347 SuSrutasamhitd 1.46.514
345 VaiSesikasutra 5.2.4
karmabhis tvanumiyante nanadravyaSrayah gtinah \
dravatvat syandanam
348 SuSrutasamhitd 1.46.518
346 VaiSesikasutra 2.1.6 cites sarpis,jatu, and madhiicchista
sada-upalepa-balakrd gumh tarpana-brmhanah \
requiring the application of heat in order to flow. 2.1.7 lists
The first word sada is explained as anga-gldni by Dalhana;
trapu, sisa, loha, rajata and suvarna, similarly. These have no
upalepa - malavrddhi. He interprets bala as Slesman.
samsiddhika-dravatva. Kaiyata makes a reference to the
melting of copper. 349 SuSrutasamhitd 1.46.520
Pradipa(on Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 2.2.29)) dravah prakledanah
vahni-sannidhdveva tamrarh dravanipam bhavati \
350 Bhavaprakasa 1.6.203
The example Sinam ghrlam given by Bhattoji ( under
gunir vataharam pusti-Slesmakrt cirapaki ca
Astadhyayi 6.2.24), shows their notice of
contraction/coagulation under cold, (and melting under 351 SuSrutasamhitd 1.46.519
heat, conversely). laghuh tadvipantah syat |
164 Padartha - - Vijhana 165

*
13. Guna
SuSruta notes drava as moistening353.
(iii) Slta and usna
SuSruta refers to Sita as gladdening and stupefying,
and alleviative of epilepsy, thirst, sweating and burning
sensation354. He refers to usna as having an opposite effect
as that oiiita, and also that it ripens wounds especially355.
(iv) Snigdha and ruksa
Snigdha is noted as causing oiliness and softness as
also strengthening and engendering the tone of skin
colour356. For BhavamiSra, it is invigorating.
Ruksa on the other hand is its antithesis. It is
essentially stupefying and imparts harshness to skin357.
352 Susrutasamhita 1.46.528
sandrah sthulah syad bandha-karakah |
353 Susrutasamhita 1.46.520
dravah prakledanah \
354 Susrutasamhita 1.46.515
hladanah stambhanah Sitah murccha-trt-sveda-daha-jit |
355 Susrutasamhita 1.46.515
usnas tadvipantah syad pdcana f ca viSesatah \
Dalhana says pacano vranadinam \
356 Susrutasamhita 1.46.516
sneha-mdrdava-krt snigdho bala-varnakaras tatha |
Cf. Bhavaprakasa 1.6.1.203
snigdham vataharam Slesmakari vrsyam balavaham \
357 Susrutasamhita 1.46.516
ruksas tadvipantah syat viSesat stambhanah kharah |
1^6 Padartha -
13. Guna
Sometimes snigdha is equated with sneha which
induces cohesiveness358.
(v) Picchila and visada
Picchila is animating, strengthening, and capable of
conjoining broken items, causing phlegm, and is difficult
to digest359.
Vtfada is its opposite, absorbing secretions and
healing360.
(vi) Tiksna and mrdu
Susruta describes tiksna as what causes burning
sensation and is maturatory and instigates oozing .
Cf. Bhavaprakasa 1.6.1.203
niksam samiranakaram param kaphaharam matam \
358 Cf. Tarkasahgraha
curnadi-pindibhava-hetuh gunah snehah \ jalamatra-vrttih \
359 Susrutasamhita 1.46.517
picchilo jivano balyah sandhanah Slesmo garuh \
Here Dalhana explains sandhanah by adding bhagnasya,
and in all likelihood bridges broken bones.
Bhavaprakasa 1.6.1.207
picchilah tantulo balyah sandhanah Slesmo giimh \
360 Susrutasamhita 1.46.517
viiado viparito’smat kledacusana-ropanah.
The word vipanta is elucidated by Dalhana as
asandhano jivano ’tiesi ca | Also, kledacusana is glossed as
ardribhava-vinasakarah |
Bhavaprakasa 1.6.1.208
kledacchedakarah khyato vi&ado vranaropanah \
- Vijhana 167
13. Guna 13. Guna

Mrdu is its contrary362.

(ix) Sthula and suksma
(vii) Slakstia and karkasa
Sthula fattens and blocks passages367.
Slaksna is akin to picchila363 and karkasa is akin to Suksma is that which can enter into even the small
viSadam. Sometimes karkaSa is taken akin to khara. orifices of the body368.

(viii) Sara and manda (B) Paradi guna-s

Sara acts on vata and acts as a laxative365. Manda is Caraka gives a general caution that if the paradi
not easily digested, hence causes pain366. items are not grasped well, medication cannot be well-
administered369.
361 Susrutasamhita 1.46.518
(i) Paratva and aparatva
daha-pakakarah tiksnah sravanah.
Cf. Bhdvaprakasa 1.6.1.204
Annambhatta notes these two together.
tiksnam pittakaram prayo lekhanam kapha-vata-hrt \
Posteriority and priority - “paratva” and “aparatva”
362 Susrutasamhita 1.46.518
mrdur anyatha | - are the Special Causes (asadharana-kdrana-s) for
For Dalhana, ‘anyatha’ means adaha-paka-karah and linguistic usages as “the posterior” and “the prior”' .
asravanah \ They reside in the four Substances commencing with the
Earth. They are of two types - Spatial and Temporal371.
363 Susrutasamhita 1.46.521
Thus we have 4 types, listed below.
Slaksnah picchilavat jrieyah.
As Dalhana remarks it is jivanah slesma-sandhdnakrt \
367 Bhdvaprakasa 1.6.1.209
364 SuSrutasamhita 1.46.521 sthidah sthaulyakaro dehe srotasam avarodhakrt \
karkaSo visado yalhd.
As Palhana adds it is ajivanah aSlesmi ca, and asandhana- 368 Bhdvaprakasa 1.6.1.210
dehasya suksma-cchidresu viSed yat siiksmam ucyate.
karfyakrcca |
Susrutasamhita 1.46.524
365 Susrutasamhita 1.46.522 suksmas tu sauksmyat suksmesu srotah svanusarah smrtah \
saro’nulomanah proktah \
For Dalhana, anulomana is vata-mala-pravartana. 369 Carakasamhita 1.26.35
370 Tarkasangraha
366 Susrutasamhita 1.46.522 pardpara-vyavahdra-asddhdrana-karane paraparatve \
mando ydtrakarah smrtah \
The word ydtrakara is explained as 371 Tarkasangraha
Sarira-sthayitvad dehasya yatram vartanam karoti \ te dvividhe - dik-krte kdla-krte ceti |

168 Padartha - - Vijnana 169

13. Guna
13. Guna

1 dik-krta-paratva There are 3 types of samyoga listed below377:

2 dik-krta-aparatva
3 kala-krta-paratva Type Basis Example
4 kala-krta-aparatva 1 anyatara- Action of fyena-faila- The vulture
karmaja- one of the samyoga and the
Table 115: paratva/aparatva: samyoga two parties mountain
Spatial and Temporal 2 ubhaya- Action of mesa- Two rams
karmaja- both sannipata- dashing
Kanada notes these and underscores that the
samyoga samyoga against each
spatial and temporal positions be first fixed before we
other
make comparisons372.
3 sarhyogaja- Conjunction taru- The tree and
sarhyoga based kumbha- the pot
(ii) Samyoga and vibhaga
samyoga
Conjunction (samyoga) is what is responsible for
Table 116: Types of samyoga
calling two things as united373. Disjunction(viMaga) is
what destroys Conjunction(samyoga)3 . When the bird is on the mountain, the samyoga is
For SarikaramiSra, samyoga is the coming together caused by the action of the bird alone, not of the
of things which were earlier separate375. ViSvanatha more mountain. When two rams collide in a fight, both act. The
or less reiterates the same thing376. tree has contact with but a potsherd, yet the pot itself is
said to be in conjunction with the tree378.

376 Karikavali 115

apraptayos tu yd praptih saiva samyoga iritah |
372 Vaisesikasutra 7.2.21
Cf. PraSastapada
eka-dikkabhyam ekakalabhyam sannikrsta-viprakrstdbhydm
samyogah sarhyukta-pratyaya-nimittam \
param aparam ca \
373 377 Vaisesikasutra 7.2.9
Tarkasahgraha
anyatara-karmajah ubhaya-karmajah samyogajaS ca
samyukta-vyavahara-hetuh samyogah \
samyogah |
374 Tarkasahgraha
378 Karikavali 115-117
samyoga-naSako guno vibhdgah |
kirtitah trividhaS caiva adyo’nyatara-karmajah |
375
Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 7.2.9) tayobhaya-kriya-janyo, bhavet samyogajo’parah 11
aprapti-piirvika praptih samyogah \ adimah fyena-failadi-samyogah parikirtitah |
mesayoh sannipatoyah sa dvitiya uddhrtah \ \
170 Padartha -
- Vijhana 171
13. Guna
Sometimes even the karmaja is divided into two
types, thus379:
1 abhighata striking causes sound
2 nodana pushing causes no sound
Table 117: Types of karmaja-samyoga
The grammarians need samyoga in no other
manner than the VaiSesika-s380.
The state that is created by destruction of
conjunction (samyoga) is what is meant by Disjunction
(vibhaga). As this is a state created by a specific action, it
is not a mere negation or absence of samyoga. Vibhaga,
like samyoga, is no action, but a state - hence a guna, not a
karman. Vibhaga is generated after, and is not
simultaneous with, samyoga-na&a. Like samyoga, vibhaga is
also divided into three381.
kapala-tam-samyogat sarhyogas taru-kumbhayoh \
trtiyah syat \ \
379 KarikdvaR 118-119
karmajo’pi dvidhaiva parikirtitah \
abhighato nodanam ca sabda-heturihadimah \
Sabdahetuh dvitiyah syat \ \
380 Cf. Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 5.1.38), Helaraja (on
Vakyapadiya 3.1.17)
381 KarikdvaR 119-120
vibhago’pi tridha bhavet \
eka-karmodbhavas tvadyah dvayakarmodbhavo’para’h \ \
vibhagajas trtiyah syat, trtiyo’pi dvidha bhavet |
hetu-matra-vibhagottho hetv-ahetu-vibhagajah 11
An example for ubhaya-karmaja-vibhaga in grammatical
172 Padartha
13. Guna
1 eka-karmodbhava
2 dvaya-karmodbhava
3 vibhagaja
Table 118: Types of vibhaga
Cakrapani elucidates the notion of vibhaga not just
being a negation of samyoga and being, on the other hand,
a positive entity (bhavarupa)™2.
(Iii) Sahkhya
Annambhatta defines sahkhya as what is
responsible for the usage viz. oneness etc383.
Sahkhya figures as the first among the ten
samanya-guna-s that reside in all padartha-s384.
For grammarians, sahkhya is what marks off the
quantum of things, as NageSa says'385. Bhartrhari also
literature is in Vakyapradipa 3.7.140 where two rams move
away from each other.
382 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.26.35)
vibhaktir ityesa bhavarupa pratitih | na samyoga-abhava-
matram bhavati \ kimtarhi bhavampa-vibhaga-gunayukta -
ityarthah \
383 Tarkasangraha
ekatvadi-vyavahara-hetuh sahkhya |
The wordings are straight from PraSastapada.
384 The list of the 10 gana-s obtains in KarikdvaR 90 :
sankhyadih aparatvantah dravah sarhsiddhikas tatha \
gunitva-vegau samanya-guna ete prakirtitah 11
Annambhatta says sahkhya is navadravya-vrtti, residing in all
the dravya-s.
- Vijndna 173

13. Guna
notes that all things have this attribute386. While physical
measures divide physical things, and while time divides
actions, number divides all387. The simple etymology of
sankhya finds a mention in Patanjali .
Caraka defines sankhya as counting . a reference to the same words pressed into service for
(iv) Parimana
Annambhatta defines it as the Special Cause for
the usage of measurement390. Like colour, dimension is
also readily perceived - says SankaramiSra391. Its
385 Uddyota (on Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 1.1.22))
niyata-visaya-pariccheda-hetur hi sankhya \
386 Vakyapadiya 3.11.1
sahkhyavan sarvabhiito’rthah sarva evabhidhiyate \
bhedabheda-vibhago hi loke sahkhyd-nibandhanah \ \
387 Vakyapadiya 3.9.2
disti-prastha-suvarnadi miirtibhedaya kalpate \
kriya-bheddya kalastu sankhya sarvasya bhedika \ \
388 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 1.1.22)
sahkhyayate’nayd sankhya \
389 Carakasarhhita 1.26.32
sankhya sydd ganitam \
Upon this Cakrapani glosses :
ganitam iha eka-dvi-tryadi \
390 Tarkasahgraha
mdna-vyavahdra-asddhdranam karanam \
The definition of PraSastapada, which Annambhatta draws
upon, does not have the word ‘asadharana’.
391 Upaskdra (on Vaisesikasutra 7.1.8)
sthido nilah kalasah -iti pratyaksika-pratyaye yatha riilam
riipam visayah, tathd parimanam iti \
174
13. Guna
perceptions are such as small/long/big/short - says
ViSvanatha392.
Kaiyata refers to the units such as are used for
measuring rice etc393. Patanjali refers to the invariance of
the standardized units of measurement394. Kaiyata makes
both the measure and the measured395.
Caraka briefly says it is a measure396, and
Cakrapani mentions some units of measurement397.
(v) Samskdra
Annambhatta furnishes no definition of samskdra.
Nor is it possible to translate it by a single word, for under
its head come very dissimilar items. He shows three
divisions - vega (Velocity), sthiti-sthapaka (Elasticity) and
392 Karikavali 109
parimanam bhaven-mana-vyavaharasya karanam |
anu dirgham mahad hrasvam - iti tadbheda iritah 11
393 Pradipa (on Mahabhasya {on Astadhyayi 5.1.19))
droha-parinahabhyam svagatabhyam dhanyadiyena miyate
kasthadimayena tat parimanam prasthadikam ucyate |
394 Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 1.1.72)
dronah khan adhakam iti naivadhike bhavanti, naiva nyiine |
395 Pradipa (on Mahabhasya (on Astadhyayi 5.1.119)) He refers
to the parimana and parimanin.
396 Carakasarhhita 1.26.34
parimanam punar manam
397 Cakrapani (on Carakasarhhita 1.26.34)
manam prastha-ddhaka-ddi-tula-adi-meyam |
- Vijhana 175
Padartha -

13. Guna
bhavana (Impression)398. The ideas are rather disparate
and betray no cohesion.
For Caraka, sarnskara is an instrument399. As
Cakrapani points out samskara imparts new guna-s400.
Caraka himself details the notion of samskaram.
(vi) Yukti
Caraka defines yukti as befitting employment402.
The concise statement of Caraka is explained by
398 Tarkasahgraha
samskarah trividhah -vego bhavana sthiti-sthapakaA ceti |
Under buddhi, we have the definition of smrti involving
samskara - as “sarhskdra-matra-janyarh jhanarh smrtih \ ”,
upon which Tarkadipika glosses samskara as bhdvanakhyah
samskarah \
399 Carakasamhita 1.26.34
samskarah karanam matam |
400 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.26.34)
karanam gunantaradhayakatvam samskaranam ityarthah \
401 Carakasamhita 3.1.21-2
karanam punah svabhavikanam dravyanam abhisathskarah \
sarhskaro hi gunantaradhanam ucyate \
He lists half a dozen factors that can impart sarnskara -
tegiinah toyagni-sannikarsa-$auca-manthana-de$a-kala-
vdsana-bhavanddibhih kala-prakarsa-bhdjanddibhiAca
adhiyante |
Thereon Cakrapani illustrates all these with examples. And
the ultimate sarnskara is dravyantara-janana (as of laja from
vrihi).
402 Carakasamhita 1.26.31
yuktiica yojana yd tu yujyate \
176 Padartha -
13. Guna
Cakrapani in some detail: certain balancing arrangement
needs to be made, pitted against some disadvantages or
demerits (dosadyapeksaya) in a medicine403.
Yukti finds no place in Tarkasahgraha and allied
texts for obvious reasons. However Sitikantha defines it as
presentation of supportive and negatory authorities404.
Mimamsaka-s deem it as a consideration of the propriety
of means and ends405.
(vii) Abhyasa
Caraka defines it as repeated action406. Actually
this can very well be subsumed under either samyoga or
403 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.26.31)
yojana dosady-apeksaya bhesajasya samicina-kalpana \
This justifies “yd tu yujyate” of the original. Sometimes
befitting combinations need to be made in medicines -
when alone it will be called yukti. Read
yd kalpana yaugiki bhavati sa tu yuktir ucyate \
If it is an ill-fitting combination, even if contrived, does not
deserve the label yukti - as it sometimes happens that even a
son is as though he is no son at all. Read
ayaugila tu kalpanapi satiyuktir nocyate -putro’pyaputravat.
Cakrapani also notes that yukti is subsumed under samyoga,
parimana, sarnskara etc. Yet it is mentioned separately as it
is highly useful. Read
yuktiA ceyam sarhyoga-parimdna-sarhskdrddy-antargatdpi
atyupayuktatvat prthag ucyate |
404 Tarkaprakdsa Ch.l
sadhaka-badhaka-pramanopanyasah yuktih |
405 They explain it as sddhya-sddhaka-lihga-jndnam \
406 Carakasamhita 1.26.34
bhavabhyasanam abhyasah Silanam satatam kriya \
- Vijnana 177
13. Guna
samskara as a special type; going however by its utility in
medication it deserves a separate mention - opines
Cakrapani407.
(C) Adhyatimika guna-s
(i) Buddhi
Annambhatta defines buddhi (Cognition) as
Knowledge, lying at the root of all communication408.
Pointing out how usage of words (vyavahara) necessarily
presupposes knowledge, Govardhana justifies the
definition in his commentary4()9. Sivadityacarya defines
buddhi as the illumination that resides in the Self410.
There is in fact some repetition, or rather tautology, in the
statement of Caraka - as noticed by Cakrapani himself:
abhyasanam eva lokaprasiddhabhyam paryayabhyam vivmoti
- Silanam satatam kriya - iti \ yam lokah filana-
satatakriyabhyam abhidadhati so’bhyasa iti bhavah |
407 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhitd 1.26.34)
ayam ca sarhyoga-sarhskara-viSesa-riipo ’pi vUesena
cikitsopayuktatvat prthag ucyate |
408 Tarkasahgraha
sarva-vyavahara-hetur jhanam buddhih \
409
Nyayabodhini
vyavaharah Sabda-prayogah \ jhanam vina Sabda-
prayogdsambhavat, Sabda-prayoga-riipa-vyvahdra-hetutvam
buddher laksanam |
Cf. Bdlamanoramd (on Astadhyayi 1.3.47)
jnatva vyavaharatiti phalitam \
410 On the one hand this conforms to the definition of atman by
Annambhatta as jnanddhikaramv, and on the other, the
178 Padartha -
13. Guna
For Gotama, the three words buddhi, upalabdhi,
and jhana are synonymous411.
Caraka considers buddhi as one among the items of
adhyatma-dravya/guna412. The perceptions of the sense
organs are also known as indriya-buddhi-s413.
Delineating the process of Perception, Caraka
refers to the Knowledge that is generated as pratyaksam
when perception takes place, the final step is the
determination by the intellect, which is followed by
intelligent speech/action415.
explanation of this definition by Jinavardhana has its own
illumination:
ajndndndhakdra-tiraskdra-kdraka-sakala-paddrthasya
arthaprakaSakah pradipa iva dedipyamano yah prakaSah sa
buddhih \
411 Nyayasutra 1.1.15
buddhir upalabdhir jhanam ity anarthantaram |
Prasastapada adds another synonym :
buddhir upalabdhir jhanam pratyaya iti paryayah |
412 Carakasamhitd 1.8.13
mano mano’rtho buddhir atma cetyadhyama-dravya-guna-
sahgrahah \
413 Carakasamhitd 1.8.12
pahcendriya-buddhayah caksur-buddhyadikah |
Cf. 4.1.32-34
414 Carakasamhitd 1.11.20
dtmendriya-mano’rthanam sannikarsat pravartate |
vyakta tadatveya buddhih pratyaksam sa nirucyate \ |
415 Carakasamhitd 4.1.23
jayate visaye tatra yd buddhir niScaydtmika \
vyavasyati taya vaktum kartum va buddhipurvakam \ \
- Vijhana 179
 13. Guna
13. Guna

Iccha and dve?a reside in atman only423.

Even in the context of mental diseases, a positive
role of the intellect is hailed416.
(iii) Sukha and duhkha
Smrti and anubhava are modes of buddhi.
Buddhi may be nitya or anitya depending on Annambhatta defines sukha as what is experienced
whether it is of Uvara or fiva4X1. Buddhi resides in atman as agreeable424, and duhkha as what is experienced as
only418. disagreeable425.
Govardhana elucidates sukha as the object of such
a desire as is not under the control of another person426.
(ii) Iccha and dvesa
Caraka defines sukha and duhkha as health and
Annambhatta defines iccha and dvesa as longing illness respectively427.
and repulsion419. PraSastapada considers half a dozen
Vagbhala says that all our impulses/endeavours are
cognate ideas as but modes of iccha420. So with krodha4A.
for the sake of happiness; happiness, in turn, does not
Iccha may be nitya or anitya depending on whether obtain where dharma is not428.
it is that of Uvara or of jiva422.
422 Tarkasangraha
416 Carakasamhita 1.11.46 buddhiccha-prayatna dvividhah | nitya anityaS ca \ nitya
tatra buddhimata manasa-vyadhipantenapi sata buddhya Uvarasya \ anitya jivasya |
hitdhitam aveksyaveksya dharmartha-kamanam ahitanam
anupasevane, hitanam copasevane prayatitavyam etc
423 Tarkasangraha
buddhyadayo’stall atmamatra-vUesagunah \
417 Tarkasangraha
424 Tarkasangraha
buddhiccha-prayatna dvividhah \ nitya anityaS ca | nitya
sarve$am anukfdataya vedaniyam sukham \
Uvarasya | anitya jivasya \
425 Tarkasangraha
418 Tarkasangraha
sarvesam pratikiilataya vedaniyam duhkham \
buddhyadayo’stau atmamatra-vUesagunah \
426 Govardhana
419 Tarkasangraha
itareccha-anadhina-iccha-visayatvam - ityarthah \
iccha ragah \ krodho dvesah \
427 Carakasamhita 1.9.4
420 PraSastapada
sukha-samjhakam arogyam, vikaro duhkha eva ca |
kdmo’bhilasah ragah sankalpah kamnyam vairagyam,
upadha-abhavah - ityevamadayah icchabhedah \ 428 Astahgahrdaya 1.2.20
sukharthah sarvabhutanam matah sarvah pravrttayah \
421 PraSastapada
sukham ca na vina dharmat tasmad dharmaparo bhavet \ \
krodho droho manyuraksama amarsah - iti dvesabhedah \
- Vijndna 181
180 Padartha -
 13. Guna
13. Guna

Caraka defines sukhayus and asukhayus. A man has ViSvanatha divides prayatna into three viz. pravrtti,
sukhayus if he enjoys good health and enjoys life well429; nivrtti, and jivana-karana.
else he has asukhayus4 .
Sukha and duhkha are known to reside in atman
only431. KHARADI AND SATTVADI
PROPERTIES OF MAHABHUTA-S
(iv) Prayatna
The various dravya-s have been studied from
Annambhatta defines prayatna as krti,
different angles. One way to study is to look into their
endeavour432.
properties as we can discern them ourselves - at the
Prayatna resides in atman only433. physical level, that is. Another way is to look into their
Prayatna may be nitya or anitya depending on tendencies and the influences they can wield, adopting a
whether it is of iSvara or of jiva434. Sankhyan approach for the same - at the metaphysical
level, that is. The former yields what are called the kharadi
properties of the bhuta-s and the latter, the sattvadi
properties of the bhuta-s.

429 Carakasamhita 1.30.24 sukhayus is thus defined : Kharadi Properties

Sahra-manasabhyam rogabhyam anabhidmtasya vtiesena
yauvanavatah samarthdnugata-bala-virya-ya$ah-paunisa- Cakrapani introduces the list called kharadi
parakramasya jhdna-vijhdnendriyendnydrtha-bala-samudaye properties with these words : “Now are introduced the
vartamanasya paramarddhi-nicira-vividhopabhogasya distinct/exclusive characteristics of the bhuta-s”435.
samrddha-sarvarambhasya yathesta-vicarinah sukhamdyur
Caraka introduces the list of five features vis-a-vis
ucyate \
five substances, in a systematic manner436 presented as a
430 Carakasamhita 1.30.24 duhkhdyus is contrary to the above :
table here below.
asukham ato viparyayena \

431 Cf. Tarkasahgraha

buddhyddayo’stau atma-matra-gunah \ 434 Tarkasahgraha
432 Tarkasahgraha buddhiccha-prayatna dvividhdh \ nitya amlydica \ nitya
krtih prayatnah | itvarasya \ anitya jivasya \

433 Tarkasahgraha 435 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 4.1.29)

buddhyddayo’stau atmamatragunah \ bhutadinam asadharanam laksanam aha \

Padartha - - Vijhana 183

182
13. Gutia 13. Guna

(saviparyayah spar&ah)440 can be experienced by the tactile

bhuta guna organ (=skin)441. This scheme set forth by Caraka is
1 prthivi kharatva Roughness interesting as well as significant as it underscores the
2 jala dravatva Liquidity important role played by the skin.
3 tejas usnatva Heat
4 vayu calatva Mobility
5 aka$a apratighata Non-obstructivity Synonyms
It is a common confusion when we speak of the
Table 119: bhuta-s and their distinguishing guna-s
bhiita-s, between the sthula-bhiita-s and the suksma-bhuta-
s. The former are sometimes called as mahabhuta-s and
Cakrapani elucidates the property of akaSa viz.
apratighata. It is only a tangible object - i.e. one which the latter, the tanmatra-s.
possesses the quality of touch, he remarks, that can block In Sahkhya philosophy they are also called viSesa
movement437. Akafo cannot do so as it has no and aviAesa respectively442. The synonyms are tabulated in
tangibility438. Table 120.
The next important remark made by Caraka This being the case, there should be a resolution of
himself is that all the above characteristics can be felt with ambiguity whenever we speak of any bhuta. Usually it is
the same sense of touch439. Touch, along with its absence discernible from the context, oftentimes commentators
come to our rescue. Precisely the same has been done by
436 Carakasamhita 4.1.29 Cakrapani, who remarks that the words for the five
khara-drava-calosnatvam bhu-jalanila-tejasam |
akaSasyapratighato drstam lihgarh yathakramam \ \
Note that Caraka has interchanged the sequence of the 5
440 Carakasamhita 4.1.30
bhuta-s viz. vayu and tejas. But that is evidently owing to the
sparSanendriya-vijneyah sparto hi saviparyayah 11
exigencies of the metre. And that is why he is also careful to
remark yathakramam, ‘respectively’, at the end. Certain 441 Every sense organ perceives not only its object, but also its
prepositions ending in T take an optional long T e.g absence - is a maxim well-known in logic. Cakrapani
parivaha - parivaha-, similarly pratighata -pratighata. reiterates the maxim
yadindriyam yadgrnhati, tat tasyabhavam api grnhati \
437 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 4.1.29)
spar&avaddhi gati-vighdtakam bhavati. 442 AviHesa and vrtesa respectively stand for the
‘undifferentiated’ and the ‘differentiated’ respectively. Cf.
438 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 4.1.29)
Sahkhyakdrika 38:
na akasah, aspar&avattvat \
tanmatrany avtfesah.
439 Carakasamhita 4.1.30 This very karika uses the word bhuta in the sense of
laksanam sarvam evaitat sparsanendriya-gocaram \ mahabhuta.
184 Padartha -
• Vijhana 185
13. Guna
13. Guna

Elements refer to tanmatra-s - the Sankhyan categories

Sattvadi Properties
lying at the root of the gross Elements443.
Subtle matter Gross matter In Susrutasamhitd there is a different classification
1 prakrti vikrti / vikara of the five bhuta-s - vis-a-vis their relationship with the
2 siiksmabhuta (sthula)bhiita three guna-s of the Sahkhya philosophy445. The same may
3 bhuta mahabhuta be presented as a table.
4 tanmatra mahabhuta
5 aviSesa vi&esa Symbolic
bhuta guna
representation
Table 120: Synonyms of Subtle and Gross matter 1 akaSa sattva-bahula S
2 vayu rajo-bahula R
Properties 3 agni sattva-rajo-bahula SR
bhuta-s Lihga-s as per Guna as per 4 ap sattva-tamo-bahula ST
KaSyapa Bhavami£ra 5 prthivi tamo-bahula T
1 aka$a apratisedha laghutva
2 vayu calana ruksatva Table 122: Bhuta-s and the Sahkhya guna-s
3 tejas ausnya tiksnatva
4 ap dravatva snigdhatva Note that the author never forgets to add ‘-bahula’
5 prthivi sthairya gurutva in each case. This obviously implies the presence of other
guna-s also in each case.
Table 121: Bhuta-s and properties The entire world is made of the five elements, and
as all the elements are a combination of trigum-s, there is
Other texts present some similar lists of properties no thing in the world that is not made of triguna-s. The
of the Elements444. For example, the idea of Bhavaprakasa Bhagavadgita aptly says - there is nothing in the world -
may be presented above.

443 Cakrapani concludes his discussion with these words

tena ihapi khadini tanmatrasabdoktcini suksmani laghur ganis tatha snigdho rnksah tiksna iti kramat |
boddhavyani \ nabho-bhii-vdri-vdtdndm vahner ete gunah smrtah 11

444 Kasyapasamhita says 445 Susrutasamhitd 3.1.19

khasyapratirodho lihgam, vayoS calanam, tejasa ausnyam, tatra sattvabahulam aka.tam | rajobahulo vayuh |
apam dravatvam, prthivydh sthairyam | sattvarajobahulo’gnih | sattvatamobahula apah |
Bhavaprakasa says tamobahula prthiviti \
186 Padartha - • Vijnana 187
13. Guna

(on earth or in heaven) that can be free from the

V . 446
triguna-s .

CHAPTER 14

KARMAN (ACTION)

Definition

Action or karman is one of the six padartha-s. It is

broadly defined as any stirring - even as much as a mental
endeavour447. The essential aspect of karman is
movement. Hence Tarkasahgraha defines it as consisting
of motion448. All actions are transitory and can take place

447 Carakasamhita 1.4.49

prayatnadi karma cestitam ucyate |
The word adi, Cakrapani points out, is indicative of the
type. adiSabdah prakaravacl.
Prayatna thus constitutes the prototype of actions. All
actions of living beings (prani-vyapara) are called cestita,
and that should normally suffice as a definition; but
Cakrapani points out that the definition is intended to
cover even the most subtle of actions. He says
prayatnaditi padam siisuksma-prayatnariipa-karma-vyapitva-
dyotanartham.
The word prayatna, he also points out, is used in Ayurveda
and is synonymous with action.
prayatna-SabdaS cayurvede’pi karmavacano drfyate |
Ref. Carakasamhita 3.8.77.
pravrttistu khalu cesta karyartha | saiva kriya karma yatnah
karya-samarambhaSca \
446 Bhagavadgitd 18.40
na tadasti prthivyam va divi devesu va punah | 448 Tarkasahgraha
sattvam prakrtijair muktam yad ebhih syat tribhir giinaih | | calanatmakam karma |
, oo Padartha - - Vijndna 189
 14. Karman
14. Karman

only with reference to what are called murta-dravya-s viz. and creation of newer contacts452. Actions are said to have
five stages as listed below.
prthivi, jala, tejas, vayu, and manas449.
Action is said to reside in an object (dravya), and

Stage No
the object is said to be the substratum (adhara,
Stages
adhikarana) of the action. Karman resides in but one
object. In other words, the action present in one object is
not to be attributed to another. An assertion to this effect 1 dravye karmotpattih Action generated
is made primarily in order to contrast karman with guna, 2 tato vibhagah Separation
as the latter sometimes can be. Thus conjunction 3 tatah piirva- Disjunction from the
(samyoga) can simultaneously “dwell” in two things. This samyoga-na&ah antecedent
is noted by Kaiiada450. The difference between karman 4 tatah uttara-de$a- Conjunction with the
and dravya is that guna-s reside in dravya, but no guna can samyogah subsequent
reside in a karman451. 5 tatah karma-na$ah Destruction of Action

Table 123 : Stages of Action

Action: Typical Stages

The most typical action is movement, wherein

Types of Karman
there is separation from previous contacts {samyoga-s)
Kanada divides actions into five types453 - noted in
Table 2 along with their Sanskrit expression and
explanations as given in Tarkasangraha.

449 iyattavacchinna-parimana-yogitvam murtatvam is the

definition of the miirta items.
450 Vaisesikasutra 1.1.17
ekadravyam aguna-samyoga-vibhagesv-anapeksakdranam -
iti karma-laksanam |
This is explained thus:
ekarh dravyam afrayoyasya tad ekadravyam |... sarhyogadi-
gunaS ca anekafritah tatha kimapi karma na anekatoitam |
451 Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 1.1.18)
na vidyate guno’smin - iti agunam \
Padartha -
190
452 Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 1.1.20)
yatra dravye kaimotpannam tena samam yavad-dravyam
samyuktam asit tdvat-sankhydkan vibhagan janayitva tavatah
samyogan api punar anyatra janayati |
453 Vaisesikasutra 1.1.7
utksepanam avaksepanam akuncanam prasaranam
gamanam iti karmani |
This is repeated in later texts like Bhasdpariccheda thus:
utksepanam tato’vaksepanam akuncanam tatha \
prasaranam ca gamanam karmany etani panca ca \ |
- Vijndna 191
14. Karman
There are discussions in texts on Dharma&astra as
well as Ayurveda regarding our past actions, called adrsta.
It is to focus on future actions that are open to us that the
author states it as pertaining to what may be
accomplished457.
Actions are all in the form of the acts committed at
the levels of body, speech, and mind. Their over¬
functioning, non-functioning, and wrong functioning cause
all diseases458.
Ayurvedic Karman-s
We come across various actions in Ayurveda such
as gatikarma, agnikarma, and jalakarma as functions of
vata, pitta and kapha ; others as dipana, pacana, recana,
svedana; as also Sodhana, marana, dravana-, and lahghana,
brmhana, snehana and so on. All actions are ultimately to
be traced to manas, at the root of the impulses of which
are rajas and tamas .
457 Says Cakrapani:
kriya-mpasya karmanah idam laksanam, na adrstadeh iti.
458 Carakasarhhita 1.11.39
karma vah-manah-farira-pravrttih \ tatra vah-manah-farira-
pravrttir atiyogah | sarvaio ’pravrttir ayogah |... 40
atiyogayogavarjam karma vari-manah-farirajam ahitam
anupadistamyat tacca mithyayogam vidyat 11
459 Carakasarhhita 4.2.38
rajas-tamobhydm hi mano’nubaddham jhdnarh vina tatra hi
sarva-dosdh |
gati-pravrttyo’stu nimitta-yuktam manah sadosam balavacca
karma | |
194 Padartha -
14. Karman
In Ayurveda, all actions are attributed to vayu -
whether the causation of their diseases, or their
cessation460. Karman-s betray the guna-s in the various
dravya-s461.
Doctoral Karman-s
All actions must be undertaken by the doctor with
a thorough knowledge first of all, says Caraka462:
knowledge as of the causal agent, instrument, material,
operation, objective, post-operative action, space and
time463. Any medical treatment involves four factors viz.
the doctor, and the medicine, and the patient and the
nursers464. There is also a broad division into purva-karma,
460 Carakasarhhita 1.17.118
sarva hi cesta vatena sa pranah praninam matah |
tenaiva rogd jayante tena caivopamdhyate | |
Cakrapani on this:
upamdhyate = mriyate
461 Susrutasamhitd
karmabhis tvanumiyante ndnd-dravyd&raya gunah \
462 Carakasarhhita 3.8.68
jhana-purvakarh hi karmanam samarambham praSarhsanti
kuSalah |
463 Carakasarhhita 3.8.68
jhatva hi kdrana-karana-karyayoni-kdrya-
kdryaphaldnubandha-deia-kdla-pravrtty-updydn samyag
abhinirvartamanah etc.
In the sections to follow (69-77), all these items are defined.
464 Carakasarhhita 3.8.129
pravrttistu pratikarma-samarambhah \ tasya laksanam
bhisag-aiisadha-dtura-paricdrakdnam kriya-samayogah |
- Vijhana 195
14. Karman

pradhana-karma and pa&cat-karma. The ultimate goal of

all actions in Ayurveda is the accomplishment of dhatu-
samya465.

CHAPTER 15

SAMANYA (GENERALITY)
Definition

Samanya is one among the padartha-s. It is in fact

the first among the padartha-s that the great sages
“saw”466. The etymology is samananam bhavah.
Annambhatta defines Generality or samanya as eternal,
unitary, and residing in many4 1. Samanya differs from
samyoga (and certain other qualities) as the latter is not
eternal.

Generality is actually a relative term, as well-noted

by Kanada468.

466 Carakasamhita 1.1.28

maharsayas te dadiiuryathavajjhdna-caksusa |
samanyam ca vifesarh ca gunan dravyani karma ca 11
samavayam ca tajjhdtva tantroktam vidhim asthitah \
lebhire paramam Sarma jivitam capyanitvaram \ \
Cakrapani points out its importance thus, while
commentating on Carakasamhita 1.1.44 , thus :
ayurvedabhidheyataya sutrite samanyadau samanyasya
prathama-sutritatvat tatha samanya-jhana-
midatvaccayurveda-pratipadyasya hetvadeh etc.

467 Tarkasahgraha
nityam ekam anekanugatam samanyam \
465 Carakasamhita 1.1.53
468 Vaisesikasutra 1.2.3
dhatusamya-kriya cokta tantrasyasya prayojanam 11
samanyam vifesa iti buddhyapeksam \
196 Padartha - - Vijnana 197
15. Samanya
When we see many things, we learn which features
they have in common. For example, the notion of
existence (satta) is felt in the case of every substance
(dravya). The notion is countenanced in every encounter,
which is called anuvrtta-buddhi. The same is the case with
attributes (guna) and actions (<karman)469.
The notion of satta is not characterised or marked
off from item to item, immaterial of which dravya it is. No
different is the case with items of guna, or items of
karman. Hence there is the experience of unitary
nature470. Therefore it is that we have the notion of the
generality of dravya-s called dravyatva. We similarly have
notions of gunatva and karmatva. Not only that, we have
other notions of circumscribed generality as in prthivitva
etc; similar is the case of rupatva or utksepanatva and so
on471.
Remarking on the pithy statement of Caraka viz.
that samanya unifies (ekatvakara) (as against viSesa which
469 Says SankaramiSra (Upaskara on Vaisesikasutra 1.2.3
anuvrtta-buddhih samanyasya) That the notion of satta is
met with in the case of dravya, guna, and karman is noted by
Kanada. Vaisesikasutra 1.2.7
sad itiyato dravya-guna-karmasu, sa satta |
470 Vaisesikasutra 1.2.17
sad iti lingdvisesdd visesa-lihgabhdvdcca eko bhavah \
(The words bhava and satta may be treated as synonymous).
471 Vaisesikasutra 1.2.5
dravyatvam karmatvarh samanyani viSesaS ca.
Upaskara thereon:
cakarena prthivitvadini dravyagata-jatih, mpatvadini
gunagata-jatih, utksepanadini karmagata-jatiS ca
samuccinoti \
198 Padartha -
15. Samanya
differentiates), Cakrapani elucidates the notion of
samanya in a lucid manner472.
Types / Divisions
We have already come across the more
circumscribed generality and the less circumscribed one.
Thus prthivitva is more circumscribed as against dravyatva.
The former is called Lower Generality and the latter,
Higher Generality. Speaking relatively, Existence (satta) is
highest generality, we can see that dravyatva is a subset of
satta; and in turn, prthivitva is a subset of dravyatva413. The
Higher and Lower are respectively called para and apara.
472 Carakasamhita 1.1.45
samanyam ekatvakaram, viSesastu prthakvakrt \
tulyarthata hi samanyam, viSesastu viparyayah \ \
Says Cakrapani
ekatvakaram iti ekabuddhikaram, samanyam yad anekasu
bhinna-deSa-kaldsugavadi-vyaktisu “ayam gaurayarhgoh”
ityakara ekakara buddhih, tat samanyam \
After referring to the samanya among dravya-s (as
illustrated by the case of the cow), he refers to that among
kriya and guna by the illustrations of “ayam pacako’yam
pacakah” and “ayam Suklo’yarh Suklah”.
413 Upaskara (on Vaisesikasutra 1.2.3)
samanyam dvividhath - param aparan ca \ tatra param satta,
apararh satta-vyapyam dravyatvadi |
Visvanatha sets all this forth succinctly.
Bhasapariccheda 8 to 10 :
samanyam dvividhath proktam param caparam eva ca \
dravyadi-trika-vrttis tu satta paratayocyate 11
parabhinna ca yd jatih saivaparatayocyate |
vyapakatvat para’pi syat vyapyatvad aparapi ca \ \
- Vijnana 199
15. Samanya 15. Samanya

An intermediate one is also sometimes posited - as vyapaka-samanya which is the widest set,
parapara. Further as the notions are relative, the same vyapya-samanya which is the narrowest, and
item can now be a samanya and now be a vUiesa with vyapya-vydpaka-sdmanya which is a
respect to different things, as remarked by middling.
PraSastapada474.
The examples given are shown as the following
Sometimes samanya is classified into three in a Table.
different manner as atyanta-samanya, madhya-samdnya,
and ekadefo-samanya. Cakrapani notes this, as also Type Example
another tripartite classification as dravya-gocara, guna- 1 vyapaka-samanya satta
gocara, and karma-gocara. These can be listed as follows: 2 vyapya-vyapaka-samanya dravyatva
3 vyapya -samanya ghatatva
Type 1 Type 2 Type 3
Table 127 : Examples of samanya
1 para dravya-gocara atyanta-samanya
as treated in Tarkamrta
2 parapara guna-gocara madhya-samanya
3 apara karma-gocara ekadeSa-samdnya The end and aim of Ayurveda is harmonisation :
decrease what is high; increase what is low and maintain
Table 126 : Three Tripartite Classifications of
the balance thereby476.
samanya

Carkrapani gives yet another, bipartite,

classification as ubhaya-vrtti-sdmanya and eka-vrtti-
samanya. In the former, like enhances like. In the latter,
an unlike enhances it47S.
Tarkamrta of JagadKa classifies samanya into
three, viz.
474 Says he:
aparam dravyatva-gunatva-karmatvadi anuvrtti-vyavrtti-
hetutvat samanyam vi&esam ca bhavati \
475 Cakrapani gives the following examples respectively:
marhsam marhsa-vardhakam and ghrtam agnikaram:
‘Flesh adds to flesh’; ‘ghee enhances the Abdominal Fire’.
200 Padartha -
476 Carakasamhita 4.6.6
tadeva tasmad bhesajam samyag-upacaryamanam yugapan-
nyundtiriktdndm dhatunam samyakaram bhavati, adhikam
apakarsati, nyiinam apyayayati \ 1 etavadeva hi bhaisajya-
prayoge phalam istam svastha-vrttanusthane ca - yavad
dhatunam samyam syat \
How this samya is achieved is detailed in Susrutasamhita
1.15.40
- Vijnana 201

CHAPTER 16
VISESA (PARTICULARITY)
ViSesa is the counterpart of samanya. As with
samanya, however, it must be said of viSesa that it is also
one among the padartha-s. This is the second item in the
list of padartha-s envisaged by the great sages477.
The contrast between samanya and visesa has been
brought out by Caraka himself. The first is an intensifier
(yrddhi-kdrana) and the latter a reducer (hrasa-hetu)478.
And in the succeeding verse he refers to the fact that
samanya unifies whereas viSesa differentiates479.
While samanya seeks to find the common factor
among things, vtfesa seeks to find the individuality of each
thing.
477 Carakasamhita 1.1.28
maharsayas te dadrsuryathdvaj jhana-caksusa \
samanyam ca vLiesam ca gunan dravyani karma ca \ | etc.
478 Carakasamhita 1.1.44
sarvada sarva-bhavanam samanyam vrddhi-karanam \
hrasa-hetur vifesaf ca pravrttir ubhayasya tu 11
479 Carakasamhita 1.1.45
samanyam ekatvakaram viSesastu prthaktvakrt \
202 Padartha -
16. Visesa
Annambhatta defines the viSesa as residing in
eternal entities (nitya-dravya), hence infinite480. In order
to differentiate a cow from a pot, we have posited cowness
and potness. The final elements called paramanu-s need
to be differentiated.
Distinction
Siddhantacandrodaya (of Srikrsnadhurjati), a
commentary on Tarkasahgraha, makes a reference to the
ineluctability of positing the viSesa by speaking of the
contrast between a pot and a cloth - the former has the
kapala-samavaya as the distinct mark - the Ultimate
Atoms too should have some factor to facilitate
differentiation. Such things whose components are not the
same are also not the same481.
480 Tarkasahgraha
nityadravya-vrttayo viSesastv ananta eva \
Dissolve the first word thus :
nityani ca tani dravyani - nityadravyani \ tesu vrttih yesam te
nityadravya-vrttayah \
The former is a karmadharaya compound, and the latter a
bahuviihi.
Cf. Bhasapariccheda 10
antyo nityadravya-vrttih viSesah parikirtitah \
481 Siddhantacandrika (on Tarkasahgraha)
ghatadinam kapala-samavetatvadikam patadi-bhedakam asti,
paramanunam tu paraspara-bhedakam na kihcid asti \
ato’ndyatya viSesa aSrayitavyah |
Kapala is a potsherd. The kapala-s constitute the
components (avayava) of the whole (avayavin). Two things
can be no different in essence if their components are also
no different. Components being different, wholes also
- Vijhana 203
16. Visesa
Now when we come to the ultimate constituents of
things, the paramanu-s, we find that they can have no
componential parts; or else they are no paramanu-s at all:
this fact issues from the very definition482. Thus it is not
possible to speak of any components of either prthivi-
paramanu or vayu-paramanu. So the previous logic, of
looking first for avayava-bheda, fails here483.
For Cakrapani, vifesa is what turns the mind away
from a thing as a different entity. He glosses prthaktvakrt
as vyavrtta-buddhikrt. We proceed from the cow in
particular to the cow in general - from one govyakti and
another govyakti and then on to gotva-samanya - and next,
the same can turn our mind from a horse484.
ought to be different. The maxim is avayava-bhedad
avayavi-bhedah \
482 Cf. Vatsyayanabhasya (on Nyayasutra 4.2.14)
yatcd ca nalpiyo’sd tarn paramanumpracaksmahe \
There is also a description of the paramanu-s given in this
verse:
jala-surya-maricistham yat suksmam drfyate rajah \
tasya sasthatamo bhagah paramanuh sa ucyate 11
483 Cf. PraSastapada
ante bhavah antyah \ svaSraya-viSesakatvad viSesah \ vinato-
arambha-rahitesu nitya-dravyesu anv-akaSa-kala-dig-atma-
manahsu pratidravyam ekaikato vartamanah atyanta-vyavrtd-
buddhi-hetavah \
484 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.45)
yad-govyakty-antarapeksaya ekabuddhi-kartrtaya gotvam
samanyam, tadeva gotvam aivady-apeksaya vyavrtta-buddhi-
kartrtvad afvadin prati vdesah -ityuktarh bhavati |
The concept formed in the mind undergoes appropriate
modifications as we encounter three things : (i) cow 1, (ii)
cow 2, (iii) horse. Cow 2 has been called go-vyaktyantara.
204 Padartha
16. Visesa
Non-acceptance of Visesa
However, the idea of vi&esa has not met with
approval among Navyanaiyayika-s. Thus Dinakari argues
that there is no basis to posit the vitesa-s485. Neither
Grammarians486, nor Mimamsaka-s accept the vi§esa-s. So
with schools of Vedanta and Yoga487.
Cakrapani however gives contrasting examples of
samanya and vtfesa. Flesh adding to flesh - is the example
of the former, and flesh hindering vata - is the example of
the latter488.
Dissolve vyakty-antara as anya vyaktih \ Thus the statement
of Cakrapani shows how gotva acts now as samanya and
now as vdesa depending on what we encounter.
485 Dinakari (on Bhasapariccheda 10)
navinastu - vdese’tirikte manabhavah yayaiva vi&esandm
svavrtti-dharmarh vina vyavrttatvam tayaiva nityadravyanam
api j
486 Cf. Helaraja (on Vakyapadiya 3.14.141)
487 Cf. Vyasabhasya (on Yogasutra 3.53) and Tattvavaisaradi
thereon.
488 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.45)
tena mamsatvam mdmsam prati mamsantarapeksaya
samanatvad vrddi-karanam bhavati | tadeva tu mamsatvam
vatam prati viSesa-mpataya hrasa-hetur bhavati \
Also read the contrast between go and gaja.
go-gajayoh atulya-gotva-gajatva-riiparthayoh prthagbuddhih
yuktaiva - id dar&itam bhavati \
- - Vijnana 205
16. Visesa
16. Visesa

Types
ekavrtti- para-viSesa vyapaka-vLSesa dravya-
Cakrapani cites the opinion of others (anye) as viSesa visesa
classifying both samanya and viiiesa under similar headings ubhayavrtti- apara-viiesa vyapya-vitesa guna-vi$esa
viSesa
into three listed below:
parapara- vyapya- karma-
viSesa vyapaka-vi&esa vtfesa
Types of Types of
samanya visesa
Table 129 : Other types of visesa
1 dravya-gocara dravyagocara
2 guna-gocara gunagocara
3 karma-gocara karmagocara

Table 128 : Common types of samanya and visesa

It is said that it is also possible to speak of the

varied types of classification of visesa, as with samanya - as
shown in Table 129.
Going by the criterion of enhancement and
attenuation being issues of samanya as well as vifesa, all
cases involving hrasa or pra&amana may be generally
viewed as an application of the samanya- visesa concept489.

489 Cf. Carakasamhita 1.30.27

samanya-viSesabhyam vrddhi-hrasau | yathoktam - gumbhir
abhyasyamanair gnriinam upacayo bhavati, apacayo
laghiindm \ evam eva itaresam iti \
Also Cf. Carakasamhita 1.1.67
kihcid dosa-prasamaruirh kihcid dhatu-pradiisanam \
Even Cakrapani has not dwelt at length on the concept of
vifesa. Concluding his comment on Carakasamhita 1.1.45,
he says:
samanyam ca vrddhi-karana-laksanam na saksad-vrddhi-
karanam - itiprdgevoktam ; evam viSese’pi | ... vistarastvasya
vaisesike boddhavyah \

206 Padartha -
- Vijnana 207

CHAPTER 17
SAMAVAYA
(INTIMATE RELATIONSHIP)
It is through some relationship alone that two
things can be together, or that even a thing should exist
somewhere. In the case of the pot on the ground, the
relation (sambandha) is called samyoga. When we say that
the pot exists in the potsherds, or that the cloth resides in
the strings, some relation ought to be posited between
them.
The difference between the samyoga relationship
and this one should be noted. The pot may be removed
from the ground, and taken away or placed elsewhere.
The two are isolable or prthak-siddha. However the strings
and the cloth are not separable. There is an inseparability
there. The two are thus aprthak-siddha. This kind of an
inseparable relationship is called samavaya.
Such a relationship is primarily conceived as
between the cause and the effect. The definition given by
Kanada runs exactly on those lines490.
490 Vaisesikasutra 7.2.26
“iha idam” - itiyatah kdrya-karanayoh sa samavdyah \
This definition does not show the polish or sharpness of the
later definitions.
208 Padartha -
17. Samavaya
The cause-effect relationship is only to be taken as
illustrative (upalaksana). The relationship within all
inseparable pairs is samavaya. The word ayuta-siddha
conveys such a relationship. That is why PraSastapada
defines it as that between ayuta-siddha items491.
Annambhatta gives the definition of an ayuta-siddha pair
as consisting of such two items where for one item to
“survive”, dependence on the other is inevitable492.
491
PraSastapada says
ayuta-siddhdnam adharyadharabhutanam yah sambandhah
iha pratyaya-hetuh sa samavdyah \
492
Tarkasahgraha
yayor madhye ekam avinafyad-avastham aparaSritam eva
avatisthate, tau ayutasiddhau \
The word avinafyad-avastham has to be dissolved thus :
vinafyanti avastha yasya tat = vinafyad-avastham \ na
vinafyad-avastham = avina&yad-avastham |
The former is a bahuvnhi and the latter is a nah-tatpurusa
compound. Again the word aparaSritam is dissolved as
aparam aSritam, ( a dvitiya-tatpurusa compound). The force
of eva is anyayoga-vyavaccheda or annulment of all else
whence it implies apara-and$ritatva-abhava. The word
ayutasiddha is derived in two ways :
(i) yutam yatha tatha siddhau iti or
(ii) yutau ca tau siddhau ca \ na yutasiddhau =
ayutasiddhau.
The word yuta is an adverb in the first case, and an adjective
in the second. The word yuta is derived from Vyw (yu
amtirane). Amisrana = being separate {—prthagbhava).
Hence ayutasiddha pairs are such as cannot be isolated one
from the other in each pair.
Cf. Karikavati
ghatadinam kapaladau, dravyesu gunakarmanoh \
tesu jate§ ca sambandhah samavdyah prakirtitah | |
- Vijnana 209
17. Samavaya
Paired Items
Tarkasahgraha spells out five pairs where this
samavaya relationship subsists. They are listed below:
1 avayava - avayavin Part and whole
2 guna - gunin Attribute and object
3 kriya - kriyavat Action and its substratum
4 jati - vyakti Class and member
5 viSesa - nityadravya viiesa and eternal dravya
Table 130: Pairs cemented by samavaya
Note that the words gunin, kriyavat, and avayavin
refer to dravya. Vyakti also refers to dravya. The dravya is
the substratum for what is stated in the first column viz.
avayava, guna etc. As regards the last item, we have nitya-
dravya-s only instead of mere dravya-s.
Qualified Knowledge
We do not perceive the red jar as two items viz. the
red colour and the jar. Suppose a man holds a bow in
hand, we call him bow-man. When he comes we do not say
the ‘bow and the man came’. As long as he holds the bow,
he is known as a bow-man, and the word implies his
possession of the bow. Thus, even though the bow is not
separately mentioned, its presence is indicated by a word
referring to the man. This way of referring to the man
along with what he possesses is called Qualified
Knowledge or viiista-buddhi. The technical word for the
sense of possession is matubartha. This shows itself as the
ending -vat or -mat in the base. By virtue of being an
210 Padartha -
17. Samavaya
adjective, it will have forms in all the three genders. In the
masculine, it will be -van and -man. Thus we have
rupavan ghatah (In the feminine, the suffixes are -vatl and
-mati; and in the neuter, -vat and -mat). Where it is not a
unitary perception, we employ the dual, as in ghatapatau,
‘the pot and the cloth’. Where we have this Qualified
Perception we would not say capa-purusau. Thus there are
three things perceived here, not two : the bow, the man,
and the relationship between the two493.
When we refer to dravya as gunavat, three things
similarly crop up. As the dravya and its guna, like milk and
its whiteness, are inseparable, they are aprthak-siddha.
The relationship between the dravya and the guna is
samavaya. So when we say kriyavat dravyam, while
samyoga-sambandha may be visible to the eyes, samavaya-
sambandha is technical (:iastriya). Samyoga is transient but
samavaya is not.
493 These have been well stated in the Aloka commentary on
Tarkasahgraha by Navyamangalavaradacarya of our own
times. Read his comments : (p223)
prthak-kartum afokyau id kathanenaiva tatra dvau vartete id
spastam | evam sad tayoh sambandho vaktavyah \ na ced
viSistabuddhir na syat \ yatha guna-guninau \ “riipavan
ghatah” id khalu vyavaharad \ etadrfa-vyavahara-visayo na
kevalam riipam, na kevalam ghatah; kintu matubarthah
tayoh sambandho’pi \ nocet ‘nipa-ghatau’ityevocyeta - yatha
‘ghata-patau’id \ ato matup-pratyaya-vacyah tayoh
sambandhah avafyakah \ ataSceyam vitista-buddhir
ityucyate\ ... danda-pumsayoh sambandhabhave ‘dandi
punisah’ id na syat kintu danda-pumsau - id syat \ atas tatra
dandah, punisah, tayoh sambandho - id trayam visayah |
- Vijnana 211
77. Samavdya 17. Samavdya

Non-acceptance of Samavdya In the case of akaSa, considered as a nityadravya,

the features parimana, and dravyatva are also nitya. Hence
Samavdya is a highly disputed concept. For the Old their relationship viz. samavdya is also nitya.
School of Nyaya it is a visible entity, not so for the New
Cakrapani notes that there are differences
School. Grammarians and Vedantin-s deny samavdya.
regarding permanence of samavdya. He also notes that the
There are differences between the VaiSesika school and
Ayurvedic approach does not fully tally with the Vaifesika
the Prdbhdkaramimdmsaka and the Bhattamimamsaka
approach49 .
schools regarding samavdya. Sankaracarya criticises
samavdya in Brahmasutra 2.2.17.
Defining Role
In Ayurveda
A general feature of all dravya-s is that they can
The definition given by Caraka is essentially no become samavayi-karana-s, which role guna and karman
different from the ones we have noted above. He asserts cannot play. Hence this is used for defining dravya by
that there can be no dravya without its guna-s494.
Individual cows may die, but cowness does not die,
states Cakrapani495. The dravya-s, which are samavayin-s,
may die but samavdya will not496.

494 Carakasamhita 1.1.50

samavdyo’prthagbhavo bhumyddinarh gunairmatah |
sa nityoyatra hi dravyarh na tatraniyato gunah \
“The non-separate existence of things like the earth from
qualities is samavdya. It is eternal - for where dravya is, it is 495 Cakrapani:
not that there is no guna there”. The word aprthagbhava is govyakti-naSe’pi gotvasya samanyasya na vinaSah \
the same as ayutasiddhi, as Cakrapani points out. That the
496 Cakrapani:
whole can never be met with bereft of its parts is thus set
satyapi samavayinarh dravyanam na§e, samavayo na
forth by him.
vinafyati \
na hyavayavadin virahayya avayavyadaya upalabhyante \
The earth is the prototype of all adhara-s. Adhara is 497 Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 1.1.50):
pradhana and adheya is apradhana. Taking a cue from anyaistu nityanitya-bhedena dvividhah samavayo vydkhydtah \
Pataiijali, he notes guna as apradhana. Read: ... tattu na vyapakam, napi vaiSesika-matanuydyi - iti neha
apradhane ca guna-Sabdoyathd - gnnibhuto’yamiti \ prapahcitam \

212 Padartha - - Vijnana 213

 17. Samavaya

Caraka498. The notion of samavaya plays a role in the

definition of guna also499.

The notion of adhara-adheya is also utilized in

locating the samavaya relationship or its role. Thus, for
SuSruta the Purusa is a samavaya of the five bhuta-s and CHAPTER 18
the Vital Being500.

Similarly ten locations of vital principle or prana

ABHAVA (ABSENCE)
have been noted501.
The categories of Nyaya- VaiSesika seek to cover all
that is in the universe. Logic being essentially a mental
function, dealing with the presence of things as also their
absence becomes important. Hence it is that the logical
system has to deal with two kinds of things - existent and
non-existent, technically called bhava-padartha and
abhava-padartha. The first six padartha-s are called bhava-
padartha and the last one is abhava-padartha.

498 Carakasamhitd 1.1.51 Types

yatra&ritdh karma-gunah karanam samavdyi yat | tad
dravyam \ Abhava is said to be of four types listed below
Read Cakrapani on this : dravyameva hi dravya-guna- along with their translation and definition.
karmanam samavayi-karanam | samavayi-karanam tn tad
yat svasamavetam karyam janayati | guna-karmani tu na Name Sense Definition
svasamavetam karyam janayatah | ato na te samavayi- 1 pragabhava Antecedent anadih santah
kdrane | Negation
4QQ
Carakasamhita 1.1.51 2 pradhvamsdbhava Subsequent sadih anantah
samavdyi tu niscestah karanam gunah \ Negation
3 atyantabhava Absolute traikalika-
500 Susrutasamhitd 4.1.16
Negation samsargabhavah
pahca-mahabhuta-fariri-samavayah purusah | sa esa karma-
punisah cikitsadhikrtah \ 4 anoyonyabhava Reciprocal tadatmya-
Negation sambandhavacchinna-
501 Carakasamhitd 1.29.3
pratiyogitakah
da&aivayatanany ahuh prana yesu pratisthitah |
Sahkhau marma-trayam kantho raktam Sukraujasi gudam 11
Table 131: Abhava - Types and Definitions
214 Padartha - - Vijnana 215
18. Abhava 18. Abhava

The existence and non-existence of various things

The nature of the abhava-s is shown below: (such as of a pot or a tree) is a direct result of adequate
utility, excessive utility, and improper utility502. Too less or
too much of watering, sun’s heat etc. can hamper the

Beginning
HD growth of a tree.
Type C Example
W

1 pragabhava No Yes utpatteh purvam

karyasya
2 pradhvamsabhava Yes No utpatteh anantaram
karyasya
3 atyantabhava No No bhutale ghato nasti

Table 132 : Abhava - Types and Examples

The last columns of the above two tables are

explained thus. Before something, say a pot (ghata), is
produced, there was the absence of the same (ghatabhava)
from beginningless time(anadi). But the moment the pot
came into being, its absence has come to an end (santah).
Prak earlier; abhava non-existence.
When a pot has been destroyed, there we have the
destruction of the pot having a commencement sadi but it
ends never ananta.
In the case of atyantabhava, there is the non¬
existence applicable to all times.

In Ayurveda

Abhava has not much of a utilisation in Ayurveda. 502 Carakasamhita 1.11.44

However this statement of Caraka is noticeable: sarvesam eva bhavanam bhavabhavau nantarena yoga-atiyoga-
mithyayogan samupalabhyete \ yathasvayukty apeksinau hi
bhavabhavau \
216 Padartha • - Vijnana 217

CHAPTER 19
7MM4S(DARKNESS)
There is some discussion in books on Logic as to
whether darkness (tamas) is a Substance (dravya), and if
yes, why it is not included among them as a tenth item.
This issue is taken up by ViSvanatha503.
The reason for making out a case is thus advanced :
every dravya exhibits two properties viz. it has some
attribute (guna) and some action (kriya). Govardhana
makes this plain by invoking the common description viz.
“The blue darkness moves”3®4.
An Entity ?
The question is also raised as to whether tamas can
be subsumed under any of the 9 dravya-s505.
503 Siddhantamuktdvali (on Karikavali 3)
nanu da&amam dravyam tamah kuto noktam ?
504
Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasahgraha 3)
‘riilam tamah calati’ iti pratiteh nila-rupaSrayatvena
kriyd&rayatvena ca dravyatvam siddham \ riipa is a guna, and
gamana is a karman.
505 Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasahgraha 3)
na ca klrpta-dravyesv antarbhavat kuto da&ama-dravyam ? -
iti vacyam |
218 Padartha -
19. Tamas
It is categorically established that tamas can be
bracketed under none of the nine dravya-s.
(a) it cannot fall under “the Set of Five beginning
with Ether”, as none of them have form506.
1 akaia
2 kala
3 diS
4 atman
5 manas
Table 133 : The Formless Five - akdsadi(amurta)
Nor can it be grouped under Wind, for Wind too
has no form507. It cannot be brought under the Earth, for
it has no smell508. It cannot be brought under either Water
or Fire as they are cold and hot respectively to the
touch509.
506 Siddhantamuktavali (on Karikavali 3)
akasadi-pahcakasya riiriipatvat
507 vayor api nirupatvat na tesv antar-bhavah
508 tamaso nirgandhatvat na prthivyam antarbhavah \
509 jala-tejasolt sitosna-sparsatvat, na tayoh antarbhavah \
In addition to these, other arguments have also been
advanced. Air is tangible and is constantly moving.
Cf. Tarkadipika
sparsabhdvat sada-gatimattvabhavac ca \
Fire is hot to the touch and has a bright colour.
bhdsvara-mpdbhdvat usna-sparSabhavac ca \
Water has white colour.
sita-spa r$a bh aval nila-rupafrayatvac ca |
Earth is tangible.
- Vijnana 219
A
19. Tamos
The counter-argument advanced is this : It is
possible to explain away tamas as the absence of tejas; and
hence there is no need to assume tamas as a new dravya\
there is no sanction for such an assumption510.
Nor should it be argued that tejas itself be
construed as the absence of tamas - as there may be no
fact or factor that can settle (vinigamana-viraha) whether
tamas is the absence of tejas, or tejas is the absence of
tamas511.
Tamas is not rupavad-dravya (Substance endowed
with form), for it is not something perceivable with the aid
of a torch - for all things endowed with form (rupi-dravya)
can be perceived with the aid of a torch512. Thus is
darkness but the negation of strong light513.
The notion that “the blue darkness moves” is an
illusion514. The movement of light is just what is
discernible there515.
gandhavattvabhavat sparki-rahitatvac ca \
All these are absent in Darkness.
510 tamasas tejo’bhavatvenaiva upapattau atirikta-dravya-
kalpanayam manabhavat |
511 na ca vinigamana-virahat “teja eva andhakarabhava-
svarupam” - iti vacyam \
512 tamo hi na riipavad-dravyam \ alokasahakrta-
caksurgrahyatvad alokabhavavat \ riipi-dravya-caksusa-
pramayam alokasya karanatvat \
513 tasmat praudha-prakd&a-tejah-sdmdnydbhdvah tamah |
514 riilam tamah calati - iti pratyayo bhramah \
515 dipapasarana-kriyaya eva tatra bhanat \
220 Padartha -
19. Tamas
Tamas is a dravya is refuted as above by VaiSesika-
s. Sriharsa has a witty verse justifying their stand. For, the
VaiSesika-System is rightly called Aulukya-darfana516; owls
know about darkness the better, after all517!
The discussion does not seem to have any very
important bearing on Ayurveda. It may however be added
that the tamas of Sankhya philosophy has an important
bearing on Ayurveda as sattva, rajas, and tamas have vital
role to play in Ayurveda.
516 Naisadha 22.26
dhvantasya vamom vicaranayam
vaiSesikam cam matam matam me |
aulukyam ahuh kila darSanam tat
ksamarh tamas tattva-niriipanaya \ \
517 There is an old tradition, calling the author (Kanada) as
Aulukya, known even to Udyotakara and Kumarila - that
Lord Siva was pleased by the austerities of sage Kanada,
and appeared before him in the form of an owl (uluka) and
taught him. Kanada’s aphorism succinctly captures the
entire gamut of the argument.
Vaisesikasutra 2.2.1.9
dravya-gana-karma-nispatti-vaidharmyad abhavah tamah \
221
- Vijnana

CHAPTER 20
PRAMANA
There is a constant urge in man to know things.
This may also be said to follow as a corollary from
statements such as - the atman is the receptacle of
knowledge518. Our sense organs are our natural doorways
of knowledge. Our knowledge is not delimited by what our
senses grasp. What we obtain through our senses is,
consciously or unconsciously - and mostly the latter -
matched against, and mixed with, our previous knowledge
and impressions.
The knowledge provided by the senses is not
always final. First of all, all our senses have certain limits
beyond which they cannot operate. Thus, very small things
cannot be seen with our eyes, nor things very distant.
Some animals hear sounds that we cannot. Like animals,
we can also get misled by mirages. We see the sky as blue
which it is not. The Sun and the Moon are not as small as
they appear to be. Similarity between things can generate
doubts, or confuse us. When the illumination is
insufficient, we are beset with doubts as to whether it is a
post or a man; we mistake a conch-shell as silver.
It is against such a background that we need to
assess the information we receive through our senses.
518 Tarkasangraha
jnanadhikaranam atma \
222 Padartha
20. Pramana
Such weighing requires certain standards against which we
may match and ascertain. We know well when we measure
well.
Terminology
The word for measurement in Sanskrit is mana.
The person who measures is matr. What is (to be)
measured is meya. Measurement is mid. The standard
against which we match and measure is pramana. The
words mana itself is sometimes loosely used for pramana;
so with pramatr, prameya, and pramiti.
It is when we have ascertained something well that
we would know whether we want to get the thing or want
to avoid the thing. The person who thus sets out to first
get to know in order to acquire or eschew something is the
one whom we call pramatr19.
The instrument by which a pramatr gets to know
things is what is called pramana52°. The etymology of the
word is concordant with this521. Pramana can enlighten us
not only about what is, but also what is not522. What we
519 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 1.1.1)
yasya ipsa-jihasa-prayuktasya pravrttih sah pramata | The
words ipsa and jihasa are desiderative nouns of Vop ‘to
acquire’ and 'Jha ‘to eschew’.
520 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 1.1.1)
pramata yenartham praminoti tat \ Nyayamanjari gives the
definition of pramana as pramayah karanam \
521 pramiyate anena id pramanam - is the etymology.
522 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 1.1.1)
satah prakdsakam pramanam, asadapi prakdsayati \
- - Vijhana 223
20. Pramana 20. Pramana

not only about what is, but also what is not522. What we prameya521. Pramiti is valid knowledge. For Gotama 12
need for obtaining correct knowledge is an instrument items are prameya529, listed in Table 134.
that leaves us finally in no doubt, and in no confusion, and
helps us know what we had not known earlier523. 1 atman
2 Sarira
Pramana is also presented as the sine qua non in 3 indriya
the generation of all valid knowledge524. 4 artha
The valid knowledge that is obtained is called 5 buddhi
prama. Prama is the knowledge we acquire about the 6 manas
actual state of things. Things have certain properties 7 pravrtti
(idharma). We perceive things in some mode (prakara) or 8 dosa
the other. If the mode tallies with the feature, it is valid 9 pretyabhava
knowledge525. 10 phala
The thing that is sought to be known in truth is 11 duhkha
prameya526. What needs to be ascertained or marked off is 12 apavarga

522 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 1.1.1) Table 134: List of prameya items
satah prakaSakam pramanam, asadapi prakafoyati \
Knower Knowable Knowledge
523 This feature of pramana is typically highlighted by the matr meya miti
Sankhya School who express it thus :
pramatr prameya pramiti
asandigdha-avipanta-anadhigata-visaya-bodhana-
sadhanatvam pramanatvam \ Cf. anadhigatarthagantr
Table 135 : Triplets of Knowing
pramanam (Mimamsaka definition).

524 Tarkabhasa says: Sometimes the three factors are grouped by a

satyapi pramatari prameye ca pramanupapatteh \ indriya- common name : triputi refers to miti, matr, and meya, (or
samyogadau tu sati, avilambena pramotpattih \ atah indriya- knowledge, knower, and the to-be-known), also referred
samyogadir eva karanam, na pramatradi | The word
pramatradi is to be split as pramatr + adi.

525 Gautamasutravrtti (on Nyayasutra 1.1.4)

tadvati tatprakarakam jhanam \ tat refers to the dharma.
tadvan is the dharmin or the thing. Prakara is the mode.
tatprakaraka is the mode being the same as the dharma. v (T. I he statements paricchedyam prameyam or avadharana-
vifayah prameyam |
526 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 1.1.1)
yo'rthah tattvatah pramiyate tat prameyam \ ,,N Nyayasutra 1.1.1
224 Padartha - I '(/liana 225
20. Pramana
20. Pramana

to as pramiti, pramatr, and prameya529, shown here as

two types - “As the Thing Is”, and “As the Thing Is Not”
Table 135. (yathartha534 and ayathartha535).
Prama and Bhrama
In fine, it is prama when you perceive a ghata (pot) Pramana: Types
as a ghata530; and when you perceive the real silver as real
silver531. Annambhatta classifies Valid Knowledge into four
types, and states the four corresponding instruments also,
The opposite of prama is bhrama
tabulated in Table 136:
(confusion/illusion), as when you mistake the nacre to be
silver532. yatharthanubhava karana
(Valid Knowledge) (Instrument)
The idea that knowledge of a thing is dependent
1 pratyaksa pratyaksa
upon the instrument of knowledge is given by the maxim :
2 anumiti anumana
manadhlna meyasiddhih533.
3 upamiti upamana
Annambhatta considers knowledge as of two types: 4 Sabda Sabda
smrti and anubhava. Dealing with the latter he says it is of
Table 136: Types of Valid Knowledge and their
corresponding Means
529 The three items are puta-s, and their conjunction
(samahara) is tripufi. Dissolve: trayanam putanarh
samdharah \
534 Tarkasahgraha
530 This is presented as
tadvati tatprakarako'nubhavo yatharthah \
ghate "ayam ghatah" iti jnanasya pramatvam \
Illustration:
531 This is presented as yathd - rajate "idam rajatam" - iti jhanam \ sa eva
satyarajate "idam rajatam” iti jnanasya pramatvam \ prametyucyate \
Dissolve yatharthah as yathdbhuto'rthah yasmin sah |
532 This is presented as Suktau "idam rajatam" iti jnanasya
The expression tadvati tatprakarakah is sometimes stated as
bhramatvam \
tadvad viJesakah tatprakarakah \
533 The same is sometimes presented as "Right knowledge of a
535 Tarkasahgraha
thing is after all (hi) possible only through (hi)
tadabhavavati tatprakarako'nubhavo'yatharthaS ca yathd
Standard/Valid Instruments of Knowledge" and stated by
Suktau - idam rajatam - iti jhanam \ |
ISvarakrsna as "prameyasiddhih pramanad hi"
In the statements just noted tat refers to the dharma. This is
(Sahkhyakdrika 4) with the prefix pra underscoring
noted by Nyayamahjan
propriety.
tacchabdena prakanbhuto dharmo dhartavyah \
226 Padartha •
- Vijnana 227
20. Pramdna 20. Pramana

Smrti
Prakara and Visesa
Annambhatta defines smrti (Memory) as springing
When we see a pot (ghata), the pot is the object of from Impressions (samskara) alone337. It is one of the two
our knowledge. The object is called the viSesya of the types of knowledge that buddhi is538. The other type,
knowledge. The factor that marks it off from other objects anubhava, is shown as what is else than smrti539.
and/or presents the quiddity of the object is the prakara of If the object we have seen earlier, and remember,
the knowledge. Thus ghatatva is the prakara of the
is presented before our eyes, and we recognise it as the
cognition. The cognition is ayam ghatah which can be spelt
object we had seen earlier, it is called pratyabhijhd. Thus
out as
while smrti springs from Impressions alone, pratyabhijhd
ghatatvavad-ghatavitesyaka-ghatatvaprakdrakam jnanam \
involves the presence of the said object in front of us,
Thus ghatatva has two roles to play here:
(a) ghatatva-vi§esana of the ghata and
(b) ghatatva = prakara of the ghatajhana
Whereas ghata is the viSesya Triggers of Memory
Hence the knowledge arising from a proper
Caraka defines Memory as recollection of things
perception of an object has two features:
seen, heard, or experienced in the past541. 8 instigators of
(a) x-vtfesyakam
(b) y -prakarakam
If x and y tally, the perception is also valid.
Tarkasahgraha
In the sentence "rajate 'idam rajatam' id jnanam samskara-matra-janyam jnanam smrtih \
prama \" which is in a standard format, there is only one
538 Tarkasahgraha
word in the Locative Case (saptami-vibhakti). The word in
sa [=buddhih] dvividha - smrtih, anubhavaS ca |
the Locative is the viSesya, says a commentary on
Tarkasahgraha536. 539 Tarkasahgraha
tadbhinnam [=smrtibhinnam] jnanam anubhavah \

540 That is why Nyayasiddhantadipa of Sridhara defines it as

indriya-sahakrta-samskarajanya-jhanatvam |

541 Carakasarhhita 4.1.149

drsta-fmta-anubhutanam smaranat smrtir ucyate.
Cakrapani takes drsta as upalaksana for pratyaksa, whence
536 Vakyavrtti says perception through all the five sense organs can count. He
saptamyartho vUesyatvam \ takes Sruta as agama-pratita, derived from scriptural texts.

228 Padartha - - Vijhana 229

20. Pramdna 20. Pramdna

Memory (smrti) have been listed by Caraka. They have
been listed below.
Source of Memory Example furnished by
Cakrapani
1 nimitta-grahana karanam drstva karyam
smarati |
2 rupagrahana vane gavayam drstva gam
smarati \
3 sadriya pituh sadr&am putram drstva
pitaram smarati |
4 [sadrfya ] viparyaya atyarthakurupam drstva
pratiyoginam
atyarthasurupam smarati \
5 sattvanubandha -
(v) Sattvanubandha is mental focus. Strive and focus
on something to be recollected, many details
surface.
(vi) Abhydsa is practice. If you have practised
something regularly, the very practice triggers
memory/memories.
(vii) Jnanayoga is metaphysics. Attuned to a higher
knowledge, one finds it easy to recollect even
trivial things. At certain levels of spiritual
attainment, events and actions of even previous
births are easily recalled.
(viii) Sruta is hearing. You had heard certain things in
the past. You hear some of it again, and streams
of memory gush.

6 abhydsa -
In just the preceding section Caraka had listed
7 jnanayoga -
what all ideas/actions/attitudes and impulses are stirred by
8 punahSruta - a recollection of the knowledge of metaphysics (tattva-
smrteh upasthanat). Caraka lists over a dozen items
Table 137: Causal Factors in Memoiy consequent to such recounting there, noted in Table
138542.
Memory is stirred by 8 causes :
(i) Nimitta is cause. Look at the cause, you The concatenation from serving the noble to smrti
remember the effect. to duhkha-mukti has been noted by Caraka543.
(ii) Rupa is form/shape/look. Looking at some thing, The ideas of Caraka on smrti remind one of the
we are sometimes reminded of something same¬ causal links of smrti in Chandogya Upanisad544.
shaped.
(iii) Sadrfya is similarity. Someone resembles your
father. So, looking at him you remember your
father. 542 Carakasamhita 4.1.143-146
(iv) Viparyaya is contrast. Looking at someone very 543 Carakasamhita 4.1.147
ugly, we are reminded of someone who is very
charming. 544 Chandogya Upanisad 7.26.2
sattva-suddhau dhmva smrtih | smrtilambhe
sarvagranthindm vipramoksah \
230 Padartha - - Vijnana 231
20. Pramana 20. Pramana

Gotama presents his own list of 27 items triggering 1 pranidhana

memory545. Vatsyayana, the commentator, is careful 2 nibandha
enough to add that this list, though fairly exhaustive, is 3 abhyasa
only illustrative, and by no means exhaustive546. 4 linga
5 laksana
1 satarh upasanam samyak 6 sadrfya
2 asatam parivarjanam 7 parigraha
3 vratacarya- 8 dsraya
4 -upavasau ca 9 asrita
5 niyama§ ca prthag-vidhah 10 sambandha
6 dharanam dharma&dstrdndm 11 anantarya
7 vijnanam 12 viyoga
8 vijane ratih 13 ekakarya
9 visayesvaratih 14 virodha
10 mokse vyavasayah 15 atisaya
11 para dhrtih 16 prapti
12 karmanam asamarambhah 17 vyavadhana
13 krtanam ca pariksayah 18 sukha
14 niskarmyam / naiskramyam 19 duhkha
15 anahankarah 20 iccha
16 samyoge bhayadar&anam 21 dvesa
17 namobuddhi-samadhanam 22 bhaya
18 arthatattva-panksanam 23 arthitva
24 kriya
Table 138: Profusion of Positive Results from 25 rdga
Sapiential Memory 26 dharma
27 adharma

Table 139 : Triggers of Memory

545 Nyayasutra 3.2.41

546 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 3.2.41)

nidarSanam cedam smrti-hetundm, na parisankhydnam iti \

232 Padartha - - Vijnana 233

 20. Pramana
20. Pramana

As Annambhatta points out a little later, smrti

based on prama is yathartha whereas smrti based on
Aprama
aprama is ayathartha (“smrti” is feminine).
ViSvanatha classifies knowledge into two - Valid
and Invalid (prama and aprama)5* . He then defines
aprama as knowing in some fashion as is not548. Samsaya

For Laugaksibhaskara, it is an Untrue SamSaya is the first of the three varieties of

Apprehension spring from seemingly Valid Instruments of
Knowledge (pramanabhasa)5*9. GangeSa takes it as
receiving a thing in a particular mode while the thing itself
betrays the absence of such a feature550.
It is common to refer to aprama as
ayatharthanubhava, as is done by Annambhatta.
Annambhatta divides this into three types listed below.
samtaya Doubt
viparyaya Error
tarka Wrong Assumption
aprama. Annambhatta defines it as a kind of knowledge
which apprehends features vaifistya-avagahi which are
multiple and contrary, viruddha-nanadharma, in a single
substance (dharmin)551. The stock example is “Is it a post
or a man?”552 ViSvanatha defines it as the notion of the
existence as well as non-existence of something .
The cause for samSaya is given by ViSvanatha who
says features common (sadharanadi-dharma) to two or
more things is responsible for sarhfaya554. Govardhana
refers to the typical bhavadvaya-kotika-sam&aya - the

Table 140: Types of Invalid Knowledge

551 Tarkasangraha
ekasmin dharmini vimddha-nanadharma-vatfistydvagahi
jndnarh samtayah \ dharmin is the thing, and dharma-s are
properties/attributes.
547 Karikavali 126 552 Tarkasangraha
aprama ca prama ceti jhanam dvividham isyate \ sthdnur va pumso veti \ Cf. Karikavah 121 kirhsvin naro va
sthanur va - ityadibuddhis til sarMayah \ In his
548 Karikavali 127
autocommentary he adds ‘kimsvid’ id vitarke \
tacchunye tanmadr yd syad aprama sa ninipitd \

549 Tarkakaumudi 6 553 Karikavali 130

sa samtayo madrya syad ekatrdbhdva-bhdvayoh |
pramanabhdsa-janyah ayatharthanubhavah |

550 Tattvacintamani 1.10 554 Karikavali 130

sadharanadidharmasya jhanam sarhtaya-kdranam \
tadabhavavati tatprakarakanubhavah \
• Vijnana 235
234 Padartha -
20. Pramana 20. Pramana

dilemma (though trilemma or tetralemma could also be
possible)555.
Bhranti
This is also known as viparyaya or viparyasa or
bhrama. It is simply defined as Wrong Notion556. In the
autocommentary he defines it as “Apprehending a feature
in a thing which has the very absence of that feature.”557
as high, or if the illumination is slightly better but not
sufficient yet as to conduce for clarity, we encounter
doubts.
It may be mentioned in passing that samtoya is
derived from sam + (fin svapne)', while ni&caya is
derived from nis + Vci (ci caye).
The features of prama, samSaya and bhrama may
thus be noted in a tabular column.

A curious feature is that both prama (Valid niScaya samya

Apprehension) and bhrama (Delusion) share a common prama V -

factor viz. Certitude (niScaya). You get a feeling that the samSaya X S much
object has a certain feature, and you do not get a feeling bhrama 'Ohigh
at all that the object does not have that feature. You are
sure that you know, and you are not beset with doubts558. Table 141: Right and Wrong Apprehensions :
A difference between samSaya and viparyaya may
Commonalities and Differences
be noted. In both the cause for the absence of Right
Apprehension is similarity. If the similarity is very intense
Pramana-s : Number and Types
we have viparyaya. If it is less so, we have samSaya. It is the
high similarity in shape, and poor illumination makes a
Three well-known verses describe which pramana-s
person mistake a rope for a serpent. If the similarity is not
are recognised by which school of thought559. They are
listed in Table 142.
555 Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasangraha 3)
bhava-dvaya-kotika-sariisaya-prasiddheh sthanutva- 559 The verses are as follows:
sthdnutvdbhdva-punisatva-pumsatvdbhava-kotikah sarhsayah pratyaksam ekam carvakdh, kanadasugatau punah |
- ityarthah | Thus this is a catuskotika-samSaya. anumanam ca taccapi, sahkhyah fabdam ca te’pi ca \
nydyaikadeSino ’pyevam upamanam ca kecana |
556 Tarkasangraha
arthapattya sahaitani catvary ahuh prabhakarah \ \
mithydjnanam viparyayah
abhava-sasthany etani bhatta vedantinas tatha \
557
Tarkasangrahadipika sambhavaitihyayuktani tani pauranika jagnh \
tadabhavavati tatprakdraka-niicaya ityarthah Cf.
carvakas tavad ekam dvitayam api punar bauddha-vaiSesikau
558 Karikavali dvau / bhasarvajhaS ca sahkhyas tritayam udayanddydk
tadabhavaprakara dhih tatprakara tu niscayah \
catuskam vadanti |
236 Padartha - Vijnana 237
20. Pramana 20. Pramana

Notation Apart from tantrika-s who consider 9 pramana-s,

1 P pratyaksa there are certain other minor schools of thought which
2 a anumana add pariSesa as pramana, thus making the number ten560.
3 $ Sabda
4 u upamana
5 ar arthapatti Reduction of the 8 pramana-s into 3
6 ab abhava
Among the major schools of philosophy, we thus
7 s sambhava
find a maximum of 8 pramana-s. But many of these
8 ai aitihya
pramana-s are like certain specific/special cases of some of
9 c cesta
the pramana-s, and hence it is possible to reduce all into 3
pramana-s. Cf. gobalivardanyaya or karikalabhanyayaS61.
School of No. of pramana-s accepted
Thought pramana-s
Name of Subsumability under
Carvaka 1 JP pramana
VaiSesika 2 p+a
1 aitihya aptavacana
Bauddha 2 p+a
2 arthapatti anumana
Sahkhya 3 p+a+3
3 sambhava anumana
Nyaya 4 p+a+$+u
4 upamana anumana
Prabhakara- 5 p+a+$+u+ar
5 abhava pratyaksa / anumana
mimarhsaka
Bhatta- 6 p+a+£+u+ar+ab Table 143 : Subsumability of Pramana-s
mimarhsaka
Vedanta 6 p+a+$+u+ar+ab To illustrate, Caraka defines aitihya as “Veda etc”,
Pauranika 8 p+a+4+u+ar+ab+s+ai which constitute the advice from an Adept562. A typical
Tantrika 9 p+a+6+u+ar+ab+s+ai+c

560 Nyayasiddhantamanjariprakasa of Laugaksibhaskara and

Table 142 : Schools of Thought and
Sarvadarsanasangraha have some discussions on the
pramana-s they accept pramana-s.

561 For a parallel, see Carakasamhita 3.8.41

catuskam vadanti \ aitihyam nama dptopadeio vedadih \
prahuhprabhakarah pancakam api ca vayam te’pi vedanta- 562 For a detailed consideration of the various pramana-s, see
vijiidh / satkam pauranikas tvastakam abhidadhire Vacaspatimisra’s Sankhyatattvakaumudi on karika 5 of
sambhavaitihyayogat 11 Sahkhyakdrika (prativisayddhyavasayo drstam etc). Read
238 Padartha - - Vijnana 239
20. Pramana 20. Pramana

example for aitihya is asmin vrkseyakso vasati. “There lives with - the four pramana-s viz. pratyaksa, aeama, anumana,
a demigod on this tree.” This so overlaps with Sabda or and upamana5™.
aptopadeSa that it is hardly needed to accord a
pramana Example
special/individual status to it.
1 upamana gosadrfo gavayah
Typical examples of the subsumable pramana-s are 2 arthapatti grhe'bhavan caitrah grhad bahir bhavati
as in Table 144. 3 abhava nakulabhavajhane nakulavirodhino
It may be remarked that SuSruta and Caraka have, vyalasya kalpanam
in their treatment of pramana-s, given the number of 4 sambhava kharyarh dronadyavagamah
pramana-s as 4 or 3 or even 2, depending on the context. 5 aitihya iha vate yaksah prativasati
SuSruta makes a reference to an important aspect of
Ayurveda right in the opening chapter as in no wise going Table 144: Subsumable pramana-s and Their
contrary to - by which he implies thorough concordance Illustrations

Similarly in the Tisraisaniya Chapter, Caraka

evarh pramana-samanya-laksanesu tadviSesa-laksanesu ca
satsu, yani pramanantarani upamanadlni prativadibhir
abhyupeyante, tani uktalaksanesveva pramanesvantarbhavanti
- tatha hi etc.
He tackles upamana, arthapatti, abhava, sambhava, and
aitihya. Some etymologies may be noted.
(i) aitihyarh —id ha iicur vrddhah - iti aitihyam |
arthapattih = arthad dpadyate |
Note arthapatti has been called arthaprdpti by Caraka, who
explains it as follows : Carakasarithita 3.8.48 :
yatra ekenarthena uktena aparasyarthasya anuktasyapi
siddhih \
Also compare the stock example given by him :
“nanena diva bhoktavyam” - ityukte bhavatyarthapraptih -
nifi bhoktavyam iti \
Also see Cakrapani thereon. Arthapatii where valid, can as
well be accounted for under anumana, says Cakrapani (on
Carakasarithita 3.8.50)
yd tu dosa-rahita sd’numandntarvargataiveti bhavah \
240 Padartha
makes a reference to the 4 pramana-s5M. Later on he
refers to three565. Just two paragraphs later, he marks
563 Susrutasarhhita 1.1.16
tasyahgavaram ddyam pratyaksa-agama-anumana-
upamanaih aviniddham ucyamanam avadharaya | |
Note that he has not stated it as upamana-adyaih, whence it
becomes clear that it is a closed list. That he has not
expressly mentioned the word pramana does not detract
from its relevance to our context. He obviously means that
they are the actual sources of knowledge.
564 Carakasarithita 1.11.17
They are mentioned in this order aptopadefa, pratyaksa,
anumana, yukti.
565 Carakasarithita 3.4.3 Here yukti is left out.
- - Vijnana 241
20. Pramdna
20. Pramdna

them as two or three566. The same idea is repeated in

Pariksa
another section567.
All these may be tabulated with the following Ayurveda being a practical science, it is only natural
Abbreviations: to expect an important place accorded to practical
examination.
Source No of Abbr. of
Pariksa can be rendered as “circum-spection”. That
pramana-s pramana-s
is pariksa, etymologises Cakrapani, by which the nature of
1 SS 4 PAaU
things is settled568.
2 cs 4 APaY
3 cs 3 APa Caraka advises us to be discreet not only in
4 cs 2/3 Pa(+A) medication, but even in speaking569.
5 cs 2/3 P a (+A) Caraka refers to various types of examination.
Referring to 10 types of examinations he says one should
Table 145 : Number and Sequence of pramdna-s proceed to act only subsequently570. Before commencing
considered by Susruta and Caraka his task as a doctor one should very well examine and then

SS Susrutasarhhita
568 —

CS Carakasamhita Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.11.17)

pariksyate = vyavasthapyate vastu-svarupam anaya - iti
pariksa |
pratyaksa P
For him pariksa and pramdna mean the same thing, pari- =
anumana a circum-
agama/aptopadefa/upadeto A
U 569 Carakasamhita 3.8.67
upamana
samaveksyaveksya sarvam vakyam bniyatf na aprakrtakam,
yukti Y
aSastram, apariksitam, asadhakamfdkulamf avyapakam va |
sarvam ca hetumad bniyat |
Table 146: Abbreviations Note how aveksya, samaveksya, and pariksya are all
traceable to the same root iks.
570 Carakasamhita 3.8.79
etad dafavidham agrepariksyam, tato’nantaram karyarthd
566 Carakasamhita 3.4.5 pravrttir uddista |
pratyaksa and anumana; upade&a to be added.
571 Carakasamhita 3.8.79
567 Carakasamhita 3.8.83 tasmad bhisak kaiyam cikirsuh prak karyasamarambhat
pariksaya kevalam pariksya pariksya karma samarabheta
242 Padartha -
- Vijhdna 243
20. Pramana 20. Pramana

Men of knowledge examine in 2 ways. The two are
pratyaksa and anumana. Direct Perception and Inference.
Or a third may be added viz. upadeto. Teachings of the
Wise572.
Ten items need to be examined, says Caraka. They
are listed below.
The final goal of pariksa, says Caraka, is proper
apprehension (pratipatti)574. He defines it as the grasp of
the remedial measure as is commensurate with the
aberration from health (vikara)575.

1 karanam bhisak
2 karanam bhesajam
3 karya-yonih dhatu-vaisamyam
4 karyam dhatu-samyam
5 karya-phalam sukhavaptih
6 anubatidhah ayuh
7 detoh bhumih, aturaSca
8 kalah sarhvatsaraS ca aturavastha ca
9 pravrttih pratikarma-samarambhah
10 upayah bhisagadinam sausthavam
abhividhanam ca samyak

Table 147 :10-Point Sequence of Examinee Items

Furtheron, Caraka expatiates upon what item has

to be examined how in the subsequent sections573.

kartum \
In the subsequent sections also (80 - 86) there are
discussions on pariksa.
572 Carakasamhita 3.8.83 574 Carakasamhita 3.8.132
dvividha tu khalu pariksa jnanavatam - pratyaksam pariksayas tu khalu prayojanam pratipatti-jhanam \
anumanam ca \ etaddhi dvayam updeSafca pariksa syat \
575 Carakasamhita 3.8.132
evam esd dvividha pariksa, trividha va sahopadeserta \
pratipattir rtama yo vikaroyatha pratipattavyah, tasya
573 Carakasamhita 3.8.86 - 130 tathanusthana-jhanam |

244 Padartha - - Vijnana 245


CHAPTER 21
APTOPADESA
Definition
AptopadeSa is one among the pramana-s. It is
commonly accorded a third place, but in Ayurveda it is
sometimes accorded the very first place. In the context of
pariksa, Caraka has given this the prior position,
superseding even pratyaksa and anumana.5 6 Consider his
usage of purvam and tatah; ‘firstly’, and ‘thereafter’.
Aptopadesa: Definition
Before he states the above ordering, Caraka
defines aptopadesa. AptopadeSa is the “Instruction of the
Adepts”5'7. He first defines an apta, an Accomplished
Person. Their knowledge does not suffer from three
576 Carakasamhita 3.4.5
trividhena khlavanena jnana-samudayena purvam panksya
rogam ... trividhe tvasmin jhana-samudaye purvam
aptopadeSaj-jhanam, tatah pratyaksanumanabhyam
pariksopapadyate \ kim hyanupadistam purvam yattat
pratyaksanumanabhyam pariksyamano vidyat ?
577 ‘Adept’ is no match for ‘apta’. Apta' has a touch of deep
regard for the Accomplished, which is almost religious, as
sages and seers are regularly so referred.
246 Padartha
21. Aptopadesa
drawbacks - doubts, a mere remembrance, and partial
information. Nor is their understanding tinged by
prejudicial love or hatred578.
Cakrapani explains the laconic expression in some
detail. The apta-s are ones not assailed by doubts and
questions; in other words, their knowledge is not tinged by
any uncertainty579. Apta-s do not act only on the basis of
memory; first-hand experience, on the contrary, is the
foundation of their knowledge. And again, their
knowledge is not rather limited or incomplete. Quite to
the contrary, their knowledge is characterised by certainty,
experience, and entirety580. Again, it is not impossible that
even those who are fairly well-knowledgeable would
sometimes speak not as per their knowledge when
prejudices play - when they have bias for or against some.
Caraka negates even such a possibility by saying that they
are free from love and hatred. This ensures that they
speak unvitiated by prejudice, and beholding truth
directly581.
578 Carakasamhita 3.4.4
apta hyavitarka-smrti-vibhagavido nispnty-upatapa-darSinaS
ca |
579 ~
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.4.4)
vitarkah kathamta - antfcita-jnanam itiyavat |
580 _
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.4.4)
ni&cayena, anubhavena ca, kartsnyena ca ye bhavan janate
te ’vitarka -smrti- vibhagavidah |
He adds what may be its corollary: One whose knowledge is
imperfect, erected on mere memory, and incomprehensible
cannot be labelled as an apta.
581 —
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.4.4)
samyaj-jhanavanto’pi ragadi-vaSdd anyatha vyaharanti \
- Vijhana 247
21. Aptopadesa
Rarity
Cakrapani is aware that such apta-s are rare to
encounter. Only such ones (divine beings) as Lord
Brahma may have it, though they have it everywhere582;
but with mortals, their instruction are to be known as valid
only insofar as they are not beset with doubts etc.583.
Invalid is the word of one who is puffed up with pride, is
mad, or is idiotic in speech584.
Subtleties
Caraka asks rhetorically, tackling the issue from an
opposite angle. Untaught, what is it that one can grasp via
nispntya nimpatapena ca drastum Silam yesdrh te \ etena
yatharthadarfi nirdosaf captah bhavatlty uktam bhavanti \
582 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.4.4)
evambhutam captatvam kasyacid brahmadeh sarvatraiva
bhavati \
583 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.4.4)
laukikasya tu yasminneva visaye vitarkadi na bhavati,
tatraivopadeSah pramanam iti jheyam \
584 Carakasamhita 3.4.4
apramanam punah matta-unmatta-murkha-rakta-dustadusta-
vacanam iti \
248 Padartha -
21. Aptopadesa
pratyaksa and anumana?585 : precious little, obviously, and
as Cakrapani would put it, like unto that of a layman586.
Cakrapani elucidates - not easily comprehensible
are diseases in particular. It is just not possible to know
them with no prior instruction and training. Those who
have mastered the medical texts will of course detail every
disease. Agama-s, then, have set forth very many diseases;
and with the aid of pratyaksa and anumana thereupon one
gets to ascertain the particular disease. Noticing things
through them (i.e. pratyaksa and anumana only) on the
other hand - untrained, that is - one would not arrive at
the details of the particular disease - as does one
untrained in gemmology deal with gems: he may notice all
details, figuring out precious little nevertheless587.
585 Carakasamhita 3.4.5
kim hyanupadistam piirvam yattat pratyaksdnumanabhyam
panksamano vidyat ?
586 _
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.4.5) says :
agamanupadiste ca vyadhau, avaidya iva, na
pratyaksendnumdnena ca vyadhim upalabhata ityaha \
587 —
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.4.5)
vyadhi-vitesdh tavad duradhigamaniyah nopadetom antarena
Sakya vijndtum | ye’dhigata-vaidyaka-Sdstrdh te
pratipadayanty eva vyddhi-visesan | tasmad agamena ye
vyddhinam hetvddi-visesdh pratipaditah tan
pratyaksdnumanabhyam upalabhamano vyadhim niScinoti \
anupadetovan tan upalabhamano'pi hetvadi-visesan aSiksita-
ratna-parikso yatha ratndnam visesam pafyannapi
ndvadhdrayati ratna-vtfesam, tathd navadharayati vyadhi-
vLSesam - iti bhavah |
- Vijhana 249
 21. Aptopadesa
21. Aptopadesa

Caraka sets forth over a dozen factors pertaining to

every disease, taken note of by men of acumen, listed in Examination: Types
Table 148.
Apta-s have been considered in other contexts in
And two more pieces of information are also Carakasamhita, and other texts too. In the opening
gathered from aptopadesa: chapter of his samhita, Caraka remarks thus589:
1. what remedial measures must be taken Examination is of four types, (tabulated below), through
2. what measures are not to be taken588. which all that is good (sat) and all that is evil (asat) may be
examined. The two are thus defined by Cakrapani,
tabulated below.
rogam ekaikam Know each and every disease as:
1 evarh-prakopanam thus provoked 1 dptopadeSa
2 evam-yonim thus originated 2 pratyaksa
3 evam-utthanam thus manifested 3 anumana
4 evam-dtmanam of this nature 4 yukti
5 evam-adhisthanam here located
6 evam-vedanam giving rise to this kind of pain Table 149: The Four Tools of Examination
7 evam-samsthanam having these symptoms
8 evam -Sabda-sparSa - having sound / touch / look/ taste
riipa-rasa-gandham / smell of this type 1 sat vidhi-visaya-pramana-gamyam bhavarupam
9 evam-upadravam having these complications 2 asat nisedha-visaya-pramana-gamyam abhavarupam
10 evam-vrddhi-sthana- endowed with aggravation,
ksaya-samanvitam steadiness or abatement thus Table 150: The Two Examinees
11 evam-udarkam having these fallouts in future
12 evam-namanam having this/these name(s)
Apta: Other Angles
13 evam-yogam vidyat having this/these combinations

Table 148 : Parameters for ascertaining Diseases

through aptopadesa.
589 Carakasamhita 1.11.17
dvividhena khalu sarvarh saccasacca etc.
SuSruta also maintains the same order except in that he has
588 ~~ upamana in place oiyukti. Cf. Susrutasamhita 1.1.16.
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.4.6)
Dalhana here provides the logic for the priority of
tasminniyam pratlkarartha pravrttih, athava nivrttih
aptopadeki: that it is most reliable.
ityupadeSat jnayate |

250
- Vijhana 251
Padartha -
21. Aptopadesa 21. Aptopadesa

Caraka takes the occasion to define an apta.Apta-s
are those (a) who with their strength of tapas and jriana,
are freed of rajas and tamas, and inclinations towards
passion and inertia. Their pure knowledge is all the time
{trikalam) unimpeded. They are knowledgeable. Their
utterances are undoubtedly true. Transcending rajas and
tamas as they do, what for at all would they speak
untruth?590 Untruth, glosses Cakrapani, from either wrong
knowledge (mithyajriana), or, if there is right knowledge,
from either bias for something, or against, {raga and
dvesa). The latter spring from rajas and tamas only591.
The definitions we obtain from other texts or other
disciplines are also similar in content or essence. We may
refer to Dalhana592 or Vatsyayana593.
The word agama or Sabda is sometimes used in lieu
of aptopadeSa594. There are interesting and concordant
etymologies of Sista-s also: Sista-s are those who rule the
world through their teachings as regards what is right and
595
wrong etc .

590 Carakasamhita 1.11.18-19

rajas-tamobhyam nirmuktah tapo-jhanabalena ye \
yesam trikalam amalam jhanam avyahatam sada \ \
aptah sistah vibuddhas te, tesarh vakyam asamSayam \
satyam, va/csyanti te kasmad asatyam riirajastamah ? \ \
As Cakrapani explains: nirmuktah = nihSesena muktah
(totally set free from), tapo-jhanabalena states the cause.
Trikalam refers to the past, present, and future.
Aptyayuktah = aptah (where apti = rajas-tamo-riipa-dosa-
ksayah) \ Sistah = sdsati iti = kdrydkdrya-pravrtti-nivrtty-
592 Cf. Nibandhasahgraha (on Susrutasamhita 1.1.16)
upadeSena jagat krtsnam Sdsati | vibuddhah viSesena
siddham siddhaih pramanais tu hitam catra paratra ca |
buddham etaih \
agamah Sastram aptanam aptah tattvartha-vedinah 11
The method of dissolution of compounds or giving
etymologies is quite elucidatory. It is rajas and tamas that 593 Cf. Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra )
can inspire untruth. aptah khalii sdksdtkrta-dharma yathadrstasydrthasya
Cf. Carakasamhita 3.6.5 cikhyapayisaya prayuktah upadesta |
rajas tamaS ca manasau dosau \ tayor vikarah kama-krodha- (Definition of saksatkara)
lobha-mohersya-mana-mada-Soka-cintodvega-bhaya- saksatkaranam ailhasyaptih, taya pravartate - ity aptah |
harsadayah |
594 Cf. agamo hyaptavacanam; apta himself defined as aptas tu
591 —
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.11.19) yathartha-vakta, speaker of truth.
asatyam mithya-jndnad va abhidhiyate, samyag-jnane saty
595 Cf. Cakrapani:
api raga-dvesabhyam va’bhidhiyate \ tac ca tritayam api
Sdsati jagat krtsnam karydkdrya-pravrtti-nivrtti-upadeSena iti
mithydjhdna-raga-dvesa-riipam rajas-tamo-nirmukte
Sistah |
sattvagunodrekat a mala- vijrt d n ena sambhavatity arthah \
252 Padartha - - Vijhana 253
 22. Sabda-pramdna & Nighantu

CHAPTER 22

Type Example
SABDA-PRAMANA 1 drstartha tribhir hetubhih dosah
(VERBAL TESTIMONY) prakupyanti600
2 adrstartha asti pretyabhavah
Definition 3 satya santy ayurvedopadeSah
4 anrta [na santy
While Sabda is a guna, Sabda is also a pramana. dyurvedopadeSah /601
How do they differ? While the former is something
perceived by the ear596, the latter is one of the four means Table 151: 4 Types of sabda and their examples
of cognition597, as Annambhatta says.
Sabda (Verbal Testimony) is the utterance of an
apta. In turn an apta is defined by Annambhatta as “a Vakya, pada, and sakti
speaker of truth”598.
After defining Sabda as dptavakya, “the Utterance
of the Adept”, Annambhatta defines vakya, Sentence. It is
Types

Caraka takes a different approach. He defines

Sabda as a collection of letters599. It is of 4 types tabulated
in Table 151:
599 Carakasamhita 3.8.38
Sabdo nama varna-samamnayah | Cakrapani explains
596 Tarkasahgraha
samamnaya as melaka, explained as pfirva-
Srotrendriya- mdtra -grdhyo giino Sabdah. \
purvanubhavajanita-sarhskdrasahita-dntya-
597
Tarkasahgraha varndnubhavdrohena melako jheyah \
tat-karanam api [ = yatharthanubhava-karanam api] catur-
600 The three hetu-s refer to prajhaparadha etc.
vidham - pratyaksanumanopamana-Sabda-bhedat \

598 Tarkasahgraha 601 Actually Caraka has not given this example for anrta. On the
aptavakyam Sabdah \ aptas tu yathartha-vakta \ Dissolve
other hand, he has defined anrta. He defines it as satya-
viparyaya. The example we have supplied is based on this
yathdrtha as yathabhutah arthah \
definition.
254 Padartha -
- Vijhana 255
22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu 22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu

a collection of words. The word itself is then to be

defined. The word is that which has Sakti, “Power”602. Sentence Sense Action
1 gam anaya Bring the cow Cow brought
Sakti, in turn, is referred to as a convention
2 gam badhana Tie the cow Cow tied
(sahketa) settled by the Lord - such as “this idea is to be
conveyed through this word”603. In his autocommentary, 3 a§vam anaya Bring the horse Horse brought
Annambhatta offers another definition of Sakti. It is the 4 aSvam badhana Tie the horse Horse tied
relationship between the word and the thing, so as to be
favourable to remembering the sense604. Table 152: Language Learning:
Role of Comparison and Contrast

The pattern of comparison and contrast may be

Model of Language Learning
shown by a table:
A simple but effective model of language learning b c
is provided by Annambhatta in his commentary. How does t c
one acquire the meaning of words? This happens via b h
exposure of the vyutpitsu, learner, to what is called vrddha- t h
vyavahara or the speech of the elderly (=the
knowledgeable). The learner gets to know, almost Table 153 : Comparison and Contrast - Patterns
unconsciously, by comparison and contrast (anvaya and
vyatireka), and the meaning of words are deduced thereby. Here,
b = bring
Consider the utterance, followed by the t = tie
corresponding action of the madhyama-vrddha, a senior, c = cow
of these sentences. h = horse

602 Tarkasahgraha The speech, action, and comprehension may be

vakyam padasamiihah \ Saktam padam \ mapped as in Table 154.
603 Tarkasahgraha Here there are two objects and two actions
asmat padad ayam arthah boddhavyah - iti i&vara-sahketah connected with them (Table 155).
Saktih |
There is a process called dvapa and udvapa
604 Tarkasahgrahadipika (implantation and ejection; introduction and
artha-smrty-anukidah pada-padartha-sambandhah Saktih |
replacement) which is done by vyutpitsu.
The modern school would say icchamatram Saktih (rather
than tfvara-sahketah Saktih)

256 Paddrtha - - Vijnana 257

22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu 22. Sabda-pramdna & Nighantu

Participation Participant Source Illustration

Speech By vrddha also called prayojaka-vrddha 1 Vyakarana Grammar pacaka
Action By madhyama-vrddha also called 2 Upamana Comparison gavayah
prayojya-vrddha 3 KoSa Lexicon nirjara
Comprehension By vyutpitsu 4 Aptavakya Utterances of a pikah
credible person
Table 154: Language Learning: Participants and 5 Vyavahara The usage of the gamanaya
Participation elderly
6 VakyaSesa Context yava
7 Vivrti Explanation kalato
Objects Actions 8 Siddhapada- Proximity to a pikah
8° Cow anaya Bringing sannidhya better-known word
afva Horse badhana Tying
Table 156 : Techniques of Vocabulary Building
Table 155 : Objects and Actions
To illustrate:
The vyutpitsu, learner, knows the ways of
1. When you can see the grammatical components in
attachment and detachment of words, and the a word, you can work out its sense. Thuspacaka is
corresponding changes in action, through which all he
derived from a root meaning “to cook”, and a
establishes a one-is-to-one correspondence between words
suffix meaning “the agent of “. “A cook” is the
and their senses. It goes without saying that these are meaning, therefore, of pacaka.
universal protocols in language learning.
2. By hearing gosadrSo gavayah, you get some idea of
gavaya, as it is compared to go.
Grasping sakti: 8 ways 3. Lexica list synonyms, and so, reading amara nirjara
devah, you know nirjarah = devah.
Protocols of vocabulary building have also been 4. You did not know what pika meant, but someone
worked out, and rather exhaustively so, in the Indian you know who knows Sanskrit well, says kokilah
tradition. A famous verse lists 8 modes of vocabulary pika-padavacyah, so you know pika = kokila =
acquisition605, tabulated below cuckoo.

605 Nyayasiddhantamuktavati (on Karikavali 81)

vakyasya sescid vivrter vadanti
Saktigraho vyakaranopamana-
samnidhyatah siddhapadasya dhirah | |
-koiaptavaicyad vyavaharataS ca \
258 Padartha - - Vijhana 259
22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu 22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu

5. Vyavahara is verbal transactions by elders as in gam The denotation is called Sakti, and the connotation
anaya, gam badhana etc. is called laksana. Each has 3 subdivisions. These are
6. The meaning oiyava in “yavamayaS carur bhavati”, tabulated below:
a Vedic sentence may not be known. By the time Subtypes Example
Types
you come to the end of the sentence or the 1 pacakah
yoga
passage, you will have guessed the sense. Sakti
2 rudhi ghatah
7. Commentaries explain words by juxtaposing a Denotation
3 yogarudhi pah/cajam
synonym - as in ghatah kalaSah. If you know the vrtti 4 jahallaksana mahcah kroSanti
sense of one word, you could guess that of the
laksana 5 ajahallaksana chatrino yanti
other.
Connotation 6 jahad- so'yam
8. You did not know what pika meant in iha
ajahallaksand devadattah
sahakara-tarau madhuram piko rauti. As you know
the other words, you make a very good guess.
Table 157: Types of vrtti

Vrtti Sakti: types

When we hear a word known to us, we get its
meaning. Actually, there is something that relates the two,
and the same is called vrtti.
We often convey a plain idea through colourful
terms. Consider the two sentences here:
1. He is a brilliant boy.
2. The boy is a spark.
The essence of both is the same, but the second is
colourful.
Obviously the boy is not exactly a spark, but has its
brilliance. Therefore words convey their literal sense no
doubt, but even implied senses.
The Sanskrit example for the second sentence
above is agnir manavakah : “This young boy is fire”.
1. Yoga
Many words are transparent. Looking at the
components, you arrive at the sense. Eg. In pacaka,
you know the components: the root (pac) means ‘to
cook’, and the suffix (aka) is agentive. “one who
cooks” is the sense.
2. Rudhi
It is a customary signification. The etymology of
some words is not easily or clearly reflective of the
sense. The link between ghata and its root ghat is
not easily visible. So convention has fixed the sense
of ghata as pot.
3. Yoga-riidhi
It is a type where etymology functions, but in a way
restricted by convention. The word pahkaja can

260 Padartha - - Vijhana 261

22. tSabda-pramana & Nighantu
etymologically stand for anything produced in
mire; but it is conventionally restricted to mean the
lotus. Thus the sense of frog, possible
etymologically, is blocked by convention.
The pattern of the three types may be noted as below:
sakti Explanation Power
yoga avayava-Sakti componential power
rudhi samudaya-Sakti collective power
yoga-rudhi ubhaya-Sakti both powers
Table 158: The Nature oisakti-s
Sometimes a fourth type called yaugika-rudhi is
also proposed. The word udbhid conveys the sense here
etymologically as well as conventionally. It can refer to a
tree etc., etymologically. It refers to a sacrifice of that
name. Another example useful for Ayurveda is
aSvagandha.
Laksana: Types
In the example agnir manavakah, we can easily see
that the denoted sense (vacyartha) of agni is not applicable
to the boy. It is in order to say something else that this
word is chosen. The word agni means fire which is known
for its brightness. A kind of brilliance is there in the boy.
The two are thus linked.
There are two conditions in the case of the
secondary sense or laksana. The vacyartha is inapplicable;
the new sense is linked. The first is called mukhyartha-
badha. The second is mukhyartha-yoga. The first is also
called mukhyartha-anupapatti.
262 Padartha -
22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu
1. Jahallaksana
This is when the vacyartha is totally abandoned. In
the example mahcah. kroianti, mahcah would
literally mean ‘the cots’. The cots cannot cry; but
the kids in the cots do. Hence the sentence means:
the kids are crying.
Here the primary sense of ‘cot’ is totally dismissed.
The kids on the cot are taken as implied. Jahat is
‘abandoning’, ‘dismissing’.
2. Ajahallaksana
In the example chatrino yanti, the primaiy sense of
chatrinah is ‘those who hold umbrellas’. Actually
this sentence is spoken with reference to a
procession in which there are many who hold
umbrellas. Obviously there are many who do not
hold umbrellas. But they are also implied.
Thus there is an extension of sense. Though the
word chatrinah can refer only to those who are
carrying umbrellas, even those who are not holding
umbrellas are taken by implication, as they are
associated with those who carry umbrellas.
Ajahat is ‘not abandoning’.
3. Jahad-ajahallaksana
In the example so’yam devadattah, “ It is that
[very] Devadatta”, both types noted above are
involved. The words sah and ayarh have different
references tabulated in Table 159.
- Vijhana 263
22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu 22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu

sah = tatkalino the Devadatta that we The three types of Functions (vrtti), and Sense
devadattah saw in the past (artha) may thus be tabulated.
ayarh = etatkalino the Devadatta that we
Function Sense yielded
devadattah see in the present
abhidha vacyartha / mukhyartha
Table 159: Double Reference to a single entity laksana laksyartha
vyanjana vyahgyartha
Spatio-temporal Coordinates
Table 160 : Functions yielding Sense
Now, for identifying the two, we drop the
qualifications, viz. tatkatina and etatkalina, and retain the
rest.
Vdkydrtha-jnana
Sometimes a fourth variety is suggested viz. laksita-
A sentence has to make complete sense. In order
laksana. In the example dvirepha, standing for the ‘bee’,
that it may do so, certain conditions will necessarily have
the word literally means “a word having two r-sounds’;
to be followed. Three such conditions have been noticed
hence the reference is to the word ‘bhramara’ which has
in the Indian tradition. They are listed below:
two r-sounds. As the word bhramara means a bee, the
word dvirepha also came to mean a bee.
Condition Meaning Definition
Sometimes laksana is divided differently into two : 1 akahksa Expectancy abhidhanaparyavasanam
1. Rudha (also called Suddha) 2 yogyata Compatibility arthabadhah
2. Gauni (also called prayojanavati) 3 sannidhi Contiguity avilamboccaranam
In the example given above, wherever there is
mukhyartha-badha, that is, mukhyartha-anupapatti or Table 161: Sensible Sentence: Conducing
inapplicability of the primary sense, is rudha. Conditions

In certain cases is there is no mukhyartha-

anupapatti, yet a new sense can occur. In the example
gahgayam ghosah : “There is a village on the Ganges”, the
idea of coolness of the river and its sanctity are intended
to be spoken of the village (ghosa) on the bank of the
river.
This gauni-laksana has an alternative appellation
viz. vyahjana, the sense is vyahgyartha.
264 Paddrtha -
Akdnksa
Suppose someone said “cow, horse, man,
elephant.” This set of words makes no sentence at all. For
the words therein have no syntactic connection. They are
just disjunct words having no bearing on each other. On
the other hand, even two words such as “Bring cows”
make sense. For, there is a mutual expectancy between
- Vijhana 265
22. &abda-pramana & Nighantu 22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu

the two words. When you say “Bring”, the easily
expectable question is “Bring what?” And “Bring cows”
supplies the answer.
Said in Sanskrit, sentence 1 below is no valid sentence,
and sentence 2 is.
1. *gaur aSvah puruso hastl |
2. ga anaya \
(It is a convention in Linguistics that a ‘*’ mark at the
beginning of a sentence marks it as an invalid construction
or unacceptable usage).
Annambhatta defines it as: The inability of a word to
convey the meaning of a sentence owing to the absence of
some other word60 .
only destroy the plants in the field. Irrigation with water is
of course a well-known thing, and an expectable one.
When you say ‘irrigate’, an immediate Expectancy
is no doubt raised which creates a slot, and ‘water’ would
be the right candidate to be slot-filler. For water has what
is called compatibility ox yogyata.
Said in Sanskrit, sentence 1 is no valid sentence,
and sentence 2 is.
1. * agnina sincati ksetram \
2. jalena sincati ksetram \
Govardhana defines yogyata as absence of
incompatibility607. The above results may thus be
tabulated:

Yogyata Utterance Validity as a Reason

sentence
It is not enough that the expectancies are attended 1 *gaura£vah puruso na pramanam akanksa-
to as above within the sentence. If Expectancy (akahksa) hasti viraha
creates a slot, the slot-filler must have eligibility to fill the 2 ga anaya pramanam akdnksa-
slot. If there is no semantic eligibility, the slot-filler is piirti
mere verbiage, and once again, the sentence makes no 3 *agnina sincati na pramanam yogyata-
sense whatsoever, leave alone complete sense. viraha
For example, if someone said “Irrigate the field, 4 jalena sincati pramanam yogyata-
with fire,” he is not in his senses unless he meant sahitya
something very special and unusual. In the normal
situation, it is impossible to conceive of irrigating fields Table 162: Validity Tests for Sentences
with fire. Fire has never been known to be used for
irrigation. And even if one could somehow do it, it would

606 Tarkasarigraha
607
padasya padantara-vyatireka-prayukta-anvaya- Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasarigraha )
ananubhavakatvam akanksa \ badhabhavo yogyata |

266 Padartha - - Vijhdna 267

22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu 22. Sabda-pramana & Nighantu

Sannidhi commentary on the nighantu, and the first chapter is

called naighantuka-kanda.
Yet another factor, somewhat trivial though,
Other etymologies (as of Aupamanyava) are also
nevertheless counts for validity of sentences. “Bring cows”
suggested for nighantu611. The naighantuka-kanda has
is no doubt a valid sentence - as it fulfils the criteria of
1339 words under 69 groups. Yaska mentions ten
akanksa and yogyata. Yet suppose the two words were
predecessors in the field.
uttered in an interval of 3 hours one after the other,
hardly would anyone be expected to imagine their
juxtaposition and construal as a sentence608. Words
lacking temporal proximity fail to connect, and, as a
consequence, fail to give a connected sense. Therefore gah
and anaya should be uttered fairly closely so that the
listener links the words and links their senses and gets a
semantically complete sentence.

NIGHANTU (LEXICON)
The word nighantu is derived as “what expresses
ideas”609. Nighantu is a Proper Noun and stands for a work
written before Yaska, as Yaska already refers to such
works610. It is a work which has classified the Vedic
vocables, and grouped synonyms, and may thus represent
the world’s first thesaurus. The Nirukta of Yaska is a

608 q Tarkasahgraha
prahare prahare’sahoccaritani gamanayetyadi-padani na
pramanam sannidhyabhavat \
609 Derivation : ni + 'Ighat (ghati bhasarthe) + nic + ku (see 611 Thus we have nighantavah kasmat ? nigamanat |
Unadisutra 1.37). The dissolution/definition is arthan Hence nigantu and nighantu become synonymous.
nighantayaty asmat nighantuh parikirtitah \ Cf. nigama ime bhavanti | chandobhyah samahrtya
610 Nirukta samamnayas te nigantava eva santo nigamanat nighantava
tam imam samamnayam nighantava ity acaksate \ ucyante ity aupamanyavah \
268 Padartha - - Vijhana 269

CHAPTER 23
PRATYAKSA-PRAMANA
(PERCEPTION)
Definition
Annambhatta defines pratyaksa-pramana as the
cause of pratyaksa-jhana (Perceptive Knowledge)612. The
pratyaksa process consists in the contact between the sense
organs and the objects613. Thus pratyaksa stands for the
means as well as the end: the instrument of the knowledge
as well as the knowledge itself.
Etymology and Old Definition
The etymological sense is “the pitting of the sense
organ against [the object]”614.
612 Tarkasahgraha
pratyaksa-jnana-karanarh pratyaksam \
613 Tarkasahgraha
indriyartha-sannikarsa-janyam jhanam pratyaksam |
6,4 Tarkasahgraha
pratyaksam [ =pramanam] = pratigatam aksam = aksasya
prativisayam vrttih. The derivation as regards pratyaksam
[=jhanam] would be (i) aksam aksampratitya utpadyate or
(ii) pratigatam aSritam aksam = knowledge generated via
each sense organ.
270 Padartha •
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
Kanada defines pratyaksa as what is born of the
alignment / proximity (sannikarsa) of the Self, the sense
organs, the mind, and the object615. The definition of
Gautama is similar but seeks to exclude invalid
knowledge, and cover the two varieties of pratyaksa
also616.
Process
The actual process is described by Vatsyayana617 in
3 steps, tabulated below:
Step 1 atma-manas-samyoga
Step 2 mana-indriya-samyoga
Step 3 indriyartha-samyoga
Table 163 : Perceptive Process : Steps
615 Vaisesikasutra 3.1.20
atmendriya-mano’rtha-sannikarsddyat nispadyate |
Also Cf. Vaisesikasutra 3.1.2
indriyartha -prasiddhir indriyarthebhyo ’rthantarasya hetuh \
616 Nyayasutra 1.1.4
indriyartha-sannikarsotpannam jhanam avyapadefyam
avyabhicari vyavasayatmakam pratyaksam \
Here there are three epithets preceding the last word viz.
pratyaksa. Of them the middle one (=avyabhicari — non-
contradicted) blocks aprama while the other two viz.
avyapadefyam (unspecifiable) and vyavasayatmakam
(ascertained) respectively refer to the two types of pratyaksa
viz. nirvikalpaka and savikalpaka, the Undifferentiate and
the Differentiated.
617
Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 1.1.4)
atma manasa samyujyate | mana indriyena | indriyam
arthena |
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23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

5 indriya-s
In Ayurveda 1 calcsus
2 Srotra
Caraka defines it in no different terms618. Yet 3 ghrana
another description obtains in Caraka, where the two 4 rasana
types viz. bahya external and manasa internal / mental are 5 sparSana
also referred to619.
Table 164: Five indriya-s

5 indriya-dravya-s
Generation of Knowledge
1 kha
It is when the mind presides over, that the sense 2 vayu
organs become capable of perception of their objects . 3 jyotis
4 ap
Caraka takes the occasion to spell out the five
5 bhu
sense organs and their objects etc. tabulated below. It is
obvious that Caraka has followed the Sankhyan order in Table 165: Five indriya-dravya-s
enumerating the sense organs.
5 substrata of indriya-s
1 aksini
2 karnau
618 Carakasamhita 1.11.20
3 nasike
dtmendriya-mano’rthdndm sannikarsatpravartate \
vyakta taddtve yd buddhih pratyaksam sa nirucyate \ \ 4 jihvd
As Cakrapani points out the quintessence of the definition 5 tvak
is indriyartha-sannikarsa only. Buddhi here = indriya-
Table 166 : Five Substrata
buddhih

619 Carakasamhita 3.4.4 5 objects of indriya-s

pratyaksam tu khalu tadyat svayam indriyaih manasa 1 Sabda
copalabhyate | 2 sparSa
For the subtleties regarding bahya and manasa, read 3 rupa
Cakrapaiii thereon. Also Cf. Carakasamhita 3.8.39 where
4 Rasa
also the bahya and manasa are pointed out by Cakrapani.
5 gandha
620 Carakasamhita 1.8.7
manah-purahsarani indriyani artha-grahana-samarthani Table 167: Five Objects
bhavanti \

111 Padartha - - Vijnana 273

23. Pratyaksa-pramdna
Sannikarsa-s
Caraka refers to the five “sense-intelligences”,
indriya-buddhi-s621. They spring from the four-point-
alignment {sannikarsa)*22 shown below:
1 indriya
2 indriyartha
3 sattva
4 atman
Table 168: Four-point alignment (sannikarsa) in
pratyaksa
He also mentions that the indriya-buddhi-s are
momentary (ksanikah,), and determinate (niScayatmikah).
Glossing the passage, Cakrapani takes care to see
that ksanikah is not interpreted in its Buddhist
connotation, but as fleeting623. Nevertheless they lead to a
determinate knowledge of the object624.
621 Carakasamhita 1.8.12 calls them caksur-buddhi etc.
Cakrapani thereon spells them out thus : caksusa
asadharanena karanena janita buddhih caksur-buddhih |
evam Srotradi-buddhyadisu vacyam |
622 Carakasamhita 1.8.12
tah punah indriyendriyartha-sattvatma-sannikarsajah
ksanikah, niScayatmikaS ca - ity etat pahca-pahcakam |
623 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.8.12)
aSutara-vindSinyah \
624 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.8.12)
vastu-svariipa-paricchedatmikd |
274 Padartha
23. Pratyaksa-pramdna
2 Analogies
Going by common sense, one can see an evident
contradiction between momentariness and
determinateness. In order to dispel such a possible
confusion, Cakrapani provides the analogy of the flame of
a lamp625.
Elsewhere, he gives another analogy to show how
knowledge is generated. Issuing from the finger and the
thumb, and arising from the stringed lute and the nail, the
sound is perceived. So is the perception obtained through
the combination of the four factors626.
The primary role of mind in all perception is
clearly recognized and amply underscored by Caraka.
That is why he says that mind has two features:
knowledge or absence of knowledge627.
625 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.8.12)
ksanikatve’pi vastu-paricchedakatvam pradipdrcir-jvalanavad
buddhinam avimddham - ityarthah |
626 Carakasamhita 4.1.34
ahgidy-ahgustha-talajah tantn-vina-nakhodbhavah |
drstah Sabdoyatha buddhih drsta samyogajd tatha 11
627 Carakasamhita 4.1.18-19
laksanam manaso jhanasyabhavo bhava eva ca \
sati hy atmendriyarthanarh sannikarse na vartate \ \
vaivrttyan manaso jhanam sannidhyat tacca vartate |
anutvam atha caikatvam dvau gunau manasah smrtau 11
As Cakrapani gives the essence well, the generation and
non-generation of knowledge is what is indicative of manas.
See. Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 4.\.\8)yatha
jhanasyabhavo jhanasya bhavaSca manogamako bhavati,
tadaha -satiti | Also Cf. Brhadaranyaka Upanisad 1.5.3
- - Vijnana 275
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

Stages of Perception The analogy of village management given by

VacaspatimiSra is very telling, tabulated for its steps629.
The stages of perception are well-summarized by See Table 170.
Cakrapani, showing the roles of the sense organs, followed On another occasion, Caraka lists the 5
by the roles of manas, ahankara, and buddhi in that very karmendriya-s, motor organs. They are presented below630:
order628, tabulated below:
Karmendriya Action
1 indriya alocana 1 hastau grahana- Hands for
2 manas sahkalpana dharane receiving and
3 ahankara abhimanana holding
4 buddhi adhyavasaya 2 pddau gamana- Feet for walking
karmani
Table 169 : Sensation and Perception 3 guda visargartham anus for
excretion
(of faeces)
[kautumbikah] [visayah]
4 upastha visargartham penis for
1 gramadhyaksah bahyendriya
excretion
2 visayadhyaksah manas
(of urine)
3 sarvadhyaksah ahankara
5 vdg jihvendriya Speech for talking
4 bhupatih buddhi
Table 171: Motor Organs : Their Actions
Table 170: Analogy for Perceptual Steps

anyatramana abhiivam - nadariam \ anyatramana abhuvam

- naSrausam | etc

628 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 4.1.21)

(1) tatra indriyanyalocayanti - nirvikalpena grhnantityarthah 629 Cf. Carakasamhita 4.1.22-23 Also Cf. Sahkhyakdrikd -
I karika-s 35 and 36 (= santahkarana buddhih etc, and ete
(2) manas tu sahkalpayati - heyopadeyataya kalpayatlty pradipa-kalpdh etc)
arthah \
(3) ahahkaro’bhimanyate - “mamedam, aham atradhikrtah “ 630 Carakasamhita 4.1.25-26
iti manyata ityarthah | hastau pddau gudopastharh vagindriyam athapi ca \
(4) buddhir adhyavasyati - “ tyajamy enam dosavantam, karmendriyani pahcaiva pddau gamana-karmani \ \
upadadamyenam gunavantam” - ity adhyavasayam karoti - payupastham visargartham hastau grahana-dharanam |
ityarthah \ jihva vagindriyam vak ca satya jyotistamo’nrta \ \

276 Paddrtha - - Vijnana 277

23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

Karana-s (Organs - Sensory and Motor) ISvarakrsna provides the list of jhanendriya-s and
karmendriya-s632 in a sequence which is adhered to in
The universe we live in, perceive, and interact with Ayurvedic texts also.
is handled with our organs, external and internal. The
means of interaction are called karana-s “faculties”. They 1 vac
are divided into two, as shown below: 2 pani
Faculty Divisions No Breakup 3 pada
5 jhanendriya-s + 5 4 payu
bahyakarana 10 5 upastha
karmendriya-s
karana
manas, ahahkara,
antahkarana 3 Table 174: karmendriya-s
buddhi

Table 172 : Faculties and their Divisions
Thus the total comes to 13, which has been
detailed by Kvarakrsna631. He lists the jhanendriya-s (also
known as buddhindriya-s) and karmendriya-s (Table 173 &
174).
The nature of mind as both a jnanendriya and
karmendriya is also spelt out there633.
The double role of mind in another fashion - as an
indriya and an atindriya - has been set forth by Caraka634.

1 caksus
2 Srotra 632 Sahkhyakdrika 26

3 ghrana buddhindriyani caksuh-frotra-ghrana-rasana-sparfanakani |

vak-pani-pada-payupasthan karmendriyany ahuh | |
4 rasana
5 spar&anaka 633 Sahkhyakdrika 27
ubhayatmakam atra manah. sahkalpakam indriyarh ca
Table 173 : jnanendriya-s sadharmyat |
gunaparindma-viSesdnnandtvam bahyabhedaS ca 11
VacaspatimiSra explains ubhayatmaka as being both
buddhindriya and karmendriya. And he adds caksuradinarh
vagadinam ca mano’dhisthitanam eva svasva-visayesu
pravrtteh \
634 Carakasamhita 1.8.4
631 Sahkhyakdrika 32 atindriyantpunarmanahsattvasamjhakam, ‘cetah’ityahur
karanam trayoda&a vidham eke, tadarthatma-sampaddyatta-cestam, cestapratyayabhutam
33 anatahkaranam trividham da&adha bahyam indriyanam |
278 Padartha - - Vijnana 279
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
23. Pratyaksa-pramana

Atindriya is what transcends the indriya-s635. It is common

to speak of the mind as ‘the sixth sense’ in Sanskrit636. Or
again, as ‘the eleventh sense’637. 1 2 3 4 5
5 indriya-s ghrana rasana caksus spartana trotra
5 indriya- bhu ap jyotis vayu kha
Five Pentads dravya-s
5 indriya- nasika jihva aksi tvac karna
Caraka introduces the chapter called adhisthana-
indriyopakramaniya (=1.8) with the five Pentads638 spelt s
out in the sections to follow (1.8.8 - 12)639. They are 5 indriya- gandha rasa rupa sparta tabda
tabulated together once again for the sake of clarity. artha-s
5 indriya- ghrana- rasana- caksur- spartana- trotra-
buddhi-s buddhi buddhi buddhi buddhi buddhi

Table 175 : Five Pentads

635 Cakrapani takes atindriya in 2 ways : (i) atikrantam indriyam
, and (ii) ati indriyebhyah. In the former, indriya as
bahyakarana is taken into account. In the latter ati is taken
as subtler su/csmataram, as it is not easy to comprehend Faculties and Functions (vrtti-s of bahyakarana-s
duravabodhat. The gist of the entire passage is presented and antahkarana-s)
lucidly by Cakrapani: yada sukhadayah cintyadayo’pi visaya
bhavanti, atma ca prayatnavan bhavati, tada manah svavisaye Each organ, whether sensory or motor, has its own
pravartate, indriyani ca adhitisthati, indriyani ca specific and specialized function640. Kvarakrsna refers to
mano’dhisthitany eva svavisaya-jhanepravartante \ these functions in a verse641, the essence of which is
636 Carakasamhita 1.26.42 (1) tabulated in Tables 176 and 177.
tatra madhuro rasah... ayusyah sadindriya-prasadanah...
Cf. BhagavadgUa 15.7 manahsasthanindriyani
637 VacaspatimiSra (in his preface to Sdnkhyakdrika 27)
ekadatam indriyam aha = ubhayatmakam atra manah.
640 Matharavrtti (on Sdnkhyakdrika 28)
638 Carakasamhita 1.8.3 mdtra-Sabdo vtfesarthah ... alocanamatram iti ekaikasya
iha khalu (a)pahcendriyani, (b)pahcendriya-dravyani,
pratindriyam svasvavisaya-grahana-sdmarthyam eva ... | na
(c)pancendriyddhisthdnani, (d)pahcendriydrthdh,
hi cakyuh Sravana-samartham va dandddna-samaiiham vd |
(c)pahcendiiya-buddhayo bhavanti |
641 Sdnkhyakdrika 28
639 Carakasamhita 1.8.12 mpddisu pancanam alocanamatram isyate vrttih |
ityetat pahca-pahcakam \ vacanddana-viharanotsargdnanda§ ca pancanam | |
280 Padartha -
- Vijhana 281
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
23. Pratyaksa-pramana

VacaspatimiSra spells out the function of the Inner

But this happens only when the mind is with them643. The
Faculties (antahkaranay42 tabulated in Table 178.
object is at first perceived as a mere something644, devoid
of details. This is called uha. This is followed by victim
1 rupa
which consists in weighing the pros and cons of the thing,
2 Sabda
a consideration of its merits and demerits, its desirability
3 gandha or otherwise645. The role of the buddhi follows this: it
4 rasa consists in resolution, followed by action646. And the
5 sparta action can be either in the form of speech or action647.

Table 176: vrtti-s ofjhanendriya-s The different roles of the karana-s are spelt out by
ISvarakrsna648. They are tabulated below:

1 vacana karana vyapara karya

2 tidtina 1 karmendriya (=5) tiharana tihtirya
3 viharana 2 buddhi-ahahkara- dhtirana dhtirya
4 utsarga manas (=3)
5 tinanda
643 Carakasamhita 4.1.22
Table 177: vrtti-s of karmendriya-s indriyenendrityartho hi samanaskena grhyate | Contrarily, an
‘absence’ of mind blocks perception. Cf. Sdhkhyakarikd 7
buddhi adhyavastiya atidurtit samipyad indriyaghatat mano’navasthanat |
ahahktira sauksmydd vyavadhanad abhibhavat samanabhiharacca \ |
abhimtina
( Draw “anupalabdhih" from the next verse for completion
manas sahkalpa of sense).

Table 178: vrtti-s of antah-karana-s 644 In the words of Cakrapani, nirvikalpena grhyate.
645 Cakrapani paraphrases gunatah and dosatah by upadeyataya
Caraka points out the different roles of the two and heyataya.
types of karana-s. The sense organs perceive their objects.
646 Adhyavasyati is followed by vyavasyati.
647 Vaktum kartum vti, as put by Caraka (Carakasamhita 4.1.23)
648 Sdhkhyakarikd 32
642 VacastpatimiSra (on Sdhkhyakarikd 29 svalaksanyam etc)
karanam trayodaia-vidham
mahato’dhyavasdyah, ahankarasyabhimanah, sankalpo
tadaharana-dharana-prakaSakaram |
manaso vrttih vyaparah \ mahat and buddhi are
kdryarh ca tasya da&adha”
synonymous.
haryam dharyam prakdfyam ca 11
282 Padartha -
- Vijndna 283
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

3 jhanendriya (=5) prakatona prakafya 9 adivya-vayavya

10 adivyakafya
Table 179 : Division of Labour among the karana-s

The karmendriya-s “draw” things. The Inner

Table 181:10 types of dharya
Faculties sustain (through prana etc , that is - as The karya items viz. aharya, dharya, and prakafya
VacaspatimiSra says), and buddhindriya-s illumine them. are each 10 types649. The three sets of ten are listed in
Tables 180,181, and 182.

30 Karya Items
prakasya
aharya i divya-Sabda
divya-vacana 2 divya-sparfa
1
divyadana 3 divya-rupa
2
divya-viharana 4 divya-rasa
3
divyotsarga 5 divya-gandha
4
divyananda 6 adivya-Sabda
5
adivya-vacana 7 adivya-sparfa
6
adivyadana 8 adivya-rupa
7
adivya-viharana 9 adivya-rasa
8
adivyotsarga 10 adivya-gandha
9
10 adivyananda

Table 180:10 types of aharya Table 182 :10 types of prakasya

dharya
1 divya-parthiva Faculties: Temporal Aspect
2 divyapya
Another factor that contrasts the Internal and
3 divya-taijasa
External Faculties is that the External ones are limited to
4 divya-vayavya
5 divyakafya
6 adivya-parthiva Interpretations vary regarding the roles of the jhanendriya-%,
7 adivyapya karmendriya-s, and antahkarana. See Gaudapada, Mathara,
and Paramartha on this verse: each differs from the other.
8 adivya-taijasa
We have presented the analysis of VacaspatimiSra.
284 Padartha -
- Vijnana 285
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

the present time; the Internal ones pertain to all times -
the past, the present, and the future650.
Supremacy of Buddhi
Kvarakrsna also points out the superiority of the
Internal Faculties to the External Faculties; and even
among the three Internal Faculties it is the Intellect
(mahat or buddhi) that is supreme651.
Why is the Intellect to be considered supreme?
Why not manas or ahahkara which are also dvarinl This
question is answered by Kvarakrsna in the subsequent
karikd.
Every bhoga, “enjoyment” - joy or sorrow, that is -
is accomplished for the purusa by buddhi only. And, even
ultimately, the difference between purusa and prakrti is
also brought about — i.e. brought home — to the purusa
only by the buddhi, and also for the reason that at almost
all times the buddhi acts on behalf of the purusa, and that
all the karana-s, twelve in number, are deemed
subordinate to the buddhi. It is the buddhi that
immediately presents ( - i.e. submits without mediation)
all experience to the purusa. It is for this vital role that the
buddhi is deemed supreme652.
Types of Pratyaksa

Name nirvikalpaka savikalpaka

650 Sahkhyakdrika 33 Nature of nisprakaraka saprakdraka
antahkaranam trividham jhana
daSadha bahyam trayasya visayakhyam \ Explanation = viSesana-viSesya- = vtfesana-
sampratakalam bahyam sambandha- viSesya-
trikdlam abhyantaram karanam | | anavagahi sambandha-
Add to this the comment of VacaspatimiSra - avagahi
(i) visayakhyam = visayam akhyati = visaya-
sahkalpabhimanddhyavasdnesu kartavyesu dvanbhavati \
652 Sahkhyakdrika 37
and (ii) vartamana-samipam anagatam atitam api
sarvam pratyupabhogam
vartamanam - ato vag api vartamanakdla-visaya bhavati \
yasmat purusasya sadhayati buddhih \
651 Sahkhyakdrika. saiva ca vifinasti punah
35 santahkarana buddhih sarvam visayam avagahate yasmat\ pradhana-purusantaram suksmam 11
tasmat trividham karanam dvari, dvarani fesani 11 Read with VacaspatimiSra:
Obviously dvara is subordinate to dvarin. (i) yat saksat-sadhanam tat pradhanam \
36 ete pradipakalpah paraspara-vilaksana gunaviSesah \ (ii) buddhifca purusariipeva
krtsnam purusasyartham prakafya buddhau prayacchanti 11 (iii) yatha svasaineyna saha gramadhyaksadi-sainyam
Here VacaspatimiSra gives the analogy of the “flow” of tax sarvadhyaksasya bhavati |
from kautumbika to gramadhyaksa to visayadhyaksa to (iv) pradhanam savikaram anyat, aham anyah - iti
sarvadhyaksa to bhiipati; this corresponds to the “flow” vidyamanam eva antaram — avivekena avidyamanam iva —
from bahyendriya to manas to ahahkara to buddhi. buddhih bodhayati, na tu karoti |
286 Padartha - - Vijhana 287
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
State Undifferentiated Differentiated
Example idarh kihcit dittho’yam
This is something This is Dhtha
etc.
Table 183: Types of pratyaksa
Annambhatta notes two types of pratyaksa viz.
Indeterminate and Determinate. The two are noted in
Table 183.
Knowledge Of and Knowledge As
When we see something, we may not take note at
once of the thing in all its aspects and details. This is
especially the case when we notice it from a distance, or
when the light is not quite sufficient. When we begin to
get close, or when more and more light is getting shed on
the object, more and more details come to be grasped.
The first kind of knowledge is tiirvikalpaka, and the
second is savikalpaka.
Wherever we perceive something we take note of
its qualities. Knowledge of qualifications always precedes
the knowledge of the qualified653.
Prakara is the mode of knowledge. In ghatajnana,
ghatatva is the prakarata, and in patajnana, patatva
constitutes the prakarata. It is by means of the different
prakarata-s that the vi&esyata-s are differentiated.
653 This is stated in Logic as
nagrhita-vifesand buddhih viiesyam upasahkramati |
Cf. Tarkadipika
vtiistajhanam viSesana-jhana-janyam |
288 Padartha -
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
Aspects such as name and class are the factors that
constitute the prakara-s. The knowledge here is one that
envelopes the relation between the vtfesana and vtfesya,
the qualifier and the qualified654.
The viSesya must be perceived as vitiesanavat. Thus
ghata must be perceived as ghatatvavat. Stated formally it
will be as ghatatvavan ghatah | On the other hand, where
the viiesya is perceived, as too is the viSesana, but not their
relation, then the individual knowledges are disjunct. A
conjunct knowledge of the two will be sambandhavagahi
whereas the disjunct knowledge is sambandhanavagahi.
Actually speaking, even pratyaksa is not a straight
and simple cognition. Unless a person has a store of
information regarding the prakarata-s, he cannot link
them to the viSesyata. Hence what impacts upon our sense
organs, and what memories of possibilities of prakarata
pertinent to the vi&esyatd are stirred - together determine
pratyaksa - that is to say savikalpaka-prayaksa.
For a gradual progression from nirvikalpaka-
pratyaksa to savikalpaka-pratyaksa, read the following
verse describing Narada who is at first spotted as but a
mass of brightness. It was in the fourth step that he was
noted as Narada655. Table 184 shows the gradual
progression from tiirvikalpaka to savikalpaka: 1 -> 4
654 Says Tarkadipika:
ndma-jatyadi-viSesana-viSesya-sambandha-avagahi”.
Nyayabodhini defines nirvikalpakatva as
prakdrata-Sunya-jhanatva.
For Karikavali, tiirvikalpaka is thus : KdrikdvaTt 136 :
prakdratadi-iunyam hi sambandhanavagahi tat |
655 The full verse (Sisupalavadha of Magha, 1.3) runs thus :
cayas tvisam ity avadharitam pura
- Vijndna 289
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

Table 185 : Factors engendering savikalpaka-

pratyaksa

1 tvisam cayah Mass of flame Six Perceptions

2 fariri Some living being
As we have six sense organs, we correspondingly
3 puman Man!
have sixpratya/csa-s. They are listed in Table 186:
4 naradah Narada!!
indriya Type of pratyaksa Type of Perception
Table 184: Gradual Progression from nirvikalpa to 1 caksus caksusa-pratyaksa
• Visual Perception
savikalpa 2 Havana £ra vana -pratyaksa
• Auditory Perception
3 ghrdna ghrdnaja -pratyaksa Olfactory Perception
4 rasana rasana-pratyaksa Gustatory Perception
5 spar&ana spartona-pratyaksa Tactile Perception
Common types of Visesana
6 manas manasa-pratyaksa Mental Perception
There are four common modes of perceiving an
object. In other words four types of viiesanata are Table 186: Types of pratyaksa
common, of which two have been mentioned in
Tarkadipika. They are tabulated here656.
Six types of sannikarsa
Example for the
Modes of perceiving an Pratyaksa has been defined by Annambhatta as
corresponding
object indriyartha-sannikarsa-janya-jhana. The sannikar?a
savikalpaka
1 nama name dittho’yam referred to here is of six types, as tabulated below, along
2 jati class brahmano’yam with the examples furnished by him.
3 guna attribute/property Syamo’yam 1 sarhyoga Juxtaposition caksusa ghata-
4 karman action pacako’yam pratyaksa-jananam
2 samyukta- Juxtaposited ghata-rupa-
samavaya Cohesion pratyaksa-jananam
tatah Saririti vibhavitakrtih \ 3 samyukta- Juxtaposited rupatva-samanya-
vibhur vibhaktavayavam puman id samaveta- Cohesive pratyaksam
kramad amum narada ityabodhi sah 11 samavaya Cohesion
4 samavaya Cohesion Srotrena Sabda-
656 Cf. catustayi Sabdanarh pravrttih |
290 Padartha - Vijnana 291
23. Pratyaksa-pramdna
23. Pratyaksa-pramdna

saksatkarah The names of these contacts are all transparent.

5 samaveta- Cohesive Sabdatva- Once their logic is perceived it is easy to pigeonhole them.
samavaya Cohesion saksatkdrah Four principles may be said to come into operation here.
6 vtfefana- The Attribute- abhava-pratyaksam
vifesyabhava Substantive 1. When a dravya comes in contact with another
Relation dravya, the relationship between the two is
samyoga.
Table 187: Types of Contact (sannikarsa) 2. The samanya, samavaya and abhava are also
grouped alongside by the selfsame indriya by which
the thing is grasped657.
Of the above items 2,3, and 5 can be easily seen to
3. Among the sense organs it is the eye (caksus) alone
be ‘compound’ in character. As against these, the other
that can grasp dravya-s658.
three viz. 1,4, and 6 are ‘primary’. They may thus be
4. Others grasp guna! karman/ samanya only.
grouped into two.
5. All indriya-s except dkata are dravya-s (=dravya-
vikara-s).
Typej Name of sannikarsa
6. The sannikarsa between two dravya-s is samyoga,
1 (1) samyoga
Juxtaposition.
2 (4) samavaya
7. A dravya cannot have samyoga with the guna of
3 (6) vi$esana-vi§esya-bhava another dravya.
8. A dravya cannot have samyoga with the jati of
Table 188: Immediate Contacts another item.
9. Abhava is none of the 6 bhavapaddrtha-%.
Type Name of sannikarsa 10. In the case of Mediate Contacts, the non-final
1 (2) samyukta-samavdya relational item(s) are presented in the ktanta (=
2 (3) samyukta-samaveta-samavaya Past Participle Passive) form. Thus samyoga
3 J5!_ samaveta-samavaya becomes samyukla and samavaya becomes
samaveta.
Table 189: Mediate Contacts
The maxim in yenendriyena yad grhyate, tenendriyena
(a) tadgatam samanyam
Principles and Consequences (b) tatsamavayah and
(c) tadabhdvaSca - grhyate |
658
According to some, the skin can also grasp a dravya. See
Kdrikavali 25 for ViSvanatha’s take on this.
292 Padartha - - Vijhdna 293
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

The consequences of these principles may be stated

thus: B. When caksus perceives ghatarupa, there cannot be
A. Caksus is an indriya, hence when it comes into samyoga in this sannikarsa for caksus is a dravya
contact with a ghata, the relation is samyoga, and rupa is a guna. The relation between ghata and
Juxtaposition. Hence caksusa ghatapratyaksa- its rupa is samavaya, and the eye perceives the
jananam = samyoga. ghata between which two there is samyoga. Hence
On the same ground, ghrana, rasana, and sparSana, two relations come into play among the 3 items.
the organs of smell, taste, and touch have samyoga
with their objects. Items Relation
Items Relation (a) caksus
(p) ab — samyoga
(a)caksus (P) ab = (b) ghata
(q) be = samavaya
(b) ghata samyoga (c) ghatarupa

Table 190: Ocular Contact Table 194 : samyukta-samavaya

C. When caksus perceives ghatarupa, we have 4 items

Items Relation and 3 relations
(a) ghrana (P) ab =
(b) kusuma samyoga Items Relation
(a)caksus
(p) ab — samyoga
Table 191: Olfactory Contact (b) ghata
(q) be = samavaya
(c) ghatarupa
(r) cd = samavaya
(d) ghatarupatva
Items Relation
(a)rasana (P) ab = Table 195: samyukta-samaveta-samavaya
(b)apupa samyoga
Combining (p), (q), and (r), we have samyutka-
Table 192: Gustatory Contact samaveta-samavaya

Items Relation D. When Srotra perceives Sabda, the relation is not as

2

with caksus and ghata. For Srotra is akaSa-svarupa.

1

(P) ab =
(b) vayu samyoga Further Sabda = guna of akaSa. The relationship
between a dravya and its guna is samavaya. Hence
Table 193 : Tactile Contact the relationship between akaSa and Sabda is
samavaya.
294 Padartha - - Vijnana 295
 23. Pratyaksa-pramana
23. Pratyaksa-pramana

Items Relation Table 198: viscsana-visesya-bhava

(a) Arotra (P) ab =
(b)Aabda samavaya

Table 196 : Auditory Contact

Pratyaksa - Grand Classification
E. When Arotra perceives Aabdatva, there are 3 items
and hence 2 relations. The first relation is between
a guna and gunin and the second is between a guna (a)
and its jdti. So both are samavaya. nirvikalpaka
(bn)
Items Relation cdksusa
(a) Arotra
(p) ab = samavaya (bl2)
(b)Aabda Aravana
(q) be — samavaya
(c) Aabdatva (bI3)
(bl) ghranaja
Table 197: samaveta-samavaya laukika (bl4)
rasana
Combining (p) and (q), we have samaveta-samavaya.
(bl5)
sparAa
F. When abhava is perceived, the nature of abhava pratyaksa
(b) (bl6)
reflects on the relationship. All the relations so far
savikalpaka mdnasa
dealt with are either samyoga pure and simple, or
(b21)
samavaya pure and simple, or their combinations.
samanya-
But abhava is not a dravya (as it is not a
laksana
bhavapadartha at ail). Nor is it a guna or a karman
(b22)
or a jdti (on the same ground). In the description of
(b2) jhana-
bhutala as having ghatabhava, the latter is spoken
alaukika laksana
of as a viAesana and the former as a viAesya. The
(b231)
same is taken as the relation between caicyus and (b23)
yukta
ghatabhava. yogaja-
(b232)
pratyakya
yuhjana
Items Relation
(a) caksus (P) ab = Table 199: Types of pratyaksa
(b) ghatabhava viAesatia-viAesya-bhava
296 Padartha - - Vijnana 297
23. Pratyaksa-pramdna 23. Pratyaksa-pramdna

the one now seen. As this is not seen via any sense
There are two types of pratyaksa viz. (a) organ, the pratyaksa here is labelled as alaukika-
nirvikalpaka and (b) savikalpaka. Under the second there pratyaksa.
are two types viz. (bl) laukika-pratyaksa and (b2)
Sometimes “asatti” is used in lieu of pratyasatti.
alaukika-pratyaksa.
The word laksana means the same as visaya. The
Under (bl), we have 5+1 pratyaksa-s feminine word laksana was not used in the sense of
corresponding to the pratyaksa-s obtained through the five the vrtti entitled laksana, but only as an adjective of
sense organs, and the 6th, viz. manas, hence named pratyasatti, the feminine gender of which has
caksusa-pratyaksa etc. and manasa-pratyaksa. influenced this term. Hence the above may also be
called sdmdnya-visayaka-jndna659.

Alaukika Pratyaksa (b) jndna-laksana-pratyasatti

We know that sandalwood is fragrant. When we say
Under (b2), we have 3 subtypes viz. (b21) samanya- candanam surabhi, we know three items, in fact:
laksand-pratyasatti , (b22) jnana-laksand-pratydsatti, and
(b23) yoga-pratyaksa. (i) the sandalwood -candana
(ii) the sandal-ness - candanatva
The last of the above has 2 types viz. (b231) yukta
ML the fragrance - saurabham
and (b232) yunjana.
The above is tabulated in Table 199. Table 200: Multiple Ideas from a Simple Statement

Of these three knowledges, the first two are

(a) samanya-laksand-pratyasatti
caksusa, perceived by the eye. When the sandal is
When we see a cow, it is not the single cow that we
closeby, the third one is perceived by the nose.
see. We also somehow perceive the class of cows,
called gotvajati in Sanskrit. But when the sandalwood is at a distance, it
remains visible, but not smellable. Yet the
Now, jati is not some physical object that can be
knowledge that it is fragrant recurs.
seen. In fact, it cannot be perceived by any other
sense organ also. Yet , we will have perceived the As the knowledge is no direct perception, it is
class called viz. Gotva, and registered it in the classed under alaukika-pratyaksa, and termed
mind, so much so that when we next see another
cow, we immediately recognize it as a cow, even
though there may be very many differences
between the cow that we have seen previously, and 659 Karikavali 64
asattir dsraydndm tu sdmdnya-jndnam isyate \
298 Padartha - Vijnana 299
23. Pratyaksa-pramdna 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

jnana-laksana-pratyasatti where one perception led Table 201: Two Types of Yogin-s and their
to another perception660. Perceptions
(c) Yogaja pratyasatti
This is an alaukika-pratyaksa that belongs
exclusively to Yogin-s. Things that we cannot see
are perceived by them. Perceiving the self or the
paramanu661 is possible for Yogin-s only.
There are two types among the Yogin-s662: Indriya-sannikarsa according to Ayurveda

Joy and sorrow spring from the conjunction of the

yukta-yogi yunjana-yogi
Self, the faculties and the objects of the senses - says
1 “United” Yogin “Uniting” Yogin
Caraka663. Several factors are listed by him as the
2 sarvada bhanam cintdsahakrtam
causative complex for happiness/sorrow664.
bhanam
3 Natural perception Perception upon
1 atman self
all the time focussing
2 indriya sense-organs
3 manas mind
4 buddhi intellect
660 KdrikavaR 65 5 [indriya Jgocara objects of senses
visayi yasya tasyaiva vyaparo jhana-laksanah | Cf.
6 karman fpastj action
SiddhantamuktavaR thereon for the difference between the
two alaukika-pratyaksa-s. :yadyapi samanya-laksanayapi
saurabha-jnanam sambhavati, tathapi saurabhatvasya
Table 202: Apparati for Experience of Joy/ Sorrow
bhanam jnana-laksanayd |
661 Cf. SiddhantamuktavaR (on KdrikavaR 66)
manasa dkMa-paramdnvddi-nikhila-padartha-gocaram
jnanam | 663 Carakasamhita 4.1.138
atmendriya-mano’rthdndm sannikarsat pravartate | sulcha-
662 KdrikavaR 66
duhkham |
yuktasya sarvada bhanam cintasahakrto’parah \
Cf. Vaisesikasutra 9.1.11 664 Carakasamhita 4.1.132
atmanyatma-manasoh samyoga-viSesad atma-pratyaksam | natmendriyarh mano buddhim gocaram karma va vina |
9.1.13 asamahitantahkarana upasamhrta-samadhayas tesam sukha-duhkham |
ca | Note that all the nouns in the first line are in the Accusative
Upaskara on this: Case, as they have to go with vina. And take na with sukha-
vyavahitam viprakrstam ca pratyaksikurvanti \ duhkham as the Predicate.
300 Padartha • - Vijnana 301
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
23. Pratyaksa-pramana

Of the various types of contacts, two types set in

4 | samayoga | Commensurate Application
motion joys and sorrows665. They are listed below:
Table 204: The 4 types of Application (Yoga)
1 spar&anendriya- Tactile indriyanam
samsparSa contact arthena
sambandhah Of these four, it is only the last that conduces to
2 manasa- Mental cintya etc. sukha667 and it is rather rare to find. Samayoga consists in
samsparSa contact the right combination of the time, the intellect, the senses
and the sense-objects668.
Table 203 : Contact: Two types that engender
In all the other three, there is something to
joy/sorrow
provoke the dosa-s. This common factor is asatmyartha-
samyoga, Unwholesome Combination, for it blocks
It must be noted nevertheless that the faculties and assimilation. And the illness springing from this is to be
objects cannot individually cause joys and sorrows. A understood as aindriyaka, “pertaining to the senses” 669.
different factor called yoga, combination, plays its role Taking the cue from Sabdadinam “sound etc”,
here. This yoga is of 4 types666. The 4 types are listed (which in fact stands for “the auditory faculty etc.”), we
below: have the subdivisions worked out in Table 205.
1 mithyayoga Improper Application We may illustrate but one of these, and by analogy
2 atiyoga Excessive Application the rest could well be worked out. To take just iabda-
3 hinayoga Inadequate Application mithyayoga, we notice that the auditory faculty can be
affected by a number of factors. They are noticed by
665 Carakasamhita 4.1.133 Caraka as can be seen in Table 206.
sparsa n endriya -sa trispa riah sparfo mdnasa eva ca |
dvividhah sukha-duhkhdnam vedananam pravartakah 11
Note Cakrapani on this : sparianendriya-samsparia ityanena 667 Carakasamhita 4.1.129
indriyanam arthena sambandharh spar&anendriyakrtam sukha-hetuh samastvekah samayogah sudurlabhah \
darSayati | caksuradiny api sprstamevartham jananti \ 668 _
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 4.1.129)
666 Carakasamhita 4.1.130 samayoga iti kdla-buddhindriyarthanam samyag-yogah \
nendriyani na caivarthah sukha-duhkhasya hetavah |
hetus tu sukha-duhkhasya yogo drstas caturvidhah 11
669 Carakasamhita 4.1.127
ityasatmydrtha-samyogah trividho dosakopanah |
The same idea is stated in a via negativa approach :
asatmyam iti tad vidyadyanna yati sahatmatam 11
131 santindriyani santyarthah yogo na ca, na casti ruk \
128 mithyatihinayogebhyo yo vyadhir upajayate |
na sukham, karanam tasmadyoga eva caturvidhah \ \
Sabdadinam sa vijheyo vyadhir aindriyako budhaih \ |
302 Padartha -
- Vijndna 303
 23. Pratyaksa-pramana
23. Pratyaksa-pramana

1 atyugra-Sabda -Havana
2 Sabdasya sarvaSah na ca Havana
3 atihlnanam Sabdanam Sravana
4 purusa -sucaka-Sabda
samayoga

5 udbhisana-sucaka-Sabda
6 aSasta -sucaka-Sa bda
7 apriya-sucaka-Sabda
8 vyasana-sucaka-Sabda
i-H CM CO lO VO

Table 205 : Indriyartha-sannikarsa -

Table 206 : Visamayoga of sabdendriya : Modes /
gandhayoga
Sabdayoga
ayoga

cintyadyayoga
rupayoga

rasayoga

1 Means

Proper and Improper Yoga-s

a Several such items are listed in detail by Caraka670.
1
•3
*•>**
670 Carakasarhhita 4.1.118 - 127
c 118 atyugra-fabda-fravanat Sravanat sarvaSo na ca |
!
atiyoga

rupatiyoga

rasatiyoga
Sabdatiyoga

gandhatiyoga

cintyadyatiyoga

9« Sabdanam catihinanam bhavanti Sravana] jadah \

visamayoga

119 punisodbhisanaSastapriyavyasanasucakaih \

* i iabdaih Havana-samyogo mithyasamyoga ucyate |

120 asarhsparSo ’tisamspario hinasarhsparSa eva ca \
i
* sprfyanam sahgrahenoktah sparianendriya-badhakah 11
121 yo bhuta-visa-vatanam akalenagataS ca yah \
meha -Sitostia -sa mspar§o mithyayogah sa ucyate \
mithyayoga

spar&amithyayoga

rupamithyayoga

rasamithyayoga

cintyadimithyayoga
Sabdamithyayoga

gandhamithyayoga

122 mpanam bhdsvatam drstih vinafyaty atidarfanat \

dar&andccdtisuksmdnam sarvaSaS captyadarSanat 11
123 dvista-bhairava-bibhatsa-duratiSlista-darSandt \
tamasanam ca mpanam mithyasamyoga ucyate \ \
124 atyadanam anddanam okasdtmyadibhtf cayat |
rasanam visamadanam alpadanam ca dusanam | |
125 atimrdvatitiksndnam gandhanam upasevanam \
asevanam sarva&atca pranendriya-vinaSanam |
126 putibhuta-visadvista gandhd ye capyanartavah \
304 Padartha
- Vijnana 305
23. Pratyaksa-pramdna 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

duhkha —» dvesarupa trma —» nivrtti

Vedana-adhisthana (Sites of Sensations)
Table 208: Reinforcement between Urge and
Ayurveda takes note not only of the causes of the Sensation
two sensations - of joy and sorrow - but also the sites
where they betray themselves. The spots where happiness and sorrow get
betrayed are also studied in Ayurveda. Caraka lists them.
First of all, there is a mutual causation between (a) See Table below.
“thirst” (trsna) consisting of likes/dislikes on the one hand, A: Valid Sites
and (b) joys / sorrows on the other hand671. That is to say, B: Invalid Sites
(a) causes (b), and (b) causes (a). Thus we have (a) *-*
(b) . See table below.
A: Valid Sites
(a) trsna (= iccha/dvesa)_ 1 manas
(b) vedana (—sukhajduhkha) 2 deha
_a —» b = V causes ‘b’_ 3 indriya
b —* a = ‘b’ causes ‘a’ B: ] nvalid Sites
4 keia
Table 207: Causal Cyclicity between Urge and 5 loma
Experience 6 nakhagra
7 anna
This same table may be slightly elaborated in the 8 mala
light of the commentary of Cakrapani672.
9 drava
sukha —> iccharupa trsna —>pravrtti 10

Table 209:3 Valid, and 7 Invalid, Sites of Sensation

tair gandhair ghrana-samyogo mithydyogah sa ucyate |
127 ityasdtmydrtha-samyogah trividho dosakopanah | |
671 Carakasamhita 4.1.134 Causes of vedana-ndsa (Painlessness)
iccha-dvesatmika trsna sukha-duhkhat pravartate |
trsna ca sukha-duhkhdndm karanam punar ucyate | See 135 The mutual reinforcement of thirst (trsna)
also. (comprising attraction and repulsion (iccha and dvesa))
672 _ and sensation (vedana) comprising joy and grief (sukha
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 4.1.134)
and duhkha)) has been noticed. It is this thirst that draws
siikhadicchdriipa trsna, duhkhacca dvesariipd trsna
pravartate | (upadatte) the entities (bhava) that serve as sites for

306 Padartha - - Vijnana 307


23. Pratyaksa-pramana
sensation (vedanaSraya). If there is no such drawing
(ianupadane), there can be no scope for the sensations673,
argues Caraka.
arthabhava —* arthasparSa —► sukha-duhkhabhava —*■
sukha-duhkhananubhaya_
Table 210: Causal Sequence for vedana-nasa
The flowcharts of the two causations are thus:
(a) trsna —»bhavopadana (=vedanairayopadana)_
(b) anugadana —»asparSa —»vedand’jhdna (=vedand-nd£a)
Table 211: Flowcharts of (a)vedana and (b)vedana-
nasa.
Sensations are just nonexistent in the states of Yoga
and moksa. Yoga triggers moksa. It is in moksa that all
sensation withdraws totally674. When mind moves
673 Carakasamhita 4.1.135
upadatte hi sa bhavan vedandSraya-samjhakdn \
sprSyate nanupadane, nasprsto vetti vedanah \ \
The concatenation suggested by Cakrapani digs the cause
one step more.
As arthabhava is possible only when there is
sannikarsabhava, we can say that it is sannikarsabhava that
is at the root. Actually all this conforms to the Sankhyan
position. Cf. Sdnkhyakarikd 64.
674 Carakasamhita 4.1.137
yoge mokse ca sarvasam vedananam avartanam \
mokse nivrttir nihSesa yogo moksa-pravartakah \
Cakrapani draws a subtle difference between yoga and
308 Padartha -
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
outwards (=forwards) in conjunction with the sense
organs and their objects, that is, we have joys/sorrows. On
the other hand, when it moves backwards(=inwards), joys
and sorrows cease, and lordship ensues. It is this state that
is yoga, which is possible even during bodily existence675.
But when rajas and tamas cease, all sensual links
are delinked and deactivated. This is moksa whence is no
return676.
Prapyakaritva of indriya-s
There are two karika-s of ISvarakrsna which show
how the various faculties proceed on their own to perform
their functions.
The four faculties (=the outer + the 3 inner)
function concurrently and serially (yugapat and kramaSah)
in the case of not only directly perceived (pratyaksa -
moksa. In yoga is withdrawal no doubt, but that is not final
or absolute. Sensations recur subsequently. Not so in
moksa, which also involves final abandonment of body etc:
yoge nivrtta vedana punarbhavati \ and moksah atyantika-
Sarirddy-ucchedah \ nihSesa - iti na punarbhavati |
Cakrapani also discusses a variant reading here.
675 Carakasamhita 4.1.138-139
138 atmendriya-mano’rthdndm sannikarsatpravartate |
sukha-duhkham; anarambhad atmasthe manasi sthire \ \
139 nivartate tad ubhayam, vaSitvam copajayate \
satonrasya yogajhah tamyogam rsayo viduh \ \
676 Carakasamhita 4.1.142
mokso rajas-tamo’bhavad balavat-karma-samksayat \
viyogah sarvasamyogaih apunarbhava ucyate \ \
• Vijnana 309
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

dr§ta) items, but also the unseen (anumana/agama/smrti = Analogy 2:

adfsta) items677.
In the next karika, Kvarakrsna says that each
faculty does its own function, yet in conjunction and
coordination with other faculties678.
When the light is dim, the four functions are
gradual: first he beholds something casually, and then,
with some focussing, realises that it is a robber all set to
shoot an arrow, advancing towards him, and then decides
to quit the place.

3 Analogies Analogy 3:
There is a set of people - one is an expert in
VacaspatimiSra gives some telling analogies for the javelin, another in the staff, another is an archer, and yet
above two.
another wields a sword - all set to attack someone. The
Analogy 1 Tiger and Lightning signal got, they all proceed to pounce on him - but each
Analogy 2 Robber and Dim Light takes his own weapon only and not that of any other.
Analogy 3 Men of Arms : Respective Weapons Similar is the case with the faculties. While they all spring
into action at once, they just act their respective roles with
Table 212: Vacaspati’s Analogies just no confusion whatever679.

Analogy 1:
It is dense darkness; lightning flashes; and a fellow 679 VacaspatimiSra (on Sahkhyakdrikd 30) [example for drste
sees a tiger facing him close by : all the 4 faculties function yugapat:]
at once, as shown here. yada santamasandhakare vidyut-sampata-matrad vyaghra
abhimukham atisannihitam paSyati, tadd khalvasya alocana-
Function Faculty
sahkalpa-abhimana-adhyavasayah yugapad eva
1 Alocana caksus
pradurbhavanti, yatastata utplutya tatsthanad
2 Sahkalpa manas ekapade’pasarati |
3 Abhimana ahahkdra [example for drste krama&ah\\yadd mandalokeprathamam
4 adhyavasaya buddhi tavad vastumatram sammugdham alocayati, atha
pranihitamanah “karndntdkrsta-safara-sinjita-mandalikrta-
Table 213: Faculty and Function - Simultaneity kodandahpracandatarah pataccaro’yam” iti nifcinoti, atha ca
“mam pratyeti” ityabhimanyate, athadhyavasyati
6/7 Sahkhyakdrikd 30 “apasaramitah sthanat” iti \ (on Sahkhyakdrikd 31) Example
yugapat catustayasya tu vrttih krama$a§ca tasya nirdista | for resumption of respective roles by karana-s •
drste tathapyadrste trayasya tatpurvika vrttih 11 simultaneously yet synchronisedly) yathd hi bahavah
678 Sahkhyakdrikd 31 pumsah Sdktika-ydstika-dhanuska-kdrpanikdh krtasahketah
paravaskandanaya pravrttah, tatra anyatamasya akutam
svarit svam pratipadyanteparasparakiita-hetukam vrttim \
avagamya anyatamah pravartate, pravartamdnastu Saktikah
310 Padartha - - Vijnana 311
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
The theme of prapyakaritva is handled somewhat
differently in other disciplines. See Nyayasutra 3.1.32-51.
(The Greeks had certain similar notions - of the sense
organs, at last the eye and the ear, “sending” some
reference signals/waves to ascertain non-proximate items).
Cf. Tattvamuktakalapa 680.
The need of other pramana-s apart from pratyaksa
Pratyaksa is undoubtedly a primary pramana. But
other pramana-s are also recognised. We thus have
anumana/yukti/aptopadefo/upamana etc. Should a person
rely on pratyaksa alone, he is bound to lose much.
“Limited is what is pratyaksa”, says Caraka, “and
unlimited is what is not pratyaksa”m.
What is not obtained by pratyaksa, has to be
obtained through other means, which he lists as
Saktim eva adatte, na tu yastyadikam, evarh yastiko’pi yastim
eva na Saktyadikam \
680 Cf. Tattvamuktakalapa (of VedantadeSika) 40 :
prapyagrahindriyatvat vimatam itaravat praptir uktaprakara
vrttim drster na nindhe virala-patanayad
ambukacadiracchah \
no ced grhyeta yogyam samamiha nikhilam nisphale
chadakadau
sthairye tadyogyabhavo na hi galati sama santatis
tvanmate’pi \ \
For Buddhists, only the eye and the ear are not prapyakari,
but others are. See also Tattvamuktakalapa verse 41.
681 Carakasamhita 1.11.7
pratyaksam hyalpam; analpam apratyaksam asti |
312 Padartha -
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
agama/anumana/yukti6*2. Caraka also adduces an
interesting and powerful argument in support of his claim.
The very sense organs which are the instruments of
pratyaksa are themselves not amenable to pratyaksa\ .
For an idea about the jurisdiction about each of the
pramana-s see Sahkhyakdrika684. How even pratyaksa
items may be missed is discussed in the next section.
Inhibition of pratyaksa (pratyaksa-badha-s)
ISvarakrsna takes important note of how/where
pratyaksa can be a failure. He gives 8 circumstances where
even items actually amenable to pratyaksa may not be
682 Carakasamhita 1.11.7
yad agama-anumana-yuktibhih upalabhyate \ (agama is
same as aptopadeSa)
683 Carakasamhita 1.11.7
yair eva tavad indriyaih pratyaksam upalabhyate, tanyeva
sand capratyaksani \ Caraka raises these arguments in the
wake of tackling the atheist standpoint. As the
Tarkakaumudi puts it, the definition of indriya is Sarira-
samyuktam jhana-karanam atindriyam ! Also Cf.
Bhagavadgitd 2.28 avyaktadini bhutani etc. which shows that
what is vyakta is so little against what is avyakta which is
unlimited.
684 Sahkhyakdrika 6
samanyatastu drstad atindriyanam pradtih anumanat \
tasmadapi casiddharh paroksam aptagamat siddham | |
Taken as per Gaudapada especially.
313
- Vijhdna
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
23. Pratyaksa-pramana

grasped by pratyaksa68S. They are tabulated in Table 214.

VacaspatimiSra extends the circumstances taking a
All the items chosen are ocular for obvious reasons.
cue from the ‘ca’ in the verse of Kvarakrsna686. See Table
215.
Circumstance Example
1 atidura large distance bird flying at a
9 anudbhava unevolved curds not yet formed
great height
state in unfermented milk
2 samipya [high] collyrium
proximity applied to the Table 215: Extended Table of How pratyaksa items
eye
can be missed
3 indriyaghata impairment an object
of senses presented to a
blind person 1 atisannikarsat
4 mano ’navasthdna absorption of a very obvious 2 ativiprakarsat
mind in thing before a 3 avaranat
something lovelorn 4 karana-daurbalyat
else person
5 mano ’navasthanat
5 sauksmya subtlety a paramanu
6 samanabhiharat
6 vyavadhana screening princess 7 abhibhavat
behind a
8 atisauksmyat
screen or wall
7 abhibhava overpowering planets and Table 216: Factors inhibiting pratyaksa as per
stars during
Caraka
daytime
8 samanabhihara commingling raindrops in a It is interesting to note that the selfsame grounds
with like pond are presented by Caraka also687. The items presented by
object him are listed in Table 216

Table 214: Circumstances when pratyaksa-items get

686
missed Sahkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrikd 7)
cakdro’nukta-samuccayarthah \ (=’ca’ in
‘samanabhiharacca ’)
687
685 Sahkhyakdrikd 7 Carakasamhita 1.11.8 Resorting to prose here, Caraka has
atidurat samipyad indriyaghdtan-mano’navasthandt | the freedom to write a prefatory remark. He commences
sauksmyad vyavadhanad abhibhavat samanabhiharacca \ \ thus : “satam ca rupanam, atisannikarsat” etc. Cakrapani
elucidates what the author means by “satam” : va/csyamana-
314 Padartha •
- Vijndna 315
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
The prevalence and popularity of these over a half
dozen circumstances that can inhibit pratyaksa is proved
by yet another corroboration, this time from Patanjali in
his Mahabhdsya where 6 reasons are stated.688
1 atisannikarsat
2 ativiprakarsat
3 murtyantara-vyavadhanat
4 tamasavrtatvat
5 indriya-daurbalydt
6 atipramanat
Table 217: Factors Inhibiting pratyaksa as per
Patanjali
Kaiyata on this states that the statement does not
seem to be original, but rather a paraphrase from some
other writer.
Taking the cue from satam, Mathara brings in 4
items of asatam, referring to the four abhava-s. In the
atisannikarsady-abhave pratyaksenaiva grhyamanatvena
satam \ ityarthah | That is to say, were it not for these
specified circumstances, the items are very much in the
province of pratyaksa. Caraka concludes with
pratyaksanupalabdhih, not accessible via pratyaksa. In place
of indriyaghatat Caraka has karana-daurbalyat, illustrated
with the example of jaundice by Cakrapani.
688 Mahabhdsya (on Astadhyayi 4.1.3)
sadbhih prakaraih satam bhavanam anupalabdhir bhavati
etc
316 Padartha -
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
Jayamartgala commentary, we have 4 classifications of the
8 factors.
1 deSa-dosa
2 indriya-dosa
3 visaya-dosa
4 arthantara-dosa
Table 218: Jayamartgala Classification
Use/Importance of pratyaksa in Ayurveda
Everything in the world is either sat or asat, good
or bad. The goodness and badness have to be ascertained
through examination. The word for examination is panksa,
and it refers to the various pramana-s689, among which
pratyaksa occupies an important place.
Seeking to establish rebirth, Caraka draws our
attention to the three factors.
Arguing the case for rebirth (punarbhava), he
says690 even here there is something to be got from
689
The justification for this interpretation obtains in
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.11.17). Cakrapani here
interprets panksa thus:
panksyate vyavasthapyate vastu-svampam anaya - iti panksa
= pramanani \
690 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
pratyaksam api copalabhyate - matapitror visadrSany
apatyani etc.
- Vijhana 317
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
pratyaksa691 - viz. dissimilarity among the kids of the same
parents692.
In pariksa-s like astasthana-pariksa and dakavidha-
pariksa, there is an obvious involvement of pratyaksa
approaches/ varieties/ processes.
Cautioning at the outset that employment of
pratyaksa presupposes a previous coaching of
aptopadekam, there is much in the pratyaksa approach
that can help proper diagnosis. Caraka makes a good and,
in fact, big, list of items to be checked involving each and
every indriya of the doctor, and indriyartha of the
patient694. Elsewhere he uses the word darkana in an
extended sense and of whatever is directly perceived695: to
‘see’ here is to ‘smell’, and to ‘touch’ also.
691 Cakrapani’s very preface to this section draws attention to
the limitation as well as utility of pratyaksa. He says :
pratyaksam ca yadyapi punarbhavam na grhnati, tathapi tat
punarbhava-grdhakdnumanasya lihgagrahane yatha
vyapriyate tatha darkayati |
692 Cakrapani refers to easily noticeable (=pratyaksa) facts such
as kakcit kuriipah, kakcit surupah and kakcid gaurah, kakcit
krsnah etc.
693 Carakasamhita 3.4.5
kirn hyanupadistarh piirvam yat tat pratyaksdniimdnabhydm
panksamano vidyat ?
694 Carakasamhita 3.4.7 deals with this in full. He begins this
section saying
pratyaksatas tu khalu rogatattvam bubhutsuh sarvair indriyaih
sarvan indriyarthan atura-Sariragatan parikseta, anyatra
rasajndndt.
695 Carakasamhita 6.25.22-23
22 darSana-sparSa-sarhspar/iaih pariksa trividha smrta |
318 Padartha -
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
SuSruta refers to “3 means” and “6 means” of
diagnostic procedures “seeing, touching, and asking the
patient” - these constitute the three;” through all the five
sense organs and enquiring with the patience” - these
constitute the six696.
A Auditory Table 220
B Ocular Table 221
C Tactile Table 222
D Gustatory Table 223
E Olfactory Table 224
Table 219: Sensoiy Perceptions
We may now look into the details of what can be
studied with each of the five faculties. (Table 219)
vayo-varna-fariranam indriyanam ca dariandt 11
23 sparidn-mardava-saitye ca panksyam svaviparyaye 11
Cakrapani reminds us here about the extension of meaning
of darkana. He says :
darkana-kabdak catra saksad-upalabdhi-vacanah \ tern
vranagata-gandhenapi vrana-panksanam sangrhitam
bhavati | darkana-kabdena grhito’pi sparka iha bhuyasa
vyapriyamanatvat punaniktah \ \
696 Susrutasamhita 1.10.4
aturam abhipakyet, sprket, prcchec ca \ tribhih etaih
vijhanopayaih rogah prayako veditavyah - ityeke \ tattu na
samyak; sadvidho hi roganam vijhdnopayah \ tadyatha -
pahcabhih krotradibhih, praknena ceti \
Commenting on krotradi, Dalhana says
adikabdat tvah-netra-rasana-ghranani grhyante \
- Vijhana 319
23. Pratyaksa-pramana 23. Pratyaksa-pramana

7 anyani caksur other visual items

vaisayikani

Table 221: Visual Perceptions of the Ill

(according to Caraka)699

A srotrendriya With the Ears C sparsanendriya With the Skin

1 antrakujanam intestinal rumblings 1 Sitatva coldness
2 sandhi-sphutanam cracking sound in joints 2 usnatva heat
3 ariguti-parvanam ca cracking sound in finger- 3 Slaksnatva smoothness
joints 4 karkasatva roughness
4 svara-vtfesam$ca any vocal sounds in 5 mrdutva softness
particular 6 kathinatva hardness
5 ye canye[pi kecit any other sounds that may 7 adayah etc. Of the body
Sanropagatah tobdah emanate from the body (e.g jvara-Sophadisu especially in fever etc
syuh cough, hiccup etc)697
Table 222: Tactile Perceptions of the Ill
Table 220 : Auditory Perceptions of the Ill (according to Susruta)700
(according to Caraka)698

B caksurindriya With the Eyes

1 varna- colour
D ghranendriya With the Nose
2 -samsthana- shape
1 Normal and abnormal smells of the whole body701.
3 -pramana- measure
4 -cchayah complexion
5 ianraprakni- natural state of the body, 699 Carakasamhita 3.4.7. Cf. Susrutasamhita 1.10.5
6 -vikarau its unnatural condition caksur-indriya-vijneyah Sarira-upacaya-apacaya-dyurlaksana-
bala-varna-vikdradayah \

700 Susrutasamhita 1.10.5. Cf. Carakasamhita 3.4.7

697 This is elucidated by Cakrapani as kasa-hikkadayah \
sparSam ca panina prakrti-vikrti-yuktam |
698 Carakasamhita 3.4.7. Cf. Susrutasamhita 1.10.5
701 Carakasamhita 3.4.7
tatra Srotrendriya-vijneya viSesa rogesu vrana-asrava-
gandhas tu khalu sarva-Sariragatan dturasya prakrti-
vijhaniyddisu vaksyante - “tatra saphenam raktam irayan
vaikarikan ghrdnena pankseta |
anilah sasabdo nirgacchati” ityevamadayah |
Cf. Susrutasamhita 1.10.5
320 Padartha - - Vijhana 321
23. Pratyaksa-pramana
Table 223 : Olfactory Perceptions of the Ill
(according to Caraka/Susruta)
E rasanendriya With the Tongue
1 Particular tastes as in case of urinary diseases702;
tastes should be known inferentially only :
asking the patient how his mouth tastes; if lice
move away the body taste is impaired; if flies
are drawn towards the body, it tastes sweet
etc703.
Table 224: Gustatory Perceptions of the Ill
(according to Caraka/Susruta)
Thus must the doctor examine with pratyaksa, as
also anumana and agama.
ghranendriya-vijheyah arista-lihgadisu vrananam avrananam
ca gandhavifesah \
702 Susrutasamhita 1.10.5
rasanendriya-vijneyah pramehadisu rasavitesah \
703
Carakasamhita 3.4.7 As to the taste of blood (if he is
bleeding) test the reactions of dogs and crows:
fva-kaka-bhaksandt dharilohitam, abhaksanat lohitapittam
etc.
322 Padartha -
CHAPTER 24
ANUMANA PRAMANA (INFERENCE)
Definition
Annambhatta defines lnference(anumdna) as the
instrument of Inferential Judgement(anum//7). Anumiti, in
turn is what arises from paramar&a (consideration), which,
in turn, again, is the knowledge of the substrateness
(paksadharmata) as characterised by Regular
Pervasiveness (yyapti)704.
What do these terms mean?
A man sees smoke on a mountain. He has seen
smoke several times earlier, and in several places. It has
always been ‘No smoke without fire’. When a piece of iron
(ayogolaka) is burning red hot or white hot, you see fire
but there is no smoke. So there are instances where fire is,
704 Tarkasahgraha : (a) anumitikaranam = anumanam (b)
pardmartajanyaril jfidnam = anumitih (c) vyapti-viSista-
paksadharmata-jndnam = pardmar$ah.( a) incorporates
“anumiti” which is defined in (b). (b) incorporates
“paramarta”, which is defined in (c). For ISvarakrsna, the
realm of anumana is items which are suprasensory, or
rather, such as are not immediately/directly perceived
atindriyanam pratitir anumanat ( Sdhkhyakdrika 6). Too
distant items, for example, are not immediately available to
the senses. Isvarakrsna has listed 8 such occasions (in
Sdhkhyakdrika 7 : atidurat etc. Already cited).
- Vijhana 323
24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

but there is no smoke. But there are no instances where
smoke is, but fire is not. He has seen this often in the
kitchen {mahanasa). As he has not come across a single
instance where ‘smoke is, but fire is not’ situation, he
concludes that it is safe to conclude : wherever smoke is,
therever fire is. The mountain, then, must have fire.
Notion of Vyapti
The notion of vyapti involves two entities viz.
vyapya and vyapaka (respectively dhuma and vahni, here).
Technically the two are hetu and sadhya, for we establish
fire through smoke.

This ‘wherever-therever’ pattern is called vyapti, Vyapti can be conclusively established if we can
often translated as Invariable Concomitance. The spot or state the idea formally in these two ways:
item about which some question has arisen is called paksa. (i) Where dhuma is, there vahni is.
Here the question is as to whether fire is present on the (ii) Where vahni is not, there dhuma is not.
mountain. The mountain (parvata), therefore, is the As we can notice, the structure of the two statements is:
paksa. All instances of smoke (dhuma) are accompanied (i) If‘a’, then‘b’
by fire {vahni). (ii) If no ‘b’, then no ‘a’.
Of the two, (i) is called anvaya-vyapti and (ii) is called
There are even instances where fire is but smoke is
vyatireka-vyapti.
not. Hence vahni is vyapaka (more extensive), and dhuma
is vyapya (less extensive). Hence dhuma is always vahni- Again, parvata is called paksa. Paksa is that where
vyapya. This is known as sahacarya-niyama. The dhuma on the existence of the sadhya is sought to be ascertained. A
the mountain is no exception to this. Hence we can say concordant spot, viz. the kitchen, which also has smoke is
this parvata is vahni-vyapya-dhumavan. The vyapya viz. called sapaksa. The opposite, i.e. the discordant spot, viz.
dhiima characterises the paksa, the mountain. the iron ball, which has no smoke, is called vipaksa. Thus
we have mahanasa as sapaksa, and ayogolaka as vipaksa.
Hence the vyapya is paksa-vrtti {=parvata-vrtti).
Hetu is invariably present in sapaksa and invariably absent
vrtti” at the end of the compound in such instances as
in vipaksa. All these may be noted in a tabular column:
these, means “existing in/on/at/upon”. The knowledge of
the paksadharma (here, the mountain having the smoke) Items in the Feature Technical
as vyapti-vitista (= characterised by Invariable Illustration Name
Concomitance) is what is meant by vyapti-vitista- parvata hetuman paksa
paksadharmata-jhanam paramarSah. In our instance, dhuma vyapya hetu
“vahni-vyapya-dhumavan ayam parvatah” : this knowledge vahni vyapaka sadhya
is paramarta. Where vyapya is, vyapaka invariably is. Here, mahanasa sapaksa
where dhuma is, there vahni is. This dhuma is on the ayogolaka vipaksa
mountain. Hence vahni is on the mountain. This is stated
as parvato vahnimdn. Table 225 : Inferential Terms Illustrated

324 Padartha - - Vijhana 325

 24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

Label anvaya-vyapti Label paramarsa

Illustration yatra yatra dhumah Illustration vahni-vyapya-dhumavan parvatah
tatra tatra vahnih Generalisation sadhya-vyapya-hetuman paksah
Generalisation yatra yatra hetuh
tatra tatra sadhyah Table 227: paramarsa : Illustration
Label vyatireka-vyapti
Illustration yatra yatra vahny-abhavah As vyapya and vyapti-vrtista mean the same, and as
tatra tatra dhumabhavah hetu is considered as paksadharma,
Generalisation yatra yatra sadhyabhavah paksadharmata = vyapyasya paksa-vrttitvam.
tatra tatra hetvabhavah Thus,
paramarSa = vyapti-viSista-paksadharmata-jhana.
Table 226: vyapti: Types and Illustrations
Anumana according to Caraka

Paramarsa According to Caraka, Inference is preceded by

Perception, anumana by pratyaksa. Inference is of 3 types
The doubt (sandeha) is whether the parvata has and is applicable at all times705.
vahni, i.e. what is sandigdha (doubted) is whether there is
vahni on the parvata. This amounts to saying that paksa is
that which has sandigdha-sadhya. This is stated as paksah
sandigdha-sadhyavan. Similarly
sapaksah niscitasadhyavan and
vipafcsah niScita-sddhydbhavavan.
What is known is that parvata is dhumadhikarana =
dhumavan.
What is to be proved is that parvata is vahnyadhikarana =
vahniman.

In other words, paksa is known to be

hetvadhikarana. What is to be proved is that paksa is also
sadhyadhikarana. This is possible when we know hetu is
vyapta by sadhya or, what is the same: sddhya is vyapaka
and hetu is vyapya.
705 Carakasamhitd 1.11.21
pratyaksa-purvam trividham trikalam canumiyate
326 Padartha - - Vijnana 327
 .
24 Anumana-pramana
.
24 Anumana-pramana

What exactly do we mean when we say pratyaksa

precedes anumanal It is not that any pratyaksa qualifies
itself to designate anumana as pratyaksapurva. As
Cakrapani clarifies, it is only such as can ably establish the
vyapti, for, that is what helps us in Inference’06.
Caraka refers to 3 types of anumana101. They are
listed below with their examples, as set forth by

Table 228 : Types of Inference and examples

Cakrapani.

_
Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 1.11.21 )
pratyaksa-purvam iti - vyapti-grahaka-pramanapurvakam |
Furtheron, he supplies, the “intended/assumed fill-ups”
(called vakya&esa), thus making the sense and the sentence
formal and complete : pratyaksa-purvam yena anumiyate, tad
anumanam, having bearing thus on the very etymology of
anumana. The full force of the same is best cited in his own
words: [vyapti-grahanad] anu [anantaram] miyate [samyah-
niSclyate paroksartho\yena - tad anumanam; and as he
paraphrases it well: vydpti-smarana-sahaya-lihgadar&anam -
ityarthah | vyapti is verily the heart of anumana. The job of
anumana is over once we have confirmed the existence of
vyapti-vi$ista-hetu in the palcsa.

707 We have a similar presentation in Sdhkhyakdrikd also. Read

Sahkhyakdrika 5
trividham anumanam akhyatam \ tal-lihga-lingi-purvakam \
Cf. Nyayasutra 1.1.5
atha tatpurvakam trividham anumanam purvavat-Sesavat-
samanyatodrstam ca | |
Commenting on this, Vatsyayana points out the difference
between pratyaksa and anumana.
(a) sadvisayam ca prayaksam, sadasad-visayam
canumanam \
(b) kasmat ? traikalya-grahanat | trikala-yukta artha
anumdnena grhyante |
(c) “bhavisyati - ityanumiyate, bhavati - iti ca, abhut - iti ca |
328 Padartha
- Vijhana 329
24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

Another Classification of anumana (a) Svarthanumana

Having seen for oneself the many occurrences
Anumana is classified on another count - based (bhuyodarSana) of the togetherness of smoke and fire, as
that is, on whether it is for one’s own sake or for in the kitchen (mahanasa), one perceives their invariable
another’s. For, if it is for another, it will have to be more concomitance (ivyapti). Subsequently when near a
detailed, more precise, and rather formal. The anumana mountain he beholds smoke, and recollects the vyapti viz.
made for one’s own sake is called svartha, and for others is where smoke is, there fire is. Then he gets the clear idea
parartha (artha = prayojana = use). The syllogism that this mountain contains [such] smoke [as is] pervaded
employed for the former is naturally simpler and shorter, by fire. This is what is called lihga-paramarta10*, “Feature
and the latter slightly longer. The former is called Assessment”. From this follows the knowledge, inferential
tryavayava-vakya, and the latter, which is more commonly in nature, that the mountain is fiery. This is
needed, called pancavayava-vakya. Avayava is component. svarthanumana, “Inference for [One’s Own] Self’709.
These are tabulated below. Dissolve svartham ca tat anumanam ca; dissolve svartha as:
svasya arthah [prayojanam] yasya tat \
Type svarthanumanam pararthanumanam
(b) Pararthanumana
Goal: To Self Others
Convince
Structure of tryavayava-vakya pancavayava-
Syllogism vakya 708
Siddhantacandrodaya dissolves lihga-paramarSa as
Dissolution of svasya arthah yasya parasya arthah [vyapti-balena] tinam [artham] gamayati - iti lihgam [tacca
Term tat yasya tat dhumadih] | tasya paramarSah [-jhana-vi§esah]
Feature nydyaprayojyam nydyaprayojyam
709 Tarkasahgraha
Nature jhanatmakam Sabdatmakam
(a) svayam eva bhuyodartonena “yatra dhumah tatragnih” iti
mahanasadau vyaptim grhitva;
Table 229 : Anumana Classification (b) parvata-samipam gatah
(c) tadgate cagnau sandihanah
(d) parvate dhumam pafyan
(e) vyaptim smarati -
(f) yatra dhumah tatra agnih - iti |
(d) asacca khalvatltam anagatam ca | (g) tadanantaram Uvahni-vyapya-dhumavan ayam parvatahf>
Cf. Sahkhyakdrika 6 - iti jhanam utpadyate \ [Note : ayam eva lihga-pardmaria
samanyatastu drstad atindnyanam pratitir anumanat \ ityucyate |
Here Vacaspatimisra considers that the inference called (h) tasmat parvato vahniman - iti jhanam anumitih
samanyatodrsta is intended. Gaudapada has a different utpadyate |
approach. (i) Note : tadetat svarthanumanam |
330 Padartha -
- Vijhana 331
24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

A person has inferred fire from smoke. Posterior to

Ablative declaring the

pahcamyantam lihga-

vyapti, the Invariable

this svarthanumana he wants to convey this to another and

vyapti-pratipadakam
The sentence in the
paksavacanam (or
convince the other about this (para-pratipatti). So he uses

Elucidation

Setting forth the

abadhitatvadika-
paksadharmata-
Concomitance
a pancavayava-vakya, “Five-Limb-Sentence”. That is a

prayojanakam
sadhyavattaya

pratipadakam
pararthanumana “Inference for Another’s Sake”710.
Dissolve parartha as: parasya arthah [prayojanam] yasya tat

vacanam

jhanam
Pancavayava-vakya

Table 230 : Five-membered Syllogism

fiery - as is the
“Five-Membered Sentence/Syllogism”

The mountain

Because it has

smoky is also
Whatever is

Hence so.
In the pararthanumana quotation from

So is this
kitchen
is fiery
Tarkasahgraha cited above, the five sentences (1) to (p)

smoke
constitute what is called a pancavayava-vakya. Each of

Example
them has a label. The terms and examples for each are
tabulated in Table 230.

yoyo dhumavan

tasmat tatha [=
sa so’gniman -

yatha pratijha]
dhumavattvat

tatha cayam
mahanasah

[=paksah]
vahniman
parvato

yatha
710 Tarkasahgraha

Application

Conclusion
Illustration
Assertion
(S)yat tu dhumad agnim anumaya

Reason
(k) para-pratipattyartham pahcavayava-vakyam prayuhkte, tat E
pararthanumanam \ yatha U
QJ
(l) parvato vahniman H
(m) dhumavattvat "3
u
(n) yoyo dhumavan sa sa vahniman -yatha mahanasah *£
-A
u <3 3
(o) tatha cayam QJ
'<3 g
(p) tasmat tatha - in \ H 8 3 i
(q) anenapratipaditat lihgat paro’py agnimpratipadyate \ \ 5 •3 3
The goal of pararthanumana is the generation of the same S
a.
^3
3 ST
$
sort of paksadharmata-jhdna as has arisen during *

svarthanumana.

332 Padartha - - Vijhana 333

24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

The etymology of nigamana711 given by Vatsyayana anumana, and hence lihga-paramar&a is itself to be taken
is significant. as anumana713.
Neither hetu alone nor vyapti alone can establish
Caraka speaks of over half a dozen limbs712. They
the Enunciation (pratijna). On the other hand the hetu
are tabulated below.
should be vyapti-viSista. In other words hetu is the viSesya
1 pratijna sadhyavacanam and vyapti, the vLSesana.
2 sthapana pratijhdyah sthapana - hetu- viSesana
1 vyapti vyapti
drstantopanaya-nigamanaih
2 hetu viSesya paksadharmata
3 pratisthapand = parapratijhdydh vipantartha-sthapana
4 hetuh upalabdhi-karanam Table 232: Relation Between vyapti and
5 drstantah yo varnyam varnayati hetu/paksadharmata714
6 upanayah nothing different from Annambhatta’s
7 nigamanam nothing different from Annambhatta’s hetu = (a) vyapti-viSistata
8 uttaram (a) sadharmyopadiste hetau _(b) paksadharmata-viSistata
vaidharmya-vacanam
(b) vaidharmyopadiste va hetau Table 233 : Two Features of hetu
sadharmya-vacanam
The etymology of lihga-paramarSa has thus been
Table 231: Limbs espoused by Caraka given: the matter that is not explicit (i.e. the idea that
needs to be inferred) is brought home to us by linga; this it
Linga-paramarsah does through the force of vyapti. Smoke is such a linga. A
Nature and Role technical consideration of the same is a kind of
knowledge. And that is paramarSa71S.
Annambhatta considers linga-paramarSa as the
instrument (karana) common to both svarthanumana and 713
Tarkasangraha
pararthanumana. These two exhaust the types of svarthanumiti-pararthanumityoh lihga-paramarsa eva
karanam \ tasmdt linga-paramarsah anumanam |

714 Note : paksadharmata actually becomes a particular instance

711 Vatsyayana’s etymology is - of hetuta.
nigamyante [samarthyante/sambadhyante] anena [pratijna-hetu-
udaharana-upanayah ekatra] - iti nigamanam. 715 Skeletally it is linam gamayati - iti lihgam \ But
712
Siddhdntacandrodaya of 3rikrsnadhurjati (on
Carakasamhita 3.8.30-36. See also the role of Tarkasangraha) notes, filling the gaps, that is :
uhalyuktildrstanta in Carakasamhita 1.11.25 (and Cakrapani vyapti-balena linam artham gamayatiti lihgam \ tat ca
thereon), and 3.8.40. dhumadih \ tasya pardmarSah jhanaviSesah |
334 Padartha - - Vijhana 335
24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

Paramar&a is actually two knowledges fused into Definition Example

Type
one, of (a) and (b) : of them (a) is the knowledge of the 1 anvaya- anvayena (1) vahnau sadhye
smoke in conjunction with fire, as is evidenced in the vyatirekin vyatirekena ca dhumavattvam |
instance of the common kitchen, Positive & vyaptimat \
(b) is the knowledge of the smoke perceived on the Negative anvaya-vyapti (2 )yatra dhumas
mountain. tatragnih -yatha
The third step is paramarUa which blends (a) and mahanase \
(b) as (c). (c) combines the smoke as on the mountain, vyatireka- (3)yatra vahnirnasti
known in (b), with the smoke as concomitant with fire, vyapti tatra dhumo’pi nasti -
known in (a). yatha mahahrade |
2 kevalanvayin anvaya-matra- (4) ghato’bhidheyah
It is this paramarfa = (c) that lies at the heart of Only vyaptikam prameyatvdt patavat
svdrthdnumiti. A formally stated pentadigital statement of Positive
the same paramarSa gets designated as pararthanumiti.
3 kevala- vyatireka- (5) prthivi itarebhyo
What brings about paramar&a is, it may be cautioned,
vyatirekin matra- bhidyate, gandhavattvdt
paksadharmata-jhana, and not just lihga-jhana. Only vyaptikam | yaditarebhyo na
Negative bhidyate, na tad
gandhavat yatha jalam \
na ceyam tatha,
Lihga - Types
tasmanna tatha \
As Annambhatta notes, lihga or Signum is of 3
Table 234: Three types of lihga
types, tabulated in Table 234.
The Definitions of the primary concepts may first anvaya- hetu- yatra yatra hetuh tatra tatra
be noticed. vyapti sadhyayoh sadhyam
vyaptih =yatra yatra vyapakah tatra
tatra vyapyam
vyatireka- sadhyabhava- yatra yatra sadhyabhavah
vyapti hetvabhavayoh tatra tatra hetvabhavah
vyaptih = yatra yatra vyapyabhavah
tatra tatra vyapakabhavah
For ViSvanatha, vydptijhana is the karana, and pardmarsa is
the vyapara : Karikavali 66 Table 235: Definitions of anvaya-vyapti/ vyatireka-
vyaparas tu paramar&ah, karanam tu vyaptidhir bhavet | Also
vyapti
68 vydpyasya paksavrttitva-dhih paramaria ucyate \
336 Padartha • - Vijhana 337
24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

Anvaya-vyapti is the vyapti between hetu and sadhya Here the example given is “prthvi is different
(same as vyapya and vyapaka) whereas vyatireka-vyapti is from others; as it has sound”.
the vyapti between sadhyabhava and hetvabhava. Take A sapaksa instance is one which has smell, and
note of the sequence of items in the pair hetu-sadhya and has itarabheda, which should be concomitant.
in sadhydbhdva-hetvabhava. Such an example does not obtain.
(a) anvaya-vyatirekin A vipaksa instance is one which has no smell
In the first variety viz. anvaya-vyatireki we have and has no itarabheda : 8 dravya-s and 6
both cases applicable : if A then B & If no B padartha-s answer to being odourless; they also
then no A } where A = dhuma = hetu and B = have no itarabheda. So we have vipaksa
agni = sadhya. The sapaksa and vipaksa instances.
examples taken up are the kitchen and the
pond respectively. The following table compares and contrasts the 3 types
(b) kevalanvayin
This is a case where there is a positive vyapti vyaoti drstanta
only. The sadhya (A) is abhidheya ‘nameable’ anvaya- vyatireka- sapaksa- vipaksa-
and the hetu (B) is prameyatvat ‘as it is vyapti vyapti drstanta drstanta
knowable’. anvayva-
V S V V
As (A) and (B) (or sadhya & hetu) are vyatirekin
coextensive, it is just not possible to think of a kevalanvayin S X V X

negative concomitance. As abhidheyatva and kevala- X s X s

prameyatva are present in all things, there is no vyatirekin
possibility of vyatireka here, hence no vyatireka-
vyapti. Table 236 : lihga Types : Comparison and Contrast
There can thus be no possibility of a vipaksa in
kevalanvayi type i.e. there can be no It may well be noted that columns (1) and (3) are
situation/item where sadhyabhava exists. For, the same; so also columns (2) and (4). General Note : As
all things are nameable, and nothing at all is “lihga” is Neuter in gender, we have all the three types
unnameable. named in Neuter only - i.e. kevalanvayi (not kevalanvayi =
Masculine form) etc.
(c) kevala-vyatirekin
This is a situation where there can be no
sapaksa example, though there will be vipaksa
possibility.

338 Padartha - - Vijnana 339

24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

Failure to meet any of the above 5 standards,

Saddhetu qualifies the hetu to be branded asaddhetu or hetvabhasa
Sound Cause of Fallacious Logic. The kind of hetvabhasa involved in
each case against the particular violation is tabulated
Five features have been presented as marks of a below.
proper hetu in Tarkakaumudi. They are tabulated below. Test Failure leading to type hetvabhasa
of hetvabhasa number
1 paksadharmatvam hetu should be in the paksa 1 paksa- 1 aSrayasiddha (6) = [4.1]
2 sapakse sattvam hetu should be in the sapaksa dharmatva
3 vipaksad vyavrttih hetu should not be present in

r-
2 svarupasiddha

II
'
the vipaksa 2 sapaksa-sattva 3 asadharana- (2) = [1.2]
4 abadhita-visayatvam hetu should not be contradicted savyabhicara
by a stronger proof 4 anupasamhari- (3) = [1.3]
5 asatpratipaksatvam hetu should not have a savyabhicara
counterbalancing reason 3 vipaksa-sattva 5 vyapyatvasiddha (8) = [4.31
6 viruddha (4) = [21
Table 237 : Features of a sad-hetu 7 sadharana- (1) = [11]
savyabhicara
Of these the first three may be considered as
4 abadhita- 8 badhita (9) - [5]
elementary: factors 2 and 3 almost just follow from the
visayatva
definitions of sapaksa and vipaksa.
5 asatpratipaksatva 9 satpratipaksa (S)'= [31
Matching against the above five, it is only the
anvaya-vyatireki that passes the test. Kevalanvayin fails Table 239: Vitiated hetu-s and their Labels
Test 3 as the very possibility of a vipaksa is ruled out.
Kevala-vyatirekin on the other hand, fails in Test 2 as the Legend : In the last column are mere numbers. Some
very possibility of a sapaksa is ruled out. are in Simple Brackets (), and some are in Square Brackets [].
They all stand for hetvabhasa-s, numbered dually. There are 5
hetvabhasa-s, numbered 1 to 5, presented in Square Brackets.
2 3
Of them, 1 and 4 have subdivisions, three each, shown as 1.1,
anvayva-vyatirekin ✓
4.2 etc. The numbers in Simple Brackets give a running number
kevalanvayin ✓ X
of the total number of hetvabhasa-s, counting all subdivisions
kevala-vyatirekin X also, hence 1 to 9.

The hetvabhasa-s will be dealt with in a Section to

Table 238: lihga types - Contrast
follow.

340 Paddrtha - - Vijnana 341

24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

Ahetu
Explanation of ahetu types :
Caraka devotes a section for ahetu or Non-reason.
(a) prakarana-sama “Proposition-as-Cause”
Cakrapani glosses on it saying it is what cannot prove716.
As Cakrapani explains, prakarana is the same as
He classifies this under three heads shown below.
paksa111. The flaw in prakaranasama is that
paksa is taken as sadhya.
Name Example in Caraka Comment in
Caraka The pratijhd is that the soul, being different
1 prakarana¬ (a) anyah Sarirad na hiya eva from the body, is eternal.
sama atma nityah paksah sa eva The opponent will say : The body is ephemeral.
(b) yasmadanyah hetuh - id Hence the self ought to be different from it.
Sarirad atma tasmat This is no reason. For what is paksa has itself
nityah \ been made the hetu\ns That is unacceptable.
Sariram hyanityam ato
vidharmina catmana (b) samtoya-sama “Equality of Doubt”
bhavitavyam \ One says: This fellow tells a portion of
2 samtoya- (a) ayam na hiya eva Ayurveda. Can he be a doctor?
sama ayurvedaikadeSam samtoya-hetuh sa If the other now says: As he knows some
aha - kimnvayam eva sam&aya- portion of Ayurveda, he is a doctor. The very
cikitsakah sycit na va? ccheda-hetuh point of doubt is presented as a removal of
(b )yasmad ayam bhavad doubt.
ayurvedaikadeSam
(c) varnya-sama “The To-Be-Proved as Analogy”
aha
tasmaccikitsako ’yam
3 varnya- (a) asparSatvad varnyah tiabdah
sama buddhir anitya buddhir api varnya 717 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.8.57)
- tadubhaya- prakriyate sadhyatvenddhikriyate = paksah \ tena samah
Sabdavat \
varnydviiistatvdd prakaranasamah |

varnya-samah 7,8 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.8.57)

Table 240: Types of ahetu in Caraka
716 “
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.8.57)
ahetuh asadhakahetuh - ityarthah \
sad hi nityatve cetanadharasya farirad anyatvam api
siddhyati |
For the Carvaka, iafira = cetana = anitya. Hence
iariradanyatva and nityatva are both items to be established
{sadhya). How can the sadhya become the sadhanal
na ca sadhyam sadhanam bhavad \

342 Padartha - - Vijnana 343

24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

When you say the Intellect (buddhi) is

Varieties
Number
ephemeral as it cannot be touched - like sound.

of
When the ephemerality of sound itself remains cn fH T—1

unproven, it is ‘sailing in the same boat’ as the

sadhya. The drstanta should be well-known719.

Unestablished
Contradicted

Challenged
Discrepant
Hetvabhasa

Falsified
Name of Fallacy
Fallacious Logic

Total = 9
Errors in logical thinking can lead to wrong
conclusions. Hence fallacies need to be studied.
Annambhatta considers hetvabhasa-s under 5 heads,
1

savyabhicara
tabulated in Table 241 (see next page)

viruddha

asiddha

badhita
Govardhana defines hetvabhasa as “what appears
as a hetu”720, paraphrasing such items as dusta-hetavah,
“Vitiated Causes”. It is not only a positive knowledge that
1s
helps but also a negative knowledge. One must know what

Unestablishment
a thing is, but also what it is not.

Contradiction

Falsification
The etymologies are listed in Table 242.

Discrepancy

Challenge

Total = 5
Flaw
719 ~
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.8.57)

vyabhicara

pratipaksa
na ca sadhyo drstanto bhavati |

virodha

asiddhi
720

badha
Nyayabodhini (on Tarkasangraha)
hetuvad abhasante - id hetvdbhasah [
The word can also be analysed as hetoh abhasah = what
looks like, but is not, a proper hetu. It can also be analysed
as hetau abhasah = error in the hetu. Tarkadipikd defines i-H

hetvabhasa thus:
anumiti-pratibandhaka-yatharthajhana-visayatvam Table 241: Logical Fallacies
hetvdbhasatvam |

344 Padartha - Vijnatta 345

24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

1 hetuvad abhasate Looks like (but is not) a [proper] asiddha

hetu i akaydsiddha
2 hetoh abhasah. Looks like (but is not) a [proper] 2 svarupasiddha
hetu 3 vyapyatvasiddha
3 hetau abhasah Error in the hetu
Table 245 : asiddha types of Fallacy
Table 242 : Etymologies of hetvabhasa

There is some variation as to the number and hetvabhasa-s not subdivided

names of hetvabhasa-s as per different authorities. 1 viruddha
2 satpratipaksa
Gotama Kanada 3 badhita
1 savyabhicara 1 savyabhicara
2 viruddha 2 viruddha Table 246 : hetvabhasa-s with no subdivisions
3 prakaranasama 3 asiddha
4 sadhyasama
A total catalogue of the 9 hetvabhasa-s
5 atitakala
(subdivisions also counted) may be thus presented. See
Table 243 : hetvabhasa-s as per Different Authorities Table 248. Numbers in simple brackets () give Serial No.
Numbers in square brackets [] indicate the main division
Obviously some subdivisions of the one overlap and sub-division.
with other.
1 savyabhicara [1.1] (1) sadharana-savyabhicara
Subdivisions among hetvabhasa-s [1.21 (2) asadharana-savyabhicdra
[1.3] (3) anupasamhari-savyabhicara
Only two types of hetvabhasa have subtypes, and 2 viruddha f21 (4)
the number of subtypes is 3 in each case. The subdivided 3 satpratipaksa [3] (5)
hetvabhasa-s are presented below: 4 asiddha [4-11 (6) akaydsiddha
[4-21 (7) svarupasiddha
savyabhicara
[4.31 (8) vyapyatvasiddha
1 sadharana Common
2 asadharana Particular 5 badhita [5] (9)
3 anupasamharin Nonexclusive
Table 247: Conspectus of all hetvabhasa-s (Including
Table 244: savyabhicara types of Fallacy subdivisions) (with Dual Numbering)

346 Padartha - Vijnana 347

 JO

5
r
#S
G
Q
JO

fl
G

6
ICS
Example Why Fallacious

348
pratijna/ hetu/
<udaharana >(=

t-H
•»«*
8

*-H
^
§
24. Anumana-pramana

w
parvato vahniman prameyatvam

•—• <0
IQ
<3
5
•Q <3

*§
•Q Is.

-§*
•Xt-
/ prameyatvat vahnyabhavavati hrade
vidyate

>

§
Sabdo nityah /

S'
Sabdatvam sarvebhyo

--- Q
C '«3
§ s

JO
§•
ju.

■x:-
Sabdatvat nityebhyo ’nityebhyoSca
vyavrttam tobdamatra-vrtti

iH
•43
1
sarvam anityam /

^
sarvasyapi paksatvat

<3 ^3
• a

--- Q
Xj
co SS
'<3
§• g
.r*

1
•5
|

||
i •«.
prameyatvat drstanto nasti

co §"
i

SJ
•a
•<3

04
M

.g
•g
si
$
§

•x;.
Sabdo nityah / krtakatvam

c7
1

05 *x;
krtakatvat nityatvabhavena
anityatvena vyaptam

Padartha
CO
yasya sadhya-bhava- Sabdo nityah /

21 §
Co g
3
•X5-
sadhakam iravanatvat /

Vijnana
hetvantaram vidyate Sabdatvavat

Tf
cs
rg
8
3
-xi-

gaganaravindam aSrayah gaganaravindam

^
VO .§
S§
l
-X!«

surabhi / nastyeva
r=z S'

aravindatvat /
sarojaravindavat
a

caksusatvam tobde nasti /

1

^ §
R.'S
5 ^

2 I-
S.

-xt-

iabdasya Sravanatvat

sopadhikah = parvato vahnimattvam sopadhikam

Cl ^ 00 C3
r~' c
1 i1

sadhya-vyapi dhumavan /
•x;*

21 ^ 21 §>

sadhanavyapakah vahnimattvat
'S

uo
.2
S
C.

yatra sadhya-bhavah vahnih anusnah /

-c-

S
i

2 3
J3
<3

a X!-

pramanan-tarena dravyatvat
«
S|s

II |
2 -2

nifcitah
ill
S> S3- S,
a w cv.
24. Anumana-pramana

349

Table 248: hetvabhasa-s : ame/Designation/Example/Grounds

for declaring it Fallacious
24. Anumana-pramana
Comments and Explanations
Savyabhicara
1. Savyabhicara - This word has been mentioned by
Caraka also, and used in a rather loose and general
manner, though the essence viz. indefiniteness
(ianaikantikatva) - is there all the same. The pattern
there is: this may happen; or this may not
happen721. The example he gives is “This medicine
may work in the case of this disease, or not722. One
is still left with the doubt, this way723.”
Savyabhicara - dissolve : vyabhicarena saha vartate
| anaikantika = vyabhicarita.
Sadharana
2. Govardhana defines sadharana as being present
where sadhyabhava is724.
3. In sadharana, the hetu exists in not only sadhya but
also sadhyabhava, thus vitiating the argument; it
exists in sapaksa as well as vipaksa125.
721 Carakasamhita 3.8.45
bhavet athava neti \
722 Carakasamhita 3.8.45
bhaved idam ausadham asmin vyadhau yaugikam, athava
neti |
723
Cakrapani (on Carakasamhita 3.8.45)
yaugikatva-ayaugikatvabhyam samiaya-janakatvarn eva \
724 Nyayabodhirii (on Tarkasahgraha)
sadharanatvam sadhyabhavavad-vrttitvam \
725 Tarkakaumudi
sadharanah sapaksa-vipaksa-vrttih |
350 Padartha
24. Anumana-pramana
4. The etymology of anaikantika is interesting. It
means the entity exists in not just one side (eka-
anta)126. Kanada refers to anaikantika as sandigdha.
In the example give, prameyatva (Knowability), the hetu, is
present in vahni no doubt, but then it is also in
vahnyabhava Asadharana
5. If sadharana had the hetu both in sapaksa and
vipaksa, in asadharana it is neither in sapaksa nor
in vipaksa. Absence in vipaksa is a welcome
feature, but absence in sapaksa also vitiates it. (In
sadharana, the presence of the hetu in vipaksa
vitiated it). No sapaksa example can be formed in
the case of asadharana. If you make the paksa itself
as the hetu, you have little help!
Anupasamhan
6. This one has neither a sapaksa-drstanta nor a
vipaksa-drstanta. Hetu is present in paksa no doubt,
but then nowhere else. When you make everything
(sarvam) as paksa, how can you think of getting a
sapaksa or a vipaksa? Hence the description as
sarvapaksaka or vastumatra-paksaka.
7. To sum up, in all types of savyabhicara, there is a
partial/full violation of sapaksa-sattva and
vipaksasattva (same as vipaksa-vyavrtti).
8. We may tabulate the above thus:
726 Vatsyayanabhasya (on Nyayasutra 1.2.56)
(a) nityatvam eko’ntah \
(b) anityatvam eko’ntah \
(c) ekasmin ante vidyate - iti ekantikah \
(d) viparyayad anaikantikah - ubhayanta-vyapakatvat \
- Vijnana 351
24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

Notation CE Example : pratijha / hetu

SS = sapaksasattva of hetu S = presence 1 KA parvatah abhidheyah / prameyatvat
VV = vipaksavyavrtti of hetu x = absence 2 S X parvato vahniman / prameyatvat
3 KV V prthivi itarebhyo bhidyate / prthivitvat
The * mark shows where the defect lies.
4 A X prthivi nitya / prthivitvat
SS VV
1 ✓ saddhetu Table 251: saddhetu and asaddhetu : Subtle
2 X sadharana Differences
3 X v' asadharana
4 X X anupasamhan Viruddha
11. Here the hetu is the very antithesis of the sadhya.
Table 249: sapaksa/vipaksa - Presence/Absence Instead of being present in sadhya, it is present in
sadhyabhava. Krtakatva (the hetu) is not present in
9. While kevalanvayin and kevalavyatirekin are any instance nitya (the sadhya). On the other hand
saddhetu-s, sadharana and asadharana are not. it is present in anitya items (=sadhyabhava items)
thus the hetu has become sadhyabhava-sadhaka
Logical Category saddhetutva which is wrong, rather than being sadhyabhava-
1 kevalanvayin S sadhaka which is proper.
2 kevala-vyatirekin V
12. The contrast of viruddha with sadharana-
3 sadharana X
savyabhicara and asadharana-savyabhicara may be
4 asadharana X
tabulated thus (respectively column 1 and column

Table 250: Validity / Invalidity of Logical Categories 2)

_Notation
10. We may note the differences among the 4 logical S = exists_
categories thus. Notice how the paksa and the hetu x = does not exist
are the same in 1 and 2; and again in 3 and 4.
sapaksa Fallacy vipaksa
Notation 1 sadharana-savyabhicara
S sadharana 2 X viruddha S
KA kevalanvayin CE
KV kevalavyatirekin A asadharana Co-extensiveness 3 asadharana -savyabhicara X

of sadhya with hetu

Table 252: Contrast between two pairs of Fallacies

352 Padartha Vijhana 353

24. Anumana-pramana
24. Anumana-pramana
Satpratipaksa
13. This is a case where an equally powerful Airayasiddha
counterpart nullifies the present argument and 16. When a paksa is nonexistent, it is called
points to an opposite conclusion. Thus we have the airayasiddha as that is the airaya of the hetu. Thus
regular hetu, but annulling it is a hetvantara which whatever you may try to predicate oi gaganaravinda
is equally powerful. While the hetu seeks to prove (except that it does not exist, or the like), it will be
the sadhya, the hetvantara, a counter-argument, false.
proves to sadhyabhava. Svarupasiddha
14. The difference between viruddha and satpratipaksa 17. When the hetu is nonexistent in its primary locus
may be tabulated: viz. the paksa, it is svarupasiddha. Caksusatva (as a
hetu) does not exist in iabda (the paksa).
Fallacy Cause for Fallacy
1 viruddha hetu proves sadhyabhava Vyapyatvasiddha
2 satpratipaksa hetvantara proves sadhyabhava 18. The problem here is with the yyapti. Instead of the
normal vahniman dhumat, we have the very inverse
Table 253 : Difference between Two Fallacies of it, viz. dhumavan vahneh or vahnimattvat. Vahni
and dhuma are respectively sadhya and sadhaka. In
Asiddha other words vahni can exist without dhuma (as in
15. vyapti-viiista-paksadharmata-jhana is essential for ayogolaka) but, not its reverse, i.e. dhuma cannot
anumana. If however there is no paramaria for any exist without vahni. In actual fact we are
reason, there can be no anumana. Any defect in interchanging the positioning of vyapya and
the paksa or hetu or hetu-sadhya-sambandha vyapaka. Hence the defect is in vyapti. Hence this is
(=yyapti) will vitiate the Inference. It may be vyapyatvasiddha.
noticed that Annambhatta does not exactly define
Badhita
the varieties of asiddhi.
19. All of the hetvabhasa-s dealt with above, are within
the framework of anumana. But sometimes a
Defect: Location of Description
different situation may arise. A different, yet more
1 Knowledge of paksa airayasiddha
powerful pramana may clash with the proof of
2 Knowledge of hetu svarupasiddha anumana. Other proofs are such as dgama or even
3 Knowledge of vyapti vyapyatvasiddha pratyaksa can contradict an unsound anumana.
Howsoever one may be smart to adduce arguments
Table 254 : 3 types of asiddha and their Bases
to say fire is cold, there is the easily and readily
available experience {pratyaksa) that fire is indeed
hot. Here, there is pratyaksa which is very powerful

354 Padartha -
Vijnana 355
24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

against anumana. Hence we have a badhita here. In other words the extent of the vydpaka must be greater
than that of the vyapya, or at least equal to the same. The
Vyapti-vimarsa word niyama is sometimes expanded to
samanbdhikaranatyantdbhdvdpratiyogi. There are
Annambhatta defines vyapti “pervasion”, as the numerous expansions of this, and the essential point is to
rule of concomitance (sahacarya-niyamah)121. The ensure that the proposed vyapti is not the concomitance
statement “where smoke is, there fire is” is only a between just a single individual instance of dhuma and
demonstration of the same, he says728 in his Dipika. vahni, or only some instances of the same, but all dhuma-s
and all vahni-s.
If vyapti is the heart of anumana, sahacarya is the
heart of vyapti. Sahacarya “going together” is the same as A difference between the kdrya and karana
samanadhikaranya, being together - in the same locus729. relationship as in the world and as in logic may also be
Hetu and sadhya should invariably be always together730. noted. Wet fuel by itself does not generate smoke. When
it is set fire to, smoke issues. Thus fire is the cause and
Vyapti is obviously the relationship between
smoke is the effect. But in logic dhuma is taken as the
vydpaka and vyapya. Hetu is the vyapya and sadhya is
cause and vahni is taken as the effect. For, we infer fire
vydpaka. In the illustrations, vahni is the vyapaka and
from smoke.
dhuma is the vyapya. Niyatam is glossed as niyamena
Vyapti is taken as of two types.
vartamanam, what necessarily, i.e. unfailingly, exists. In
other words, niyata brings out the aspect of universality. It
anvaya- tat-sattve tat-sattvam If A then B
is this that gives the power that vyapti is credited with, and
vyapti
actually possesses. The essential rule is that the extent of
vyatireka- tad-abhave tad-abhavah If no B then
the vydpaka should never be less than that of the vyapya.
vyapti no A

171 Table 255: Types of vyapti

Tarkasahgraha
yatra yatra dhumas tatragnir iri sahacarya-niyamo vyaptih \
710
It is these two kinds of vyapti that determine kdrya -
Dipika (on Tarkasahgraha) karana relationship. Vyapti thus being what establishes
yatra dhumas tatragnir iti vyapter abhinayah \ causation, it is naturally supremely important in Ayurveda
29 Dipika (on Tarkasahgraha) what kinds of disturbances within the body give rise to
sahacaryarii samanddhikaranyam \ what kinds of deformations and sufferings need to be
adhikarana is locus or location. causally established. And the reverse of this is also
important: what kind of symptoms go to settle the
730 Dipika (on Tarkasahgraha) This is formally stated as
hetu-samdnddhikarana-atyantabhava-apratiyogi-sddhya- identification of which disease also needs to be causally
samanddhikaranyam vyaptih \ established.

356 Padartha - Vijhana 357

24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

Formalization of vyapti can thus have an important hypothetically accept that. Were there no fire in it, smoke
role to play in etiology and medication in Ayurveda. would also not have been there. In other words, were the
mountain not fiery, it would not have been smokey either.
Tarka This however is not the case - as smoke is indeed seen on
the mountain; which is to say, the hypothetical acceptance
Annambhatta defines tarka, “Hypothetical was wrong. When there is no error in logical thinking, if
Assumption”, as a deduction of the more pervasive by a you still arrived at a wrong result i.e. at something which
less pervasive, and as this is invalid, classifies it under goes contrary to facts, then your error ought to be in your
aprama or Invalid Knowledge731. assumption732.
The word tarka is used in a different sense also.
The three types of ayatharthanubhava may thus be
SuSruta says, tarkagranthartharahito naiva
shown.
grhnatyapanditah | He who has no knowledge of the
IS ame Definition Example matter of texts of logic, is ignorant. Gautama defines it as
sarhfoya Doubt ekasmin dharmini sthanur vd, an inference (uka) arrived at for the sake of knowledge of
viruddha- puruso vd? truth via reasons regarding something unknown733.
nanadharma-
vaLUstya-jhanam Drstanta
viparyaya Mistake mithya-jhanam Suktau
viparyayah “idam Gautama defines it as the similar intellectia
rajatam” regarding some object734. We have drstanta-samadhi and
tarka Assumption vyapyaropena yadi vahnih
vyapakaropah na syat tada 732 Tarkabhdsa
dhumo’pi na parvato’yam sagnih uta anagnih ? iti sandehanantararh yadi
kaScinmanyate anagnih iti, tada tam prati “yadyayam anagnih
syat
abhavisyat, tarhi dhiimavan nabhavisyat - ityavahnimattvena
adhumavattva-prasahjanam kriyate \ sa canista-prasahgah
Table 256: Types of ayatharthanubhava
tarka ucyate \ evampravrttah tarkah anagnimattvasya
pratiksepat anumanasya bhavatyanugrahakah \
If a person were not to agree that the mountain is
fiery as it is smokey, then this tarka argument is presented 733 Nyayasutra 1.1.40
to him: You say there is no fire there. Let us avijhata-tattve’rthe karanopapattitah tattvajhanartham uhah
tarkah \

731 714 Nyayasutra 1.1.25

Tarkasahgraha
laukika-panksakanam yasmin arthe buddhisamyam sa
ayatharthanubhavah trividhah - samSayci-viparyaya-tarka-
drstantah \
bhedat | ... vyapyaropena vyapakdropakah tarkah |
The laukika-s are the laymen; pariksaka-s are those trained
358 Padartha - - Vijnana 359
24. Anumana-pramana 24. Anumana-pramana

drstanta-virodha, concordance and discordance with the

analogy, based on which the right conclusions are Fire is hot
1 agnih usnah
supported, and wrong ones are barred. It is such a drstanta Water is liquid
2 dravam udakam
that acts the role of an avayava in the pahcdvayava The earth is firm
3 sthira prthivi
syllogism. The sun sheds light
4 adityah prakdSakah
Drstanta is sometimes classified as sadharmya-
drstanta and vaidharmya-drstanta, also known as anvaya- Table 258 : Examples of drstanta
drstanta and vyatireka-drstanta. See table
All this looks so elementary that we miss the point.
drstanta-s for yatra dhumas tatra vahnih But when he gives an application we appreciate it.
sadharmya-drstanta anvaya-drstanta mahanasa
vaidharmya-drstanta vyatireka-drstanta mahahrada Analogy (yatha) adityah The Sun sheds light
prakatokah
Table 257 : Comparative and Contrastive Analogies Application (tatha) A knowledge of
sahkhyajhdnam sahkhya enlightens
The definition given by Caraka is similar to that of prakafokam
Gautama735. He gives 4 examples.
Table 259: Drstanta and Application
in logic. Both experience a similar feeling with regard to
something.
735 Carakasamhita 3.8.34 Importance of anumana in Ayurveda
drstdnto nama yatra murkha-vidusam buddhisamyam, yo
varnyam varnayati | Ayurveda naturally attaches importance to
The expression murkha-vidusam is only a paraphrase of pratyaksa and anumana. It can combine well with
laukika-paiiksakanam. The point is that it should not be aptopadeto, instructions given by the adepts .
something comprehensible to the scholar alone, as
Ayurvedadipika says
na panditamdtrasiddhah \
It is no drstanta, asserts Cakrapani, if it fails to reach the When in doubt, ask for an analogy:
person to whom it is intended! kvacid dvandve “ayam ayamiva” - iti darSayati.
sa yavat na pratipadyapurusam prati sadhyate, na tavad
drstantatam asadayati - iti bhavah | 736 Carakasamhita 3.8.83
Further, varnyam varnayati just means sadhyam sadhayati, dvividha tu patiksa khalu jhanavatam — pratyaksam,
he says. He redefines drstanta as anaumanam ca | etaddhi dvayam, upadeSaS ca, pariksa sydt
prasiddha-sddhya-sadhana-sambandhah. | evam esa dvividha pariksa, trividha va sahopadeSena \
360 Padartha -
- Vijnana 361
 24. Anumana-pramana
24. Anumana-pramana

Mode Inferible Item

In the context of listing out the various symptoms
i jarana-fakti agni
and marks of diseases on the person of the patient,
2 vyayama-iakti bala
Caraka spells out which sense organ can grasp which
3 Sabdady-artha-grahana Srotradi
details of these. However, regarding one thing, he debars
pratyaksa, though it may be possible, on the ground that it 4 arthavyabhicarana manas
is not desirable. And that with regard to the organ of 5 vyavasaya vijhana
taste. Inferential methods are recommended here in lieu 6 sahga rajas
of the perceptive - anumana instead of prayaksa731. 7 avijhana moha
8 abhidroha krodha
The way anumana is employed is illustrated by him
9 dainya Soka
with a few instances also738, tabulated below.
10 amoda harsa
Mode Inferible Item 11 tosa pnti
1 atura-paripraSna dtura -mukharasa 12 visada bhaya
2 yukapasarpana sanra-vairasya 13 avisada dhairya
3 maksikopasarpana Sarira-madhurya 14 utthana virya
4 Sva-kdka-bhaksana dharilohita 15 avibhrama avasthana
5 Sva-kakabhaksana lohita-pitta 16 abhipraya Hraddha
6 anya anya 17 grahana medha
18 namagrahana samjha
Table 260 : anumana Procedures in lieu of pratyaksa 19 smarana smrti
20 apatrapana hn
In the section to follow739, Caraka lists over three 21 anuSilana Sila
dozen objects and their inferential modes that suit them, 22 pratisedha dvesa
tabulated in Table 261. 23 anubandha upadhi
24 alaulya dhrti
25 vidheyata vafyatd

717
Carakasamhita 3.4.7
rasam tu khalu atura-Sariragatam indriya-vaisayikam api
anumanad avagacchet \ na hyasya pratyaksena grahanam
upapadyate | etc.
718
Carakasamhita 3.4.7
710
Carakasamhita 3.4.8
Vijhana 363
362 Padartha -
24. Anumana-pramana

(Contd.)
Mode Inferible Item
26 kdlaviSesa vayas
27 de£avi§esa bhakti
28 upafayavtfesa samya CHAPTER 25
29 vedana-viSesa vyadhi
30 upaSayal vedana-vitesa samutthana PRAMANANTARA
31 upa&aya /anupatoya gudha-liriga-vyadhi
32 apacara-viSesa dosa-pramana-viSesa Upamdna/Yukti/Arthdpatti/Anupalabdhi/Aitihya/
33 arista ayusah. ksaya Cesta/Sambhava
34 kalyanabhiniveSa upasthita -Sreyastva
35 avikara amalasattva
36 atura-paripra$na grahanimrdutva Upamana
37 atura-paripratna grahanidarunatva
38 atura-paripra&na svapradar&ana Upamana has been defined as the instrument of
39 atura-pariprafna dvista the knowledge called upamiti740.
40 atura-paripra£na ista Calling it aupamya, Caraka defines Analogy as an
41 utura-paripraSna sukha exposition based on the resemblance of one with
42 atura-paripratna duhkha another741.

Table 261: anumana : Item and Mode

740 Tarkasahgraha
upamiti-karanam upamanam \
In turn, upamiti is defined as samjnd-sarhjni-sambandha-
jhanam |

741 Carakasamhita 3.8.42

aupamyam nama yad anyena anyasya sadrsyam adhikrtya
praka&anam | Here the words anyena and anyasya, both
pronominal, look confusing, but they are typically
Sanskritic. (Cf. taddhetor eva taddhetutve madhye kim tena?
- where there are three ‘tat’s each having a different
referent). That is why Ayurvedadipika glosses anyena as
prasiddhena and anyasya as aprasiddhasya. It is with the aid
of the known (anyena) that an understanding of the
unknown (anyasya) is possible. The prasiddha is the
364 Padartha - - Vijnana 36
25. Pramanantara 25. Pramanantara

Caraka gives three analogies for Analogy, Finally, it must be remarked that while Caraka
tabulated in Table 262. deals with aupamya, as a vadapada (or more accurately, as
Some apta (Knowledgeable-cum-well-wisher one among the 44 bhisagvada-mdrga-jhdndrtham
friend) has furnished an analogy for the disease is called adhigamyani padani, terms and characterisations that are
dandaka. The disease is unknown but the analogy is required to be known in the course of doctoral debates). It
known. After all everyone knows what a staff is. Dandaka is SuSruta who deals with it as a pramana, a means to valid
is a disease marked by the rigidity of the body muscles. knowledge of things unknown743.

Known Dalhana discusses these 4 examples:

a Unknown
b upameya upamana 1 masavat masah
c aprasiddha prasiddha 2 tilamatrah tilakalakah
1 dandaka (a Disease) danda (staff) 3 vidafikandavat vidatirogah
2 dhanuhstambha (a Disease) dhanus (bow) 4 talukavat panasika
3 arogyada (doctor) isvasa (archer)
Table 263 : Analogies of Dalhana
Table 262 : Analogies for Analogy
Unknown things are usually brought under three
Similarly, dhanustambha is equated to tetanus, and heads tabulated below:
the condition of someone afflicted by that disease bears
1 suksma subtle
resemblance to dhanus, the bow.
2 vyavahita hidden
And finally, the analogy of the archer explains a 3 viprakrsta distant
doctor. A not-too-distant target is easily hit by an archer;
so too does a good doctor treating a patient742. Table 264 : Three types of Non-evident things

upamana, the other is the upameya. We go thus from the

known to the unknown.
742 Ayurvedadipikd ( on Carakasamhita 3.8.42)
yatha isumoksakena laksye ndtiviprakrste naparadhyate, tatha
arogyadena vaidyena vaidyagunaih aturarh sadhayata.
The same analogy with more details figures in
Carakasamhita 1.10.5
yatha hi yogajnah abhyasanityah isvasah dhanuh adaya isum
asyan ndtiviprakrste mahati kaye naparadhavan bhavati,
sampadayati ca istakaryarh, tatha bhisak...
366 Padartha -
Yukti-pramana
Yukti is Ratiocination. Where we have a causal
complex, the resultant effect needs to be grasped by the
intellect by means of ratiocination. This has validity for
the past, the present, and the future. It has far-reaching
743 Of these, the word having -vat ending gives the upamana;
the role of matra is as of vat. -vat!-matra is added to the
known. As K, so U (K = Known; U = Unknown).
- Vijhana
25. Pramandniara 25. Pramandniara

implications - to the extent of the attainment of dharma, Input 1 prthvi Earth

artha, and kdma - together called trivarga744. Input 2 ap Water
A typical example for causal complexity is offered Input 3 tejas Fire
by Caraka himself. Consider the germination of a seed. Input 4 vayu Wind
There are at least 4 inputs. (Table 265) Input 5 aka$a Ether
Another example is of the generation of fire, Input 6 atman Self
involving 3 inputs. (Table 266). Result garbha Embryo
The analogical case that easily presents itself in
Table 267 : Causal Complex for Embryonic Generation
Ayurveda is embryological with 6 inputs. (Table 267).
Cakrapani has tried to avoid bringing in the notion
of action745. However, the words karsana and manthana
Input 1 jala water more naturally yield the senses of ‘the act of tilling’ and
Input 2 karsana tilled plot ‘churning’ respectively. (Cakrapani has tried to interpret
Input 3 bjja seed them respectively as ‘the land readied by tilling’ and ‘the
Input 4 rtu season piece of wood’)746.
Result sasya plant
Yukti, in any case, is the uniting, or rather the
Table 265 : Causal Complex for Plant Growth integrating, factor747; the integral outlook grasps the
coordinative factors in the generation of a product74®.

Input 1 mathya lower firewood

Input 2 manthana churning 745 Carakasamhita 1.11.24
Input 3 manthana upper firewood kriyarupasya samyogo na sahgacchate |
Result agni Fire 746 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.11.23 & 24)
karsana-sabdena karsana-sarhskrta bhumirgrhyate |...
Table 266 : Causal Inputs for Fire Generation kastham manthanam.
However in the garbhasambhava case, the action word is
not available.
147 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.11.24)
yujyate sambadhyate’anayd - itiyuktih \

48 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.11.25)

744 Carakasamhita 1.11.25 bhavisasya-jhanam yuktir ucyate \
buddhih pafyati yd bhavatt bahukdranayogajan \ Also see Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 3.4.4)
yuktih trikala sa jneya trivargah sadhyateyaya \ \ yuktih sambandho’vindbhavah |
368 Padartha - Vijnana 369
25. Pramanantara
Cakrapani discusses yukti on two other counts :
formal and utilitarian. To take the latter up first, it is with
yukti, mostly, that an urge for accomplishing dharma,
artha, and kama can spring749. As regards the first, he
presents the discussion by Buddhist writers Santaraksita
and KamalaSIla about yukti. As to its pattern, it is (a) if A
then B; (b) if no A then no B750. Though it looks much the
same as anumana, the drstanta element of anumana is
missing here751.
And finally, yukti can be subsumed under
anumana, going by a remark on the latter by Caraka
himself752.
Arthapatti
As with aupamya, Caraka deals with arthapatti
under the head of bhisagvada-marga-jhandrtham
adhigamyani paddni.
When you say one thing, and another thing follows
it as a corollary though unstated, it is what is called
749 — - arthapraptih iti arthapattih - ityarthah \
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasarhhitd 1.11.25)
uhenaiva hi prayah trivarganusthane pravrttir bhavati \
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasarhhitd 1.11.25)
(a) yasmin sati bhavaty eva
(b) na bhavaty asatiti ca |
751 Tarkasahgrahakdrika (cited by Ayurvedadipika (on
Carakasarhhitd 1.11.25)) ndnumdnam iyamyasmad
drstanto’tra na vidyate \
752 Carakasarhhitd 3.8.40
anumanam hi yukty-apeksah tarkah |
370 Padartha -
25. Pramanantara
arthapatti, Implication753. The example given is: when you
say that a certain disease is not curable by Nourishing
Medication, it follow from it that the disease is curable by
an Alleviating Therapy754, as the negation of one implies
the other.
Actually speaking, what Caraka means by
arthaprapti is more usually called arthapatti. It is for this
reason that Cakrapani begins his commentary on this
section saying that arthaprapti means arthapatti155. He uses
the word ‘say’ to hint at the two types of arthapatti756.
Caraka does not seem to like to accord a pramana-
status to arthapatti. Though he does not explicitly state so,
his commentator does. This arthapatti is either sensible or
not. If it is redundant (<anyathopapatti), it deserves no
753 Carakasarhhitd 3.8.48
arthapraptir nama -yatra ekena arthena uktena
aparasyarthasya anuktasyapi siddhih \
754 Carakasarhhitd 3.8.48
“nayam santarpana-sadhyo vyadhih” - ityukte,
bhavatyarthapraptih - <<apatarpana-sddhyo,yam,} iti |
155 Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasarhhitd 3.8.48)
756 Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasarhhitd 3.8.48)
iha “uktena” iti vacanat irutarthapattir eva vivaksita; what
applies to Snita type applies to drsta type : the “Heard-type”
and the “Seen-type” are similar, drstarthapattir api tu
etatsamanyatvena eva jheya.
Examples:
(1) For Sratdrthapatti - dirghajivi grhe nasti \ atahgrhad
bahih asti |
(2) For drstarthapatti - pino devadattah etc.
See Footnote 6 below.
- Vijhana 371
25. Pramanantara
status as a pramana. If it is flawless, it can be
accommodated right under anumana151.
In his conclusion, Caraka perhaps wanted to hint at
the identity of arthaprapti and arthapattv, hence he has
chosen the stock example given for the latter by most
writers758. A detailed discussion about arthapatti can be
found in Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi of VacaspatimiSra on
karika 5 of Sahkhyakdrikd.
Anupalabdhi
Something does not present itself before you, and
you deduce conclusions based on the same - this is the gist
of treating anupalabdhi as a pramana.
It is considered to be of two types.
1 samanyanupalabdhi Thing exists, but not perceived
2 yogyanupalabdhi Thing is non-existent; hence not
perceived
Table 268 : Two types of anupalabdhi
757 Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 3.8.48)
iyarit ca arthapattih
(a) anyathopapattya na pramdnam - iti na
pramanaprakarane pathita \
(b) yd tu dosarahita sd anumanantargataiva - iti bhavah |
758 Carakasamhita 3.8.48
“na anena diva bhoktavyam” - ityukte bhavatyarthapraptih
“ni$i bhoktavyam”- iti | “Don’t eat during the day” implies
“Eat during night”. Also cf. pino devadattah diva na
bhunkte \
372 Padartha -
25. Pramanantara
There can be half a dozen reasons for the first type.
These have been detailed in karika of Sdhkhyakdrika59.
The second type is when no such hindrance is there, yet
nothing obtains as knowledge - for the simple reason that
no thing is there. The conclusion that such a thing is not
there is valid here.
In Tarkasahgraha, such a perception as “the
ground has an abhava of ghata, the pot,” is taken as a type
of pratyaksa160.
Aitihya
“Aitihya” has been used by Caraka (in his
bhisagyada-marga-jhanarthadhigamya-pada list) as
synonymous with aptopadeSa161. Veda etc. come under this
head.
Discussion as to the pramana-hood of aitihya may
be found in Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi of VacaspatimiSra.
Aitihya here is tantamount to hearsay, as there is no
authentic source for the same, and its only claim to
759 ISvarakrsna presents 8 instances where pratyaksa gets
sabotaged: Too distant and too close objects, for example,
cannot be seen. A fuller treatment of this is in another
section of this book. His karika 8 has the word
‘anupalabdhi’.
760 Annambhatta calls it vi$esana-vi$esya-bhava, the 6,h type of
sannikarsa. Cf. Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 4.1.30
yad indriyam yad grhnati, tat tasya abhavam api grhnati). For
division of anupalabdhi into jnata and ajnata types etc. See
Tattvavali of Candrakanta Tarkalankara. Hvarakrsna has
presented two types viz. sau/csmyat and abhavat.
761 Carakasamhita 3.8.41
aitihyam nama aptopadefo vedadih |
- Vijnana 373
25. Pramanantara 25. Pramanantara

validity being its longevity762. The stock example is “There Sometimes cesta is divided into two as tabulated
is a Yaksa in this tree.”76 below.
VacaspatimiSra’s verdict on this is that it is not 1 krtasamaya Conventionalised E.g. Sahkhadhvanau
trustworthy, hence cannot be a pramana. On the other tvaya agantavyam
hand, if it is ascertained that it has a creditable origin, 2 akrtasamaya Not E.g. payojakabhipraya-
issuing from an dpta, it is no different from agama. In conventionalised mdrika cesta
either case, it cannot lay claim to being an altogether
different pramana764. Table 269: Divisions of cesta

Cesta
Sambhava
Cesta is considered a pramana by Tantrika-s,
followers of the Tantra systems. No such status is accorded Caraka discusses sambhava under the section of
to the same by the Naiyayika-s. Gesticulations can be bhisagvada-mdrga-jhdnarthadhigamya-pada-s. Sambhava is
made so as to cause one to remember, or infer, certain origin. It has various etymologies all having the same
sounds. The gesticulations of a dumb fellow or a singer purport more or less766.
are typical examples.
Naiyayika-s say that there is just an anumana here, Caraka gives three examples.
and nothing more, as it is all suggestive of the verbal
expression765. (b) “ghatam dnaya”- iti Sabda-vyahjaka-cestdkartrtvat
{c)yathaaham \
762
We thus have two steps :
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi ( on Sdhkhyakdrikd 5) (p) fabdanumiti and
anirdista-pravaktrkam pravada-pdramparya-matram - “iti (q) arthapratyaya: we infer words, and get at the sense
hocuh vrddhah” - iti aitihyam \ therefrom.
763
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi ( on Sdhkhyakdrikd 5) 766 Three etymologies are presented here :
iha vateyaksah prativasati |
(a) Carakasamhita 3.8.49
' 4 Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi ( on Sdhkhyakdrikd 5) yoyatah sambhavati sa tasya sambhavah \
na tat pramdndntaram -
(a) anirdista-pravaktrkatvena samsayikatvdt \ (b) Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 3.8.49)
(b) apta-vaktrkatva-ntfcaye tu agama eva \ sambhavati [vidyate] asmad iti \
(c) Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhita 3.8.49)
765 The logical format is thus :
(a) ayatii “ghatam dnaya” - iti Sabda-visayakabhiprayavan v.l. sambhavati asmin iti \
374 Padartha - - Vijhana 375
25. Pramanantara

1 saddhatavah The 6 dhatu-s are the

garbhasya sambhavah origin of the embryo
2 ahitam vyadheh Improper lifestyle is the
sambhavah origin of disease
3 hitam arogyasya Proper lifestyle is the CHAPTER 26
sambhavah origin of health
KARYA-KARANA-BHAVA
Table 270 : Examples for sambhava

The logic is, according to Cakrapani, that the cause Definition

already contains its effect, the latter only needing to be
manifested767.
Sambhava as a pramana is discussed by
VacaspatimiSra (under Sdhkhyakdrika 5). The stock
example is as in “a centimetre contains a millimetre”768.
Sambhava can be subsumed under anumana169.
Ayurvedadipika ( on Carakasamhitd 3.8.49)
karanam satkaryavadimate karyayuktam eva | The
manifestation is only to be expected after sometime.
768
Sankhyatattvakaumudi ( on Sdhkhyakdrika 5)
kharyam dronddhaka-prasthady-avagamah | Cf. fate-
pahcaSannyayah \
769
Sankhyatattvakaumudi ( on Sahkhyakdrikd 5)
sa ca anumanam eva \ khantvam hi dronady-avinabhutam
pratitam kharyam dronadisattvam avagacchatiti \
376 Padartha -
There is nothing in the universe that is exempt
from the Law of Causation. Not only that; there is, in fact,
nothing that is free from mathematics (=formalized
statement of quantified relationships) in the entire world.
That is at least the assertion of Mahavlra, the Jain
mathematician of Karnataka770.
Every effect presupposes a cause, or a set of
causes; and every cause generates an effect, or a set of
effects. The world is a procession of events involving a
complex chain of concatenated causes and effects. Rarely
does a single cause produce a single effect. The cause-to-
effect relation is always a many-to-many relation, whence
obtains the complexity of causality. And as they say well:
causes cause causes to cause causes.
Annambhatta defines karana as that which
necessarily precedes karya111. He also shows that there are
3 types of causes, listed in Table 271.
770 Ganitasarasahgraha 1.16
bahubhir vipralapaih kim trailokye sacaracare \
yat kihcid vastu tat sarvath ganitena vina na hi \ \
771 Tarkasahgraha
karya-niyata-purva-vrtti karanam |
- Vijnana 377
26. Karya-karana-bhdva 26. Karya-karana-bhdva

Type Definition Example

Samavayi-karana
1 samavayi- yat-samavetam (i )tantavah
karana karyam utpadyate tat patasya samavayi- karya Basis for
Intimate (ii)patah karana samavaya-
Cause patagatarupadeh sambandha
2 asamavayi- karyena karanena va (\)tantusamyogah tantavah patasya cloth tantu = avayava;
1
karana saha ekasminnarthe patasya threads pata = avayavi
Non¬ samavetatve sad yat (ii)tanturupam patarupasya colour pata = guni;
2 patah cloth
intimate karanam tad patarupasya patarupa = guna
of the cloth
Cause asamavayikaranam
3 nimitta- tadubhaya-bhinnam tufivemddikam Table 272 : samavayi-karana: Example and Justification
karana karanam patasya
Instrumental Of the relationship between the cause and the
Cause effect is one of samavaya, then the case is called samavayi-
karana (Intimate Cause). Two examples are given above.
Table 271: Types of kdrana

In the above types and definitions, a word which

Asamavayi-karana
frequently occurs is samavayi/samaveta. The two words are
derived from Vi. The derivation of samaveta is : sam + ava
+ Vi (to cohere) Past Passive Participle. Samavetam =
samavaya-sambandhena sambaddham \ tantu

K
pata
As Tarkadipika notes, if niyata, ‘invariably’, had not been
introduced into the definition, any anterior thing(s) could have
become the cause of every posterior things : even a donkey Diagram: samanadhikarana -
which carried mud for the preparation of the pot would have to type of asamavayikarana
be deemed a cause of the pot. Says Dipika : “piirvavrtti
karanam” - ityukte, rasabhadav-ativydptih syat \ atoniyateti \

378 Padartha - 379

- Vijnana
26. Karya-karana-bhava 26. Karya-karana-bhava

(a) Samanadhikarana type

It is possible to conceive of an intermediary
step between the threads and the cloth. Thus
we have 3 stages.

Why is it necessary to conceive of stage 2? That

is because there is a scheme or design therein :
a mere heap of threads does not make a cloth.
Now samyoga is a guna, and the relation
between tantu and tantu-samyoga is samavaya.
The relation between tantu-samyoga and pata,
on the other hand, is not samavaya. Tantu-
samyoga is the asamavayi-karana (AK) of pata
the karya (K).
Diagram: vyadhikarana
As tantu-samyoga and pata are in the same type of asamavayi-karana
locus, they are samanadhikarana.

(b) Vyadhikarana type

The relationship between tantu-rupa and pata-
rupa is not direct. It is via tantu and pata. Hence
it is not saksat-sambandha but only parampara-
sambandha. The parampara-sambandha is
called samavayi-samavaya.
Tantu-rupa (as a guna) is connected with tantu
(a dravya) by samavaya. Similarly patarupa (a
guna) is connected with pata (a dravya) by
samavaya relation. The colour of the threads
and the colour of the cloth are not in the same
adhikarana (locus). They are thus vyadhikarana.
For tantu-rupa resides in tantu-, and pata-rupa
resides in pata.
Nimitta-karana
For any product to be created, there can be, and
usually will be, many inputs. For example in
manufacturing a piece of cloth, apart from the roles of
samavdyi-karana and asamavayi-karana, there are involved
many others - such as the loom and the shuttle. The agent
involved also constitutes an input. One could say God is
the cause, too.
Whatever does not fall under the category of
samavayi-karana or asamavayi-karana is brought under a
third karana called nimitta-karana. Thus even Kvara can
be a nimitta-karana.

380 Padartha - - Vijhana 381


26. Karya-karana-bhava
Actually ISvara is a Universal Cause. Naiyayika-s
count that there are eight such universal causes, tabulated
below.
1 Uvara
2 i$vara-jnana
3 Uvareccha
4 Uvara-krti
5 dik
6 kala
7 adrsta = dharma/adharma
8 karana-viSesa
Table 273 : Nimitta-karana : Universal Causes
Karya-karana-bhava in Ayurveda
The primacy of causality in a field like medicine is
well-recognised in Ayurveda. Further, causality is not a
simple affair, either. Multiple inputs are most commonly a
factor in the production of any output. This is called
samagn-janyatva in Ayurveda. That single causes seldom
generate effects without the role of cooperative causes,
that is, (sahakari-karana) is well set forth by Caraka772.
772 Carakasariihitd 4.1.58
na hyeko vartate bhdvo, vartate napy ahetukah \
Sighragatvat svabhavat tvabhavo na vyativartate \ \
Commenting on this verse, Cakrapani says samagnjanyatve
sarva-karyanam utpattim aha \ ... eko bhdvah karana-nipah
sahakari-karanantara-rahito na karyakarane vartata ity arthah \
382 Padartha -
26. Karya-karana-bhava
All sorrow springs from some cause, says Caraka
elsewhere in the same chapter773. Contrasting sampat and
vipat, generating wellness and illness, he refers to the
causality in one as the negation of the other , thus
demonstrating the anvaya-vyatireka principle.
Statements of causality abound in Ayurveda, and
we may cite but one or two as examples. Srivijayaraksita
and Sri Srikanthadatta say that the agitated mala-s are the
root-cause of all diseases; and the cause for that agitation
too is consumption of varied items that are bad for
health775.
Satkaryavada
Satkaryavada is one of the most important
doctrines of Indian Philosophy, and of Ayurveda in
particular. The essential idea of this doctrine is that what
is dormant alone comes out. The idea is that nothing
totally non-existent can show itself up. The progression
773 Carakasamhita 4.1.152
sarvam karanavad duhkham \
774 Carakasamhita 1.25.29
yesam eva hi bhdvanam sampat sahjanayennaram \
tesam eva vipad vyadhin vividhan samudirayet \ \
Cakrapani explains sampat as prasasta-gunatd ; and vipat as
vaigunya.
775 Madhavanidana 1.14
sarvesam eva roganam nidanam kupita malah \
tatprakopasya tu proktam vividhahita-sevanam \ \
Also Cf. 1.19 kaSciddhi rogo rogasya hetur bhutva pratomyati \
1.20 na praSamyati capyanyo hetutvam kurute’pi ca 11
evarit krcchratama nrnarh drfyante vyadhi-sankarah \ \
- Vijhana 383
26. Kdrya-kdrana-bhava
from the state of a cause to that of an effect is evolution,
and the resolution of an effect into its causal state is
involution. In other words, the cause and effect are not
essentially different.
The most common analogy given is of the tortoise
withdrawing its limbs into its own shell and stretching
them outwards later776.
The tortoise is no different from its own limbs that
may contract or expand; and even so, the pot and the
crown etc. are no different from mud or gold out of which
they have been fashioned777. Certain other aspects of this
theory are brought out by Sankara well. When you say a
cause produces an effect, what is meant is that the
previous effect was submerged and a new effect took
shape. Or else, all effects would have to be simultaneous!
When the previous effect was undone, it is not as if the
cause itself was undone778.
776 Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 9)
yatha hi kurmasyahgani kiirma.farire niviSamandni tirobhavanti,
nihsaranti cavirbhavanti, na tu kurmatah tadahgani utpadyante
pradhvamsante va |
The application of this analogy is thus stated :
evam ekasyah mrdah suvarnasya va ghata-mukutadayo vifesah
nihsaranta avirbhavanta “utpadyanta” - ity ucyante, niviSamdnah
tirobhavanto “vinaSyantV’ty ucyante, na punah asatam utpadah,
satarh va nirodhah \
777 Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 9)
kurrnah svavayavebhyah sahkoca-vikaSibhyo na bhinnah \ evam
ghata-mukutadayo’pi mrt-suvarnddibhyo na bhinnah \
778 Brhadaranyakopanisadbhdsya (on Brhadaranyaka Upanisad
1.2.1)
sarvam hi kdranam karyam utpadayat, piirvotpannasya
384 Padartha -
26. Karya-karana-bhava
Five reasons have been adduced by ISvarakrsna in
order to establish satkarya theory. He says that en effect
[prejexists [in the cause] karyam sat - whence the
nomenclature satkaryavada - on the following grounds779:
(a) What is not cannot be brought into being
(b) We take the material cause in order to bring about
a particular effect
(c) Everything cannot generate everything
(d) It is only out of something competent, that
competence could yield results
(e) The effect is no different from the cause.
The idea is this :
(a) Were the effect non-existent prior to the
function of the cause, it (=the effect) cannot be
brought into being by anybody. Not even a thousand
artists can turn out yellow out of blue. It makes sense
to bring to fore what already was within : as you press
oil out of sesamum, as you pound rice out of paddy, as
you milch milk out of cows780.
atmakaryasya tirodhanam kurvat, kaiyantaram utpadayati |
ekasmin karane yugapad aneka-karya-virodhat \ naca
purvakaryopamarde kdramsya svatmopamardo bhavati \
779 Sdhkhyakdrika 9
(a) asad-akaranat
(b) upadana-grahanat
(c) sarvasambhavabhavat \
(d) Saktasya Sakyakaranat
(e) karanabhavat ca satkdryam \ \
780 Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 9)
asat cet karanavyaparat purvam karyam, nasya sattvam kenapi
- Vijnana
26. Karya-karana-bhava
(b) When you prepare a pot, you start with
mud. The mud becomes the pot. Mud is related to the
pot. Upadana is cause. Grahana is relation with effect.
A relation can only be with something existing, not a
non-existent thing7*1.
(c) Anything could be created of anything - if
unrelated things could create items. However there is
a regularity which belies such a possibility782.
(d) The question is whether the potency is
related to the effect or not. If it is, it is not with a non-
existent item .
(e) The effect is of the same nature as the
cause. The effect is no different from the causes and
karturh Sakyam | ... sataScabhivyaktih upapanna, yatha pidanena
tilesu tailasya, avaghatena dhanyesu tandulanam, dohanena
saubheyisu payasah |
781
Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 9)
upadanani (—karanani) tesam grahanam (=karyena
sambandhah) \ upadanaih karyasya sambandhat - iti yavat | ...
sambandhah ca karyasya asato na sambhavati \
782
Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 9)
asambaddhasya janyatve asambaddhatvavitesena sarvam
karyajatam sarvasmad bhavet \ na caitad asti | tasmat na
asambaddham asambaddhena janyate, api tu sambaddharh
sambaddhena janyata iti | ... asambaddhasya cotpattim icchato
na vyavasthitih |
783
Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 9)
hakti-vihesah karyasambaddho va asambaddho va ?
sambaddhatve nasata sambandhah - iti sat karyam |
386 Padartha -
26. Karya-karana-bhava
the cause is real. How can the effect, which is little else
than the cause be unreal?784
VacaspatimiSra adduces three reasons in order to
establish the identity of the cause and the effect, in order
to assert that the effect is preexistent - prior, that is, to its
own manifestation.
Asatkaryavada
The arguments of Naiyayika-s against the Sahkhya-
s are the very opposites, leading to an exactly opposite
conclusion. First of all, the size and shape of the effect is
different from the size and shape of the cause. Hence the
two are different. Typically, mrt or mud is the cause, and
ghata is the effect; and the very fact that the two have
different designations viz. mrt and ghata is itself a pointer
to their non-identity. Further what work can be done
employing a ghata cannot be done employing mrt. Hence
the two are not the same. Again, making use of the same
mrt, different things can be created: You can create a
ghata or you can create a Sarava. The two can be called El
and E2. If each is equal to C, the cause, then ultimately El
should be equal to E2. For, this is as in Mathematics: if
a=c, and b=c, then a=b. if ghata = a set of paramanu-s,
and if §arava = same set of paramanu-s, then ghata and
sarava cannot be differentiated at all, which is by no
means the case. If the kapala-s can be considered to be the
784 Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 9)
karyasya karanatmakatvat \ na hi karanad bhinnam karyam |
karanam nasat - iti katham tadabhinnam karyam asad bhavet ?
- Vijhdna 387
26. Karya-karana-bhava
cause of ghata, then even these two will have to be the
same.
For these and similar reasons, asatkaryavada is
pitted against satkaryavada. Thus we find that the two
approaches radically differ, and end in a draw, as it were.
Paramanuvdda
The concept of ‘atom’ in ancient times was quite
simple and hypothetical in nature. Take a lump of mud
and break it into pieces; take one of the small lumps and
further break it into pieces; if you go on repeating this
exercise, you are bound to come to a stage, they argued,
when it can no more be broken785.
The dimension of the paramanu is given as “the
sixth portion of the subtle particle of dust in the sun’s ray
through a pinhole.”786
It is argued that we must go no more than this. For,
it is contended, if you propose to break even this the
further, there would be no end to similar deeds, and this
would result in a logical flaw called “Endlessness”787, as
785 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 4.2.16)
losfasya khalu pravibhajyamdnavayavasya alpataram alpatamam
uttaram uttaram bhavati \ sa cayam alpatara-prasahgo
yasmannalpataram asti, yah paramo’lpah, tatra nivartate \
yataSca ndlpiyo’sti tarn paramanum pracaksmahe iti \
786 Cf. jala-siirya-mancistham yat suksmam drfyate rajah \
tasya sasthatamo bhdgah paramanuh sa ucyate \ \
787 Vatsyayana (on Nyayasutra 4.2.17 : pararh va truteh)
avayava-vibhagasya anavasthanad dravyanam asankhyeyatvat
tmtitva-nivrttih iti \
388 Padartha
26. Karya-karana-bhava
the things (dravya-s) in the world are themselves
countless.
When 2 paramanu-s join, they form a dvyanuka (di¬
atom). A tryanuka is the next formation, and the
magnification goes upto the very brahmanda or the
Cosmic Egg.
The minutest portion of prthvi, ap, tejas, and vayu is
the paramanu. The paramanu-s are said to be eternal and
having no parts. The paramanu is inaccessible to the eye
and is trans-sensory (atindriya). It is from this subtle stage
that the Lord, it was stated, creates the Gross Elements
viz. sthula-prthvi etc.
There can be no pralaya says the Nydya School, as
the arm-s survive788. As Annambhatta notes, the
paramanu-s of prthvi, ap, tejas, and vayu as also akaSa,
kala, di§, atman, and manas are all nitya-dravya-s.
Caraka notes that the number of limbs in a body
are simply uncountable in terms of paramanu-s789. The
conjunction and disjunction of the paramanu-s is brought
about by vayu, and the nature of karman790.
788 Nyayasutra 4.2.16
na pralayo’nu-sadbhdvdt \
789 Carakasamhita 4.7.17
sarirdvayavds tu paramdnu-bhedena aparisahkhyeya bhavanti,
atibahutvad atisauksmyad atindriyatvacca \
790 Carakasamhita 4.7.17
tesdm sarhyoga-vibhage paramanundm karanam vayuh karma
svabhavaSca |
- Vijndna 389
26. Karya-karana-bhava 26. Karya-karana-bhava

Vivartavada wind blows, clouds are dispelled and the sky is made
visible793.
Vivartavada is a tenet of the Advaita School of
Philosophy. The word vivarta literally means a turning World : Brahman
round, a revolution. It can mean modification791.
Whirling round can sometimes cause an illusion792. serpent : rope

An apparent or illusory form is known as vivarta. adhisthana : vivarta

The whole world, which we see is, according to Advaita
Vedanta, an unreal and illusory appearance. On the other
hand the Supreme Brahman, which we do not see, is the
only real thing. The stock example given for illusion is that
of the rope and the serpent. What is actually a rope is
taken as a serpent. The rope is the reality. The serpent is
but an illusion. This is called rajju-sarpa-nyaya, “the
Maxim of the Rope and the Serpent.”
All this may be represented diagrammatically in
the form of a : b :: c : d. (See Table 274)
Thus sarpa is the vivarta of the rajju. Similarly jagat
is the vivarta of brahman. The cause of vivarta is ajhana or
avidyd. And the nullification of vivarta is through jhana or
vidya. To explain through a metaphor : Wind is vidya.
Clouds are the vivarta. The sky is Brahman. When the
791 —
Bhavabhuti calls Ramayana as the vivarta of Sabdabrahman.
Read : sabdabrahmanah tadrsam vivartam itihdsam ramayanam
praninaya |
792
Cf. the ‘Wheel of Fire” created by a rotating hot rod (called
alata-cakra). Also Cf. waves, bubbles etc. generated in a
whirlpool.
390 Padartha
Substratum : Illusion
Table 274: Analogy for Vivarta
Another stock example is of the conch-shell and
silver. The nacre appears as silver. Appearance is not
reality.
Actually speaking, vivartavada and parinamavada
are two types of satkaryavada194. When gold appears as
ornament, it is a question of modification (parinama). The
definition of vivarta given by Sayanamadhava is
“assumption of a different form without forsaking the true
nature.”795
793 Cf. Uttararamacarita 6.6
vidyakalpena maruta meghanam bhiiyasam api |
brahmaniva vivartanam kvapi pravilayah krtah \ \
794
Vedantasara quotes a verse (verse 47)
satattvato’nyatha pratha vikara ity udiritah |
atattvato’nyatha pratha vivarta ity udahrtah \ \
795
Sarvadarsanasahgraha
svarupaparityagena rupantarapattih vivartah |
Technical definitions are also given for the two :
parinamo nama upadana-samasattaka-karyapattih | and
vivarto nama iipadana-visama-sattaka-kdryapattih | |
- Vijhana 391
26. Karya-karana-bhava
Ksanabhangavada
Caraka handles the Transitory School of
Philosophy in Sarirasthana, while discussing about the
existence of purusa. The various elements such as prthvl
that we encounter even in our own body are not really the
ones we did even a little earlier796. If that is the case, the
question is asked, how come we recognize them to be the
same?797 This question is answered with their statement
according to which it is not they are the same, but the ones
resembling them - a series in quick succession, verily798.
The Buddhists consider the body as
conglomeration of momentary things799.
This philosophy, Caraka points out, violates the simple
maxim viz. the sower and the reaper have to be the
same800. “As you sow, so you reap.” The Buddhist position
would amount to saying that someone similar to the doer
enjoys the fruits. One does the deed, another enjoys the
796 -
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.46)
asmin Satire... prthivijaladayo bhavah ... purvdnubhutdh na
bhavanti |
797 —“
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.46)
yadi te bhavanti’ katham tarhi ‘te’ ityabhijhdnam ?
798 _
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.46)
na te tatsadrSds tv anye pdramparya-samutthitdh |
sarupyadye ta eveti nirdiSyante nava navah | |
jay — Cakrapani on this :yatha aneka-tilpavit karta karanah variifi-
Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.47)
tesam samudaya iti ksana-bhahginam melakah - ityarthah \
niriSa iti sthdyyatma-rahitah \
800
This is usually stated in the format:
yah karta sa bhokta = ya eva karta sa eva bhokta
392 Padartha
26. Karya-karana-bhava
effects801. Now, nobody performs actions in the world so
that the fruit is enjoyed by another - not even the cook,
for he too does things with some selfish aim alone802.
Criticising the Buddhist view thus, Caraka states
his own position and his own explanation. What we
evidently see is the variation in the organs. But the doer is
but one803. He gives the analogy of the sculptor who may
change his instruments as the need be, but he remains the
sole cause of all actions804.
The refutation of the Buddhist position by Caraka
a is thus very effective.
801 Carakasamhitd 4.1.48
tesam anyaih krtasyanyaih bhava bhavaih navah phalam |
bhunjate sadriah praptamyair atma nopadiSyate 11
802 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhitd 4.1.48)
phalam bhoksyami - iti krtva bhaviphala-pratyafaya pravrttih
yukta, na tvanyasya bhogyatam phalasya pafyan kaScit pravartate;
yo’pi supakaradih pararthampravartate, so’pipararthena
svdrtham sadhayitu-kamah eva - iti bhavah. \
803 Carakasamhitd 4.1.49
karananyanyata drsta kartuh - karta sa eva tu |
804 Carakasamhitd 4.1.49
karta hi karanairyuktah karanam sarva-karmanam \ |
The sculptor may now use his lathe, now his furnace moulder,
and thereby cut a piece of wood, fuse metals and so on. Says
sandarhiayantradibhih kasthapatana-lohaghatana-adi karoti,
tatha atma apityarthah \
And in the verses to follow, Caraka states that the elements are
no doubt fleet, yet they cannot come back; and again, what one
does is not reaped by another.
- Vijnana 393
 26. Karya-karana-bhava
26. Karya-lcarana-bhava

1 Contact with fire; plus action;

Pilupakavada and Pitharapakavada destruction of samyoga;
destruction of dvyanuka :
Whereas Naiyayika-s and VaUesika-s agree on
(a) vahni-samyogat karma
numerous issues, there is one theme which is a bone of
(b) tatah paramanvantarena
contention between the two. The issue is : how is the
vibhagah
change of colour in a heated jar explained?
(c) tatah arambhaka-samyoga-
Vatfesika-s are pilupakavadin-s. Pilu is atom. naSah
Vaisesika-s contend that the individual atoms of the (d) tatah dvyanuka-naSah
unbaked jar are heated first. Naiyayika-s, on the other 2 tatah. paramdn.au destruction of dark
hand, are pitharapakavadin-s. For them, the jar as a whole fyamadinaSah colour in the
gets baked. paramanu-s
3 tatah. raktadyutpattih generation of red
ViSvanatha gives nine steps through which the
change takes place, tabulated in Table 275. colour
4 tato dravyarambhanugunakriya action fit for
The Naiyayika-s prefer a simpler explanation. It is commencement of
not necessary to posit a complete destruction of the jar new pot
first, they say. If the previous jar is first destroyed its 5 tato vibhagah separation
identity cannot remain the same, as a consequence of 6 tatah. purva-samyoga-natoh destruction of old
which we fail to recognize it as the same jar. For not a
contacts
single moment during the entire period of baking do we 7 tatah arambhaka-samyogah conjunction of
fail to recognize the jar. If you have a few pots upon this
commencers
jar, those pots would have collapsed when this jar is first 8 tatah. dvyanukotpattih creation of dvyanuka
destroyed. There are many more arguments on either
9 tatah raktadyutpattih. creation of red colour
side, and ultimately they have to apply the Ockam’s Razor
or what is called laghavatarka - discerning which model Table 275 : Numerous steps in pilupaka/pitharapaka
requires less number of assumptions, or requires less
circumlocutous reasoning etc.
In Ayurveda

In the context of dealing with digestion, Caraka has

something to say bearing on the above schools of thought.
The topic discussed is avasthapaka, dealing with the
processes involved in digestion.

- Vijnana 395
394 Padartha •
26. Karya-karana-bhava 26. Karya-karana-bhava

The food we consume consists of 6 rasa-s. all the Elemental. The attributes such as smell, oiliness,heat etc.
food is ultimately reduced to three elements viz. kapha, nourish, correspondingly, the smell, oiliness, heat etc. of
pitta, and vata. The process of this conversion is detailed the body809.
in Caraka805.
The transformation of the food we consume is thus Anekdntaxada
shown there : the five agni-s bring about transformation of
the five elements of food Different schools of thought have propounded
The food that we eat, made of 5 Elements (bhuta- different world-views. Four key schools have these
s), is broken down into five, or equally, into the respective primary tenets:
properties or attributes (guna)m. This metabolistic School Key Maxim
resolution into the components and componental Sahkhya sarvarh sat
attributes is elucidated in yet another verse808. As Bauddha sarvam asat
Cakrapani clarifies, Elements such as the Earth nourish Jaina/ Patahjala sarvam sadasat
the bodily dosa-s, mala-s, and dhatu-s which are also ViSuddhadvaita sarvam sadasadvilaksanam

Table 276 : Schools and Key Tenets

805 Carakasamhita 6.15.9-11
annasya bhukta-matrasya sadraSasya prapakatah |
The Jain approach came to be called sapta-bhahgi-
madhuradyat kapho bhavat phenabhuta udiryate |
naya, for characterizing things universally in this fashion:
param tu pacyamanasya vidagdhasyamlabhavatah \
aSayac cyavamanasya pittam accham udiryate \ 1 sat
pakva&ayam tu praptasya Sosyamanasya vahnina \ 2 asat
paripindita-pakvasya vayuh syat katu-bhavatah | |
3 ubhayam
806 Carakasamhita 6.15.13 4 anubhayam
bhaumapyagneya-vayavyah pancosmanah sanabhasah \ 5 anirvacanlyam sacca
pahcd.hdragf.mdn svan svan parthivadin pacanti hi \ \ 6 anirvacaniyam asacca
807 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 6.15.13): 7 anirvacanlyam sadasacca
pakena janyamane’pi dravye, guna eva janyante - ityabhiprayena
parthivadin aharagunan janayanti - ityucyante | Table 277: sapta-bhahgi-naya
808 Carakasamhita 6.15.14
yathasvam svam ca pusnanti dehe dravya-gunah prthak \ 809 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 6.15.14)
parthivah parthivan eva Sesah SesarhSca krtsnatoh \ \ dravyani parthivadi-dravya-nipani deha-dhdtu-dosa-malakhyani
Ayurvedadipika on this: pusnanti \ gunastu pakasthita-gandha-snehausnya-gauravadayah
sajatiyah dravya-gunah sajatiyan dravya-gunan pusnanti \ deha-gandha-snehausnya-gauravadin pusnanti \
396 Padartha -
- Vijnana 397
26. Karya-karana-bhava
Not much of anekantavada do we meet with in
Ayurveda. Yet in some places, some accommodation has
been, it seems, provided for this also. Thus virya is spoken
of as of two types and also as of 8 types. Neither schools
has been strongly upheld or condemned810.
On another occasion we find a similar division into
7 and 2, and neither clearly advocated or rejected .
Similarly both the views are upheld viz. mind is
located in the heart, in the head.
810 Carakasamhita 1.26.64
mrdii-tiksna-giini-laghii-snigdha-niksosna-laksanam \
viryam astavidham kecit, kecid dvividham asthitah \ \
Sitosnam iti, viryam tu kriyate yena yd kriya | |
811 Carakasamhita 6.15.15
saptabhir deha-dhataro dhatavo dvividham punah \
yathasvam agnibhih pakam yanti kittaprasadavat \ \
398
CHAPTER 27
SASTRA AND DARSANA
Sastra
Definition
In the Bhagavadgitd, there is a statement that warns
that one who ignores the Sastra-s, and behaves just as he
please, will accomplish nothing great; happiness here or
the summum bonum in the hereafter is not reached by
him.812
The word Sastra itself is defined as that which gives
01-1
a ruling, and thereby saves a man from difficulties .
Sastra: Key Features
One who wants to become a doctor, argues Caraka,
should first examine the Sastra-ssu. Many schools of
medicine are current in the world. How should one then
8,2 Bhagavadgitd 16.23
yah Sastra-vidhim utsrjya vartate kamakaratah \
na sa siddhim avapnoti na sukham na param gatim \ \
813 Sasanat trananaccaiva Sastram \
814 Carakasamhita 3.8.3
bhisag-bubhiisuh Sastram evaditah parikseta |
Padartha - - Vijnana 399
it
 .
27 Rostra and Darsana 27. Sastra and Darsana

know which Sastra to choose? Caraka lists some of the

Darsana
qualities. They are tabulated in Table 278.
The word darSana is from a root meaning ‘to
1 sumahad see’816. Great sages are endowed with the Eye of
2 yaSasvi Knowledge and their vision provides darSana, a true
3 dhira-purusasevitam view817. One who is established in Yoga is endowed with
4 artha-bahulam equanimity, says the Gi/d818; and what is hidden (tiraskrta)
5 aptajana-pujitam become visible when the mind is stilled, focussed, and
6 trividha-Sisyabuddhi-hitam composed819.
(trividha = utkrsta/madhya/alpabuddhi)
7 apagata-punarukta-dosam
8 arsam A Concise Overview of the Darsana-s
9 supranita-sutrabhasya-sangrahakramam
10 svadharam = Sobhanabhidheyam Purvamimamsa ( or simply mimamsa, often),
11 ana vapatita -Sabdam = agramya-Sabdam propounded by Jaimini, focusses on karman - rituals, their
12 akasta-Sabdam = prasidhabhidheya-Sabdam protocols and their after-effects. Karman-s are divided
13 puskaldbhidhdnam into three as follows:
14 kramagatabhidhanam Example
Ritual
15 artha-tattva-viniScayapradhanam sandhyavandana
1 nitya-karman Daily Ritual
16 sahgatartham Occasional grahana-nimittaka-
2 naimittika-
17 asahkulaprakaranam karman Ritual tarpana
18 aSu-prabodhakam Objective- svarga-prapti
3 kamya-
19 laksanavacca karman Oriented Ritual
20 udaharanavacca
Table 279 : Types of karman
Table 278 : Criteria for Choosing a Sastra

A Sastra like this, he concludes, dispels darkness 816 Dhatupatha

and illumines everything - as does the pure Sun815. dr&ir preksane

817 Carakasamhita 1.1.28

maharsayas te dadrsuh yathavaj-jhana-caksusa |

815 Carakasamhita 3.8.3 818 Bhagavadgita 6.29

Sastram hyevamvidham - amala ivadityah - tamo vidhuya 8,9 Carakasamhita 4.1.80
praka&ayati sarvam \ manasa§ ca samadhanat paSyatyatma tiraskrtam \
400 Padartha • - Vijnana 401
 .
27 Sastra and Darsana
Along with these, two more types are also mentioned
Action Example
1 nisiddha-karma n Prohibited Action svarna-steya
upavasa
2 prayaScitta-karman Expiatory Action
Table 280 : Actions to be Shunned / Actions for
Atonement
The mimamsasutra-s being with an exploration into
dharma. For this, they have to depend on the Veda-s, and
set forth principles of interpretation. Each adhikarana sets
forth a maxim of interpretation.
Vedanta (also called uttaramlmamsa) is
propounded by Badarayana and focuses on the nature of,
and relationship between, the three primary categories
viz. the world (jagat) the individual self (jiva) and the Lord
of the world(iSvara). The sutra-s of Badarayana provide
the principles of interpreting the Upanisadic passages.
However understanding the Upanisad-s is by no
means an easy task and a number of schools of Vedanta
provide their own approaches. Of these, Advaita of
Sankara, and Vi&istadvaita of Ramanuja lay stress on
perceiving unity. For this, the former negates all else than
Brahman and asserts that Brahman alone is true, and that
others are illusory. The system of Ramanuja underscores
the essential unity but does not deny or ignore the
triangular relation among the three entities. The other
schools of Madhva, Vallabha, Nimbarka and others
consider the relations with differing emphasis.
The Nyaya school is founded by Gotama or
Aksapada. Also called anvlksiki, it is described as the light
402 Padartha
.
27 Sastra and DarSana
of all branches of knowledge820. Happiness and sorrow can
be critically examined and analysed only with the aid of
anvlksiki, and the ultimate goal is to transcend the pair821.
This school analyses everything in the world into 16
categories and by a principial understanding of the same,
one can, it claims, attain the summum bonum822.
Whereas the Ancient School (pracinanyaya)
focuses on prameya (items to be understood), the Modern
School (navyanyaya) focuses on pramana (methods/means
of understanding).
The VaiSesika school is propounded by Kanada or
Kanabhaksa. The school is also called AulukyadarSana.
The school is called vaiSesika as it lays stress on the
concept of vtfesa823.
820 Arthasastra 1.2
pradipah sarva-Mstranam upayah sarva-karmanam |
a&rayah sarva-vidyanam kisvad anvlksiki mata 11
821
Kamandakiyamtisara 2.11
anviksikyatmavidya syad iksanat sukha-duhkhayoh |
Iksamanah taya tattvam harsa-Sokau vyudasyati \
822 Nydyasutra 1.1
pramana-prameya-sarhSaya-prayojana-drstanta-
siddhantavayava-tarka-nirnaya-vada-jalpa-vitandd-
hetvdbhdsa-chala-jdti-nigrahasthdndnarh tattva-jnanan-
nihSreyasddhigamah \
823 Specialisation in these topics is called for : dvitva,
pakajapaka, vibhaga(ja). As the verse says:
dvitve ca pakajotpattau vibhage ca vibhagaje |
yasya na skhalita buddhih tam vai vai&esikam viduh \ \
-
- Vijhana 403
 .
27 Sdstra and Darsana 27. Sastra and Darsana

As against the 16 categories of the Nyaya-school, is no philosophy as clear as Sankhya, there is no practice
this school proposes six categories. A knowledge of these, as effective as Yoga. The Mahabharata itself says this826.
in truth, leads one to liberation824.
Yoga is defined as the regulation or cessation of
The vaiSesika-s were the first to propose the mental activities827. Yoga has 8 limbs (listed in Table 281).
paramanu-s825.
By regulating the body and the breathing, we gain
Sankhya Darfana is propounded by sage Kapila. control over the mind, the goal of Yoga is being
Sankhya is so called because it counts the number of established in one’s self828.
tattva-s as 25. The most reputed text is the Sahkhyasaptati
(known as Sdhkhyakdrika) of ISvarakrsna. The essence of 1 yama
this school is that liberation follows anyatdkhyati or more 2 niyama
fully prakrti-purusdnyatdkhyati. Khyati is knowledge; anyata 3 asana
is ‘being different’. When the purusa realises that he is 4 pranayama
anya, different, from prakrti, he attains freedom from 5 pratyahara
bondage. Bondage consists in the wrong identification by
6 dharana
the purusa of what pertains to prakrti as his own. Hence
7 dhyana
kaivalya, Being Alone, is the goal of Sankhya.
8 samadhi
For this a knowledge of what goes to make this
world is essential. The world is made of 25 tattva-s. The Table 281: 8 Limbs of Yoga
purusa transcends prakrti when he realises the innate
transcendence.
Other darsana-s
The Yoga school is the greatest gift of India to the
world. The ideas of this school are presented in a Bauddha, Jaina, ar.d Carvaka are three other
systematic way in the Yogasutra-s of Patanjali. While there prominent schools of thought. They are grouped together
as nastika-dariana-%. However, Buddhism and Jainism

,iJ' Vaisesikasutra 1.1.4

dharma-viSesa -prasutdd dra vya -guna-karma-sd manya - viSesa -
826 Mahabharata 12.316.2
nasti sahkhyasamam jnanarh nasti yogasamam balam |
samavayanam padarthanam sadharmya-vaidharmyabhyam
tattva-jnanat nihsreyasam \ 827 Yogasutra 1.2
yogah citta-vrtti-nirodhah \
825 paramanu is thus defined :
jalantargate bhanau yat suksmam drfyate rajah \ 828 Yogasutra 1.3
tasya sasthatamo bhagah paramdnuh sa ucyate 11 tada drastuh svariipe’vasthanam |

404 Padartha - Vijhana 405

 .
27 Sastra and Darsana .
27 Sastra and Darsana

believe in punarjanma or rebirth, and the world beyond.
The schools and their Founders are shown below:
Buddhism Gotama, The Buddha
Jainism Vardhamana Mahavlra
Carvaka Brhaspati Acarya
Table 282 : Heterodox Systems and their Founders
Bauddha Darsana
Buddhism does not accept the Vedic authority.
The Buddha claimed he was the 24th Buddha, and that he
started nothing new but only proclaimed the Law Eternal.
The Buddha taught that everything is momentary, that
everything led to sorrow, and that Nirvana attained by
desirelessness alone is peace.
The disciples of the Buddha developed serious
differences and there arose 4 schools of Buddhism.
1 madhyamika
2 yogacara
3 sautrantika
4 vaibhasika
Table 283 : Schools of Buddhism
Jainism was started by Vardhamana Mahavlra, who
too claimed he was the 24,h Tirthankara, thus pointing to a
long tradition. He emphasised triple means tabulated in
Table 284.
406 Padartha
1 samyak darsana Right View
2 samyak jnana Right Knowledge
3 samyak caritra Right Conduct
Table 284 : Jainism : The Right Means
The philosophy of Jainism is called syadvdda or
anekantavada where multiple viewpoints are stressed.
The Carvaka system is attributed to Brhaspati. The
Carvaka takes pratyaksa as the only pramana, and hence
the materialistic stand of the Carvaka. Hence the
acceptance of only 4 bhiita-s, viz. prthvi, ap, tejas, and vayu.
Darsana-s related to Ayurveda
The various darsana-s have very many overlaps
with Ayurveda. The same have been pointed out in
requisite detail in the respective chapters. Here we take a
quick and brief overview of such items.
Vaisesika and Ayurveda
The paramanu-vada of VaUesika-s is acceptable in
Ayurveda also. We get an explicit reference to the
paramanu-s in the Sarirasthana of Carakasamhita. Says
Caraka - Going by the paramanu count, the limbs of the
body turn out to be innumerable - as they are just too
many, too subtle, and trans-sensory829. Many ideas on
829 Carakasamhita 4.7.17
sanrdvayavastu paramanu-bhedena aparisahkhyeyah
bhavanti - (a) atibahutvat (b) atisauksmyat (c)
-
- Vijnana 407
 .
27 Sastra and Darsana 27. Sastra and Darsana

dravya-s / guna-s / karman-s etc. are common to the two set forth831. The withdrawal of the senses referred to by
disciplines. Caraka is also as per Yoga*32.

Nyaya and Ayurveda Mimarhsa and Ayurveda

The syllogistic method of Nyaya is regularly used in Mimamsa and DharmaSastra go together.
Ayurveda. The very terminology of Causal Relations is Samskara-s mentioned in the texts on DharmaSastra, find
relevant to Ayurveda. The classifications of anumana, and a mention also in Ayurveda. The model of a sacrifice is
more fundamentally of pramana-s in general, have much also invoked in Ayurveda*33.
of overlap with Ayurveda. For Ayurveda examples of
anumana, see Carakasamhita 3.4.8.
Vedanta and Ayurveda

Sankhya and Ayurveda Vedanta and Ayurveda indeed come very close to
each other. The explicit mention of Brahman and
Genesis in Sankhya and Ayurveda have much in paramatman and many allied ideas/concepts figure in
common. The 25 tattva-s are common to both. Explicit Ayurveda: eg. Brahmavid, brahmibhuta etc. The relation to
references to Sankhya philosophers in general obtain in Yoga and moksa tally with Vedantic approach. Seldom
Carakasamhita83°. does a student of Vedanta come across passages in
Ayurvedic texts like Caraka or SuSruta where he/she is
uncomfortable. Ayurveda is indeed considered an upaveda
Yoga and Ayurveda of either Rgveda or Atharvaveda.

The key ideas of Yoga very well merge with

Ayurveda. Absence of pain in Yoga as well as moksa is
referred to by Caraka. Yoga as a means of moksa is also

831 Carakasarixhita 4.1.137

atindriyatvacca \ tesdrh samyoga-vbhage paramanunam
yoge mokse ca sarvasam vedananam avartanam \
karanam karmasvabhavaSca \
mokse nivrttih nihSesa yogo moksapravartakah 11
830 Carakasamhita 1.25.15
832 Carakasamhita 4.1.20
raiih saddhatujo hyesah sahkhyair adyaih prakirtitah \ \
indriyani ca samksipya manah samksipya cahcalam \
Carakasamhita 1.13.3
sahkhyaih sankhyata-sahkhyeyaih sahasinam punarvasum \ 833 E.g Carakasamhita 1.27.344 ff
408 Padartha - Vijhana 409
27. Sastra and Darsana 27. Sastra and Darsana

Aims and Objectives of Ayurveda characterised by happiness or otherwise, wellbeing or

otherwise, and in due measure or otherwise838.
Ayurveda is an Upanga of Atharvaveda*34. As the The goal of Ayurveda is the protection of the health
name itself indicates, it is the veda of ayus, or the Science of one who is healthy and the annulment of the aberration
of Life. There are also over half a dozen alternative names of health839.
of Ayurveda835.
Ayurveda has been defined variously. For Susruta,
it is that Knowledge by which one attains [long] life, and
Padarthavijndna
maintains it . Caraka classifies ayus into four types as
shown below. As Ayurveda establishes through analysis and
evidence, the human body consists of the Five Elements
sukhayus Pleasurable Life
(pancabhuta) and is the universe. The material content
asukhayus Pleasureless Life within us and the content without are in constant
hitayus Life of Well-being interaction. Our constitution is continuously being
ahitayus Life of Ill-being impinged upon by the exterior world. The affected
physical constitution affects our inner constitution too -
Table 285 : 4 Types of Ayus
which consists of the sense organs, the mind, and the
intellect. The Self beneath these all undergoes joy or
Raising the question himself as to why this should
sorrow in accordance with the way our own constitution is
be called Ayurveda, Caraka answers that it makes us
understand our lifespan in terms of its definition, and as being affected.
The way our constitution is affected will tell upon
our natural states and rhythms. In order to understand all
834 Carakasamhita 1.30.21 and Susrutasamhita 1.1.6
these, we need to know what the varied items - inanimate
835 Carakasamhita 1.30.31
tatra ayurvedah Sakha vidyd siitram jhanam Sdstram
laksanam tantram - ityanarthantaram \
838 Carakasamhita 1.30.23
836 Susrutasamhita 1.1.15 tad “ayur vedayati” - ity ayurvedah \ katham iti cet ? ucyate -
(a) ayuh asmin vidyate (b) anena va dyiih vindanti - iti (a) svalaksanatah, (b) & (c) sukhdsukhatah , (d) & (e)
ayurvedah hitahitatah , (f) & (g) pramandpramanata§ca

837 Carakasamhita 1.1.41 839 Carakasamhita 1.30.26

hitahitam sukham duhkham ayus tasya hitahitam \ prayojanam casya svasthasya svasthyaraksanam; aturasya
manam ca tacca yatroktam ayiuvedah sa ucyate \ vikdrapraiamanam ca |
For detailed exposition of this, see Carakasamhita 1.30.24 Cf. Susrutasamhita 1.1.14 for almost the same idea.

410 Padartha - - Vijnana 411

27. Rostra and Darsana
or animate are - such as the vegetation or animal products
that can better our well being or worsen our illness.
Padarthavijhana is foundational in nature. What is
detailed in later/advanced sections assume a knowledge of
the ideas presented under what has been called
Padarthavijnana. Characteristics of medicinal items and
characterisation of medical processes all necessarily
involve a knowledge of Padarthavijhana. Even the
definition of health can get technical, and the foundation
for a sound knowledge of Ayurveda has to be based on a
sound knowledge of Padarthavijnana.
And finally, the details spelled out in
Padarthavijnana can help an understanding of the holistic
conception that Ayurveda presents, as items like manas,
buddhi, and atman are also discussed and detailed here.
“Psychosomatic Approach” may be modern to Modern
Medicine; but its ancient roots in Ayurveda becomes
evident by a perusal of Padarthavijnana.
Numerous are the occasions when jhana and
vijhana are together mentioned in Ayurveda.
The combination of theory and practice is thus
emphasized throughout. Padarthavijhana provides the
theoretical foundations and logistics of Ayurveda,
providing a base of conceptual categories and elemental
classifications and ramifications that all have meet
applications - whether in academic analysis or practical
utilities.
It has also been stressed in Ayurveda that a
knowledge of but one field or discipline, howsoever
thorough, is by no means sufficient. A doctor ought to
412 Padartha •
27. Scistra and Darsana
know, asserts SuSruta, multifarious disciplines840. Thus a
multi-disciplinary and inter-disciplinary approach leading
to a holistic conception and handling of problems has all
along been stressed in Ayurveda from times immemorial.
Padartha Properties/Number/Types
Padartha - concept
The word padartha is usually taken to mean a thing
in Ayurveda. It is used as a technical term, and has a broad
signification.
Caraka and SuSruta have not missed even the
literal sense of the word viz. the sense of a word841.
Technical definitions of padartha are given in texts
such as Tarkadipika, Saptapadarthi and
Prasastapadabhasya.
840 Susrutasamhita 1.4.7
ekam Mstram adhiyano na vidyat tcistra - n itcaya m \
tasmad bahu&mtah Sastrarh vijaniyac cikitsarah |
841 Susrutasamhita Going by the typical grammatical vigraha-
vakya (Dissolution of a Compound) style, Susruta gives the
dissolution aspadasya padayoh padanam vayo’rthah sa
padarthah | In other words, padartha necessarily have to be
the meaning of ‘a word’ only. Dual and plural senses of
pada are also technically admissible and semantically
feasible. Hence he has stated concisely what is usually said
in 3 sentoids - (a) padasya arthah , (b) padayoh arthah (c)
padanam arthah \ A slightly more technical definition in
Susrutasamhita isyo’rtho’bhihitah sutrepade va sah
padarthah | i.e. the matter expressed in an aphorism or a
word. Cf. Carakasamhita arthah padasya |
- Vijnana 413
27. Sastra and Darsana 27. Sastra and Darsana

Whatever can be stated in so many words is a The number of padartha-s

padartha; expressibility/effability is a general feature of a
padartha842. A wide range of opinions are current regarding the
An even better definition is that a padartha is that number of padartha-s. They may be presented in
which can be an object of a valid means of knowledge843. ascending order as under:
The definition furnished by PraSastapada encompasses the
above two definitions but adds yet another, apparently (a) Vedanta 1/2/3
commonplace, feature viz. ‘existence’844. (b) VaiSesika 6
The latter etymologies clearly show that artha is (c) Caraka 6
not just some dictionary meaning, but actually refers to “a (d) Nyaya (Siddhdntamuktctva.il) 7
thing in the world out there” - same, in fact, as the word (e) Nyaya (Nyayasutra) 16
artha itself, all alone, often means845. And any set of Sahkhya 25
J£L
letters with a designate sense can be called a pada .
In fine, whatever is, can be spoken of, or Table 286 : Number of padartha-s according to Different
comprehended - is a padartha. That is to say all that is Schools
knowable or nameable is padartha. There is thus nothing
that cannot come under the purview of padartha-s in
Ayurveda.
(a) Vedanta
In Advaita, Brahman alone is taken as real, all
else being illusory. As everything is Brahman,
there is only one padartha viz. Brahman. As this
is a matter that can be experienced in a
particular state, sometimes 2 padartha-s are
842 Cf. Tarkadipika enumerated viz. atman and anatman. The
abhidheyatvam paddrtha-sdmdnya-laksanam \
division into bhava and abhava - padartha-s can
843 Saptapadarthi also be mentioned here. In yet another
pramiti-visayah padarthah [ approach, the padartha-s (or tattva-s) are three
844 Prasastapadabhasya viz. cit, acit, and tivara.
sannam api padarthanam astitva-abhidheyatva-jheyatvani |
(b) VaiSesika
845 Carakasamhita
For Kanada, they are six in number.
arthah Sabdadayo jneyah gocarah visayah ganah \

846 Tarkasangraha
kiktarh padam \

414 Padartha - Vijndna 415

27. Sastra and Dariana 27. Sastra and Dariana

1 dravya Gotama gives a list of 16 items a padartha-s in

2 guna his Nyayasutra. (See Table 288).
3 karman
4 samanya (f) Sahkhya
5 vi§esa Known characteristically for their keeping
6 samavaya count of the number of tattva-s (rather than
padartha-s), the Sahkhyans speak of 25 of them,
Table 287 : Padartha-s as per Vaisesika-s divided into 4 groups.

(c) Caraka gives the same list. Number of

Group Designation
Members
(d) Siddhantamuktavali, a popular text on Nydya adds 1 mulaprakrti 1
abhava. 2 prakrti-vikrti 7
3 vikrti 16
(e) Nydya 1
4 na prakrti, na vikrti

i pramana Table 289 : Saftkhyan Groups of tattva-s

2 prameya
3 samfoya
To elaborate the members of the 4 groups,
4 prayojana
against their Designation:
5 drstanta
6 siddhanta Designation Name of Items
7 avayava mulaprakrti 1 prakrti
8 tarka na prakrti, na vikrti 1purusa
9 nirnaya
10 vada Table 290 : Single-member Groups of Sahkhya
11 jalpa
12 vitanda
13 hetvabhasa Multi-member Group (=2)
14 chala mahan 1
15 jdti ahahkara 1
16 nigrahasthana tanmatra-pahcaka 5/7

Table 288 : List of padartha-s as per Gotama Table 291: List of prakrti-vikrti Items

416 Padartha -
- Vijhana 417
27. Sastra and Dariana
27. Stistra and Dariana

5 Motor
Multi-member Group (=3) Organs
manas 1 yak
jnanendriya 5 pani
karmendriya 5 pada
bhutapancaka 5 payu
upastha
Table 292: List of vikrti Items
Table 295: karmendriya-pahcaka

5 Tanmatra-s
Sabda
5 Physical
_rupa_
Materials
sparSa
prthvi
_rasa_
gandha _«£_
tejas
vayu
Table 293: Tanmatra-pancaka
aka&a

Table 296: bhuta-pancaka

5 Sense
Organs
-T
caksus
Srotra Bhavapadartha and Abhavapadartha
ghrana
rasana Caraka brings all padartha-s under two categories
sparianaka viz. sat and asatM1. As the commentators point out, this is
the same as bhava-paddrtha and abhava-padartha*4*.
Table 294: jnanendriya-pancaka

847 Carakasamhita 1.11.17

dvividham eva khalu sarvarh sac ca asac ca |

848 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 1.11.17)

418 Padartha - (a) ‘sad’ iti vidhi-visaya-pramanagamyam bhdvariipam
- Vijnana 419
27. Sastra and Darsana

Using the same terminology, and giving,

nevertheless, a division slightly differing in details,
ViSvanatha gives this classification :

a. Bhava-padartha (=6 items = dravya etc.) CHAPTER 28

b. Abhava-padartha (=4 types of abhava) viz.
Pragabhava, SRSTI-PRAKARANA
Pradhvamsabhava,
Atyantabhava, Genesis constitutes an important chapter in the
Anyonydbhava philosophy of Sankhya. The universe can never be studied
in its entirety by taking up entities individually. Entities
are infinite, as it were. Hence items possessing common
features must be grouped together and studied. And there
must be a logical basis for the selection of features and
grouping. The Sankhya philosophy has been very
successful in doing this. It has classified everything in the
universe under 24 (or 25 or 26) heads and it is because of
this enumeration {sankhya) that it has been called
Sankhya (there are of course other ways of accounting for
this name also).
Perhaps the philosophy of Sankhya derived its
inspiration for choosing this particular number from the
Veda-s. the Aitareya Brahmana, atman is described as the
25th item849.

(b) ‘asad’ iti nisedha-visaya-pramdnagamyam abhavariipam | 849

Aitareya Brahmana
The other commentaries follow suit.
pahcavirhia atma bhavati
420 Padartha - - Vijhana 421
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana

Numbered Groups in Ayurveda/Sankhya Unknown.” The most well-known are the 5 bhuta-s, the
intermediary items partially known, and the
No. of Groups avyakta/purusa, the least-known. Hence it is that purusa is
items reckoned with as the last item in the series.
1 3 (i) antahkarana [= manas -1- buddhi +
In Sankhya, it is common to count purusa as the
ahartkara]
25th tattva, whereas in Ayurveda, purusa is called as the
(ii) \vyakta + avyakta + jna]
twenty-fourth850. The grounds for so considering in
2 5 (i) (maha)bhuta (=khadi)
Ayurveda are set forth by Cakrapani. Purusa is indifferent
(ii) tanmatra
(iudaslna). He has been put under avyakta itself (like
(iii) jnanendriya
prakrti), as reckoning an indifferent and subtle principle
(iv) karmendriya
as separate serves no purpose worth the name851.
(v) “ava&istapancaka”
3 6 dhatu-satka [= khadi (-5 bhuta-s)+ purusa] Caraka lists the various organs and their
4 8 astadhatuki prakrti [= 5 bhuta-s + buddhi + functions852.
ahartkara + avyakta]
5 10 indriya (or bahyakarana) [=5 jnanendriya-s+ 5 1 hastau pair of hands grahana- giving/
karmendriya-s 1 dharana taking
6 13 karana [= antahkarana (3) + bahyakarana (10)1 2 padau pair of feet gamana going
7 24 [manas + bahyakarana (10) + bhuta (5) + 3 guda anus visarga excretion
prakrti (8)1 4 upastha genitalia visarga release
8 25 [purusa + prakrti + antahkarana (3) + 5 jihva tongue vak speech
bahyakarana (10) + tanmatra (5) + bhuta (5)1
Table 298: karmendriya-s and their functions
Table 297 : Numbered Groups of tattva-s

850 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasarhhita 4.1.17)

Purusa - 24th or 25th or 1st tattva
Purusa should have been reckoned as the first
tattva in the normal course of things, whatever “normal”
means. However it has been counted as the last.
Why has this order been chosen? It is because, we
may say, the maxim says, “Go from the Known to the
422 Padartha -
[purusa-sarhjnakah) caturvimSatikah sm/iah \
The word “purusa-sarhjnakah” ‘overflows’ from the previous verse
into this verse. As Ayurvedadipika on this adds, sdfikhya-dariatia-
bheddt caturvirhfotika-bhedena aha \
851 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasarhhita 4.1.17)
udasinarh purusam avyakta-sadharmyat avyaktayam prakrtaveva
praksipya, avyakta-Sabdenaiva grhnati |... udasinasya hi suksmasya
bheda-pratipadanam iha anatiprayojanam - iti na kjtam \
852 Carakasarhhita 4.1.25-26
- Vijhana 423
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana

He lists the five bhuta-s and their guna-s thus853: Earth khara Roughness
bhu
jala Water drava Liquidity
1 kha Ether §abda sound
anila Wind cala Movement
2 vayu Wind sparSa Touch
tejas Fire usna Heat
3 agrti Fire rupa Form
akaSa Ether apratighata Lack of Impedance
4 up Water rasa taste
5 ksiti Earth gandha smell Table 301: Tactile Attributes of the Elements
(kharadiguna)
Table 299 : Te 5 bhuta-s and their attributes
Actually speaking, aka$a has no tactile information
The Five Elements have 2 types of Qualities
to furnish. The very lack of such information being
(guna)*54
exceptional, is hence taken as its feature. Cakrapani takes
this occasion to lay down a maxim that every indriya
naisargika-guna Natural One each
grasps not only its own natural object, but also the absence
Attribute
of the object856.
bhutdntara- Interposal Importation from the
prave&akrta-guna Attribute Previous Element(s)

Table 300: Natural and Accumulatory Attributes of

Objects as Effects of Elements
the Elements Sabda or sound which is grasped by the ear, should
be noted as a gross form of the Element of Ether857. And
All Elements have a tactile quality, called kharadi,
thus noted by Caraka855: so on.

Carakasamhita 4.1.27
854
The expressions naisargika and bhutantara-praveiakrta are not
from Caraka here, but Cakrapani thereon. See Ayurvedadipika
(on Carakasamhita 4.1.27, 28)
855 Carakasamhita 4.1.29,30:
29 khara-drava-calosnatvam bhu-jalanila-tejasam |
akasasyapratighato drstam lihgarh yathakramam 11
30 laksanam sarvamevaitat sparsanendriya-gocaram |
sparianendriya-vijheyah sparfo hi saviparyayah | |
It must be noted here that Caraka has altered the natural
sequence of the Elements, as tejas should have preceded vayu.
The exigencies of the metre must have compelled him to do so.
424 Padartha -
The sequence is, further, not very important here, as all items are
handled independently; as against the previous verse where purva
and purvaguna and para all count as important.
856 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 4.1.30)
yad indriyam yad grhnati, tat tasyabhavam api grhnati | Thus the
eye perceives not only rupa but also rupabhava. And so on. In the
statement of Cakrapani, the first yad refers to indriya and both
are in the Nominative Case. The second yad refers to the object
of the indriya and is in the Accusative Case. The first and second
tad-s also have the same referents.
857 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasamhita 4.1.31)
akaSaparinama eva Sabdah |
- Vijhdna ^2i
 28. Srsti-prakarana
28. Srsti-prakara na

however, is vyakta, the manifest863. Purusa, the knower of

akaSa Sabda akaSa-parindmah eva §abdah
the Field(ksetra) is avyakta, eternal and omnipresent864.
vdyu sparSa vayu-parindmah eva sparSah
tejas rupa tejah-parinamah eva rupam
Bhuta-prakrti List
jala rasa jala-parinamah eva rasah
prthvi gandha prthvi-parindmah eva gandhah The following eight are labeled bhuta-prakrti865:

Table 302 : The Object as the Effect of the Element
Vyakta and Avyakta
Manifest and the Unmanifest
Whatever is grasped by the indriya-s is known as
vyakta*5*. What is elsewise is avyakta*59. What is trans-
sensory is graspable only via inference860.
The Eternal One is that which cannot be grasped
by (or even issues from) something impermanent861. Being
such, avyakta, the Unmanifest, is Unthinkable862. Not so,
858 Carakasarhhita 4.1.62
vya/ctam aindriyikam caiva grhyate yad yad indriyaih |
859 Carakasarhhita 4.1.62
ato’nyatpunaravyaktam |
860 Carakasarhhita 4.1.62
lihga-grdhyam atindriyam |
861 Carakasarhhita 4.1.60
tadeva bhavad agrahyam | anddi and hetuja are antagonistic.
Cakrapani glosses bhavat as utpattidharmakat | and nityatvam na
kutaScana bhavat | is paraphrased as nityam hi na kuto’pi bhavati |
The eternal cannot arise from things non-eternal (i.e. from things
having birth).
862
Carakasarhhita 4.1.60
tad avyaktam acintyam | Such is mulaprakrti.
426 Padartha -
1-5 khddi
6 buddhi
7 avyakta
8 ahahkara
Table 303: bhuta-prakrti Items - as in Caraka
863 Ayurvedadipika (on Carakasarhhita 4.1.60) explains this as
mahadadikam anityam | and dkaSam api vikararupatayd
anityameva \
864 Carakasarhhita 4.1.61
avyaktam atma ksetrajhah iaSvato vibhur avyayah \
865 Carakasarhhita 4.1.63
khadini-buddhir avyaktam ahahkaras tathastakam \
However we have replaced kha, vdyu, agni, ap & ksiti, which is
what is meant by khddi here, by iabda-tanmatra, sparfa-tanmatra,
rupa-tanmatraf rasa-tanmdtra, & gandha-tanmdtra - for reasons of
clarity. This is as per Ayurvedadipika. And it stands to reason also.
What is stated here is also stated as “mahadadyah prakfli-
vikftayah saptayy by Kvarakrsna. Caraka has added mulaprakrti to
the list of 7 given in Sahkhyakarikd; further, Caraka has used the
word avyakta in lieu of mulaprakrti. Whatever tattva gives rise to
another tattva is a prakrti. Cf. tattvantaropadanatvam
prakrtitvam \ | In the nomenclature “bhutaprakrti”, note that the
word bhuta deos not stand for the Five Elements prthivi, ap, tejas,
vdyu and aka&a (or stated in the reverse order, kha, vdyu, agni, ap
and ksiti). On the other hand, it stands for all living beings. That is
why Cakrapani glosses bhutaprakrtih as bhutandm sthavara-
jahgamanam prakrtih. Plants and trees are sthavara-bhuta;
animals (the ones capable of movement) are jahgama-bhuta. The
bhuta-prakrti set is common for all of them, sthavara-bhuta-s and
jahgama-bhuta-s.
- Vijhana 427
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana

1 caksus
1 Sabda-tanmatra 2 frotra
2 sparSa-tanmatra 3 ghrdna
3 rupa-tanmatra 4 rasana
4 rasa-tanmatra 5 sparfanaka
5 gandha-tanmatra 6 hasta
6 buddhi 7 pani
7 mulaprakrti 8 guda
8 ahahkara 9 upastha
10 vagindriya
Table 304: Bhuta-prakrti Items - Elucidatory List manas
11
12 Sabda (=sthulakasa)
13 spar$a( =sthula-vayu)
14 rupa(-sthiila-tejas)
Vikara List
15 rasa(=sthula-jala)
The following 16 items are known as vikara-s. Vikrti 16 gandha(=sthiila-prthvi)
and vikara are synonymous866.
Table 306 : vikara Items - Elucidatory List
1-5 buddhindriya
6-10 karmendriya
11 manas
12-16 artha Ksetra List and Ksetrajha

Table 305 : vikara Items - as in Caraka Removing avyakta from the list, we get what is
referred to as the ksetra list867. Actually speaking, we have
to merge the 2 lists - of bhuta-prakrti and vikara, and
delete the avyakta item. Further, avyakta can refer to both
prakrti and purusa as both are Unmanifest. Hence both
will be missed in the ksetra list. See Tables 307 and 308.
866 Carakasamhita 4.1.63
vikaraS caiva soda&a |
Carakasamhita 4.1.64 867 Carakasamhita 4.1.65
buddhindriyani pahcaiva pahca karmendriyani ca | iti kfetram samuddistarh sarvam avyakta-varjitam \
samanaskai ca pahcarthah vikara iti samjnitah 11 Note that there is some difference between the list given here and
Construe 4.1.63 as sodasa vikardh eva = vikara only = vikrti only the list in Bhagavadgitd 13.05 as regards the ksetra.
428 Padartha - Vijhdna 429
28. Srsti-prakarana
28. Srsti-prakarana

Purusa is the ksetrajha868.

Caraka describes the sequence of creation869,
shown here in a box.
bhutaprakrti List
+ vikara List
- avyakta List
avyakta
Table 307: ksetra List - as in Caraka
I
buddhi
1-5 sthula-bhuta-s
(=prthvi+ap+tejas+vayu+dka$a) I
6-10 suksma-bhuta-s aham

11-15
(=$abda + spar^a +rupa +rasa +gandha)
panca karmendriya-s
I
(=vak+pani+pada +payu+upastha) khadi
16-20 panca jnanendriya-s
(=caksus+frotra +ghrana +rasana +sparfanaka)
21 manas Sequence box : Creational Sequence
22 ahankara as per Caraka
23 buddhi
The above may be elucidated in another box.
Table 308 : ksetra Items - Elucidatory List
(given in next page).

869 Carakasamhita 4.1.66

jayate buddhir avyaktdd buddhya’hamiti manyate |
pararh khadinyahankarad utpadyante yathakramam 11
67 tatah sampurna-sarvdngo jdto’bhyudita ucyate \ |
Cf. Sahkhyakdrika
Srsti-krama 22prakrter mahdmstato’hankdrah tasmadgana§ ca §odakikah \
tasmad api sodatokdt pancabhyah panca bhutdni 11
868 Carakasamhita 4.1.65 25 sattvika ekddafokah pravartate vaikrtdd ahankarat \
avyaktam asya ksetrasya ksetrajnam rsayo viduh \ bhutadeh tanmdtrah sa tamasah taijasdd ubhayam 11
Padartha -
Cf. Su&rutasamhita 3.1.3-6
430
- Vijndna 431
28. Srsfi-prakarana
28. Srsti-prakarana

prakni

AT
buddhi

f
A

ahahkara

f
t t
indriya tanmatra

t
mahabhuta-s

Sequence Box: Sequence of laya

The processes of Creation and Dissolution follow a

pattern. In the former everything issues from avyakta and
in the later, everything dissolves into avyakta871.
Cakrapani marks the actual steps of pralaya, which
is in fact a reversal of the process of srsti.
Layakrama

At the time of mahapralaya, the purusa delinks

himself from all the entities designed for him (istaih Says Ayurvedadipika istaih bhavaih - iti, pumsopabhogdrtham istaih
bhavaih)870. In other words buddhi and other evolutes buddhyadibhih \ Cakrapani further says that it is not individual
dissolve into prakrti. birth and death that are being dealt with here, but cosmic birth
and cosmic death.
871
Carakasamhita 4.1.68
870 avyaktad vyaktatam yanti, vyaktad avyaktatdm puna}} \
Carakasamhita 4.1.67
Cakrapani explains : avyaktad = prakrteh; vyaktatam =
purusah pralaye cestaih punarbhavair viyujyate 11
mahadadi-mahdbhuta-paryanta-prapahca-rupatam \
432 Padartha -
- Vijhana 433
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana

Another remarkable thing to be noted is the unity Similarly avyakta and pradhana are opposites in
of the individual and cosmic cycles. Thus when the half a dozen ways. Curiously these half a dozen ways are
individual attains liberation, then too the same sequence shared by avyakta and vyakta; and the nine ways are
is followed. shared by avyakta and purusa*73.

It is as long as one is stuck in rajas and tamas that Schematically it may be represented thus.
one undergoes the rotary motion872. For it is this that N otation
ensures prakrti-purusa-samyoga.
V vyakta
A avyakta
P purusa

Comparison and Contrast of Groups/Items

a to o = features as shown below:
The Sankhya philosophy has presented 25 tattva-s
or Principles that go to explain all that we can witness in
the universe, or undergo ourselves. The number of tattva-s
it has devised is very optimal; and the varied kinds of
tensions and relations among themselves lead to the
overwhelming complexity of the universe that we witness.
Table 309 : Features of the Triple Categories
The varied Elements thus have many points of
similarity on the one hand, and many points of Note: a' to o' (in the above Table) = Negations of a to o.
dissimilarity on the other. A comparison and contrast,
especially amongst the three major units viz. vyakta,
avyakta, and purusa make a very interesting study.

Vyakta, Avyakta, and Purusa

Vyakta and avyakta are opposites in many ways. 9
counts of difference are here pointed out in a table.
872 Carakasarhhita 4.1.68
rajas-tamobhyam avistah cakravat parivartate \
434 Padartha -
873 Sdhkhyakdrika 10-11
10 hetumad anityam avyapi sakriyam anekam amtarii lihgam |
savayavam paratantram vyaktarh, viparitam avyaktam 11
11 trigunam aviveki visayah samdnyam acetanam prasavadharmi\
vyaktarh tatha pradhanam, tadviparitah, tatha ca puman | |
- Vijhana 435
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana

vyakta avyakta purusa the tanmatra-s, which in turn to manas, which

1 a hetumat having a cause having no cause to ahankara, which to buddhi, which to avyakta.
2 b anitya not eternal Similarly we have the jhanendriya-s and
(i.e. can karmendriya-s, along with manas to ahankara to
eternal
dissolve into its buddhi to avyakta.
source)
In contrast, neither prakrti (or avyakta) nor
3 c avyapin non-pervading pervasive
purusa have any cause. They are both eternal.
4 d sakriya active passive
5 e aneka multiple unitary (b )Anityam
6 f dsrita dependent independent All of vyakta dissolve and lapse into avyakta
7 g lihga indicative indicated serially and finally. Not so avyakta or purusa.
8 h savayava conjunctive without parts
(c) Avyapi
9 i paratantra subordinate independent
10 j triguna having triple attributes All the vyakta items are effects or karya items.
11 k avivekin lacking discretion It is always the case that a karana envelopes a
12 1 visaya serving as an object — karya, and not the reverse, as VacaspatimiSra
— notes well874. As avyakta and purusa are
13 m samanya shared
uncaused, they are not vyapta.
14 n acetana insentient —
15 0 prasava- (d) Sakriyam
productive —
dharmin The vyakta items take bodies, and leave them
vyakta avyakta purusa finally. This kind of action is missing in avyakta
and purusa.
Table 310: Elucidated List of Features of Triple
Categories (e) Anekam
Items such as buddhi or indriya or bhuta etc.
As the words used in the two karika-s are almost are different for each purusa. Avyakta is the
cryptic, some brief notes may be desirable. same for all.
(f) ASritam
Unshared Features All effects take their refuge in their cause(s).
The avyakta is no effect for it never had a
(a) Hetumat
Every one of the 21 items of vyakta have a
cause. Thus the 5 bhiita-s owe their origin to 874 Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sankhyakdrika 10)
karanena hi karyam avistam, na karyena karanam \
436 Padartha - - Vijhana ' 437
28. Srsti-prakarana
cause, hence there is no case of its taking refuge
in a cause.
(g) Lihgam
All the vyakta items are insignia of avyakta.
Such is not the case with avyakta.
(h) Savayavam
The vyakta items can conjoin. What was
disjointed can become conjointed. Prthvi and ap
can conjoin with buddhi or the further evolutes.
This is because they have never been, nor can
they ever be, in fact, disjunct. The relationship
between avyakta and the further evolutes is one
of tadatmya, [a sort of) consubstantiality. It
would be a misnomer to speak of a conjunction
of even sattva, rajas and tamas, for when have
they ever been isolated one from the other?
(i) Paratantram
When buddhi needs to evolve ahahkara, it
needs succor from avyakta. This kind of
subordination is never a feature of avyakta.
Shared Features
Coming now to the shared features between vyakta and
cnyakta:
(j) Trigunam
Both vyakta and avyakta are of the Three
Attributes - presented by Vacaspatimisra as
sukha, duhkha, and moha (=products of / same
as sattva, rajas, and tamas). On the other hand
438 Padartha -
28. Srsti-prakarana
purusa is not so. So then purusa has no real
sukha or duhkha or moha. It is only a case of
superimposition that makes the purusa think
that he has joys or sorrows.
(k )Aviveka
The idea of this epithet is not quite clear. ‘Not
able to differentiate one from the other’, and
‘not acting singly’ are the two senses offered by
Vacaspatimisra. Accordingly neither vyakta nor
avyakta is either discreet or discrete!
(l) Visaya
Both vyakta and avyakta are objects of
perception; they are no perceptors themselves.
(m) Samanyam
Both vyakta and avyakta can be common
objects of experience. Were the evolutes of
prakrti all merely an ‘idea’, and nothing more,
such possibilities cannot be contemplated. The
glances of a dancing girl can draw many. A
philosophy that would say “All are no more
than notions” -cannot explain situations as of
the dancing girl875.
(n )Acetanam
Both vyakta and avyakta are insentient. This is
directed against the opponent’s imagination
that intellect has sentience.
(o) Prasavadharmi
875
Sdnkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 11)
nartaki bhutalabhange ekasmin bahundm pratisandhdnam |
- Vijnana 439
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana

Vyakta and avyakta are generative. Similar and Triguna

dissimilar evolutes keep issuing out of vyakta
and avyakta. Purusa is never so. The nature and function of the three guna-s viz.
sattva, rajas, and tamas is well set forth in
The above results may all be retabulated thus:
Sahkhyakdrika11.
Notation: Let us denote attributes (a) to (i) by x
Their nature, purpose, and basis of their nature are
And attributes (j) to (o) by y.
tabulated in Table 312.
X y
purusa X X

avyakta X

vyakta

Table 311: (Un) shared features among

vyakta Iavyakta Ipurusa
The items (a) to (k) are all feminine in gender, as they qualify prakrti
now. In Sahkhyakdrika, in contrast, they were all neuter in gender
Note: Commentators have been troubled by (e) as
as they qualified a neuter word (namely, avyaktam)
vyakta is aneka, avyakta is eka but again purusa is aneka. And further
(l) bahavastu purusdh
Su&ruta also lists the commonalities and
(m) cetanavantah
differences between prakrti (=avyakta) and purusa*16. (n) agunah
(o) abijadharmanah
(p) aprasavadharmanah
876 Susrutasarhhitd 3.1.9 (q) madhyastha-dharmdnai ceti |
ata urdhvam prakrti-purusayoh sadharmya-vaidharmye
877
vyakhyasyamah | tadyatha Sahkhyakarika
(a) ubhavapy-anddi 12 prity-apriti-visadatmakah prakdsa-pravrtti-niyamdrthakah |
(b) ubhdvapy-anantau anyonyabhibhavdsraya-janana-mithuna-vrttayaS ca gunah 11
(c) ubhavapy-alihgau 13 sattvam laghu prakasakam istam, upastambhakam calam ca
(d) ubhavapi nityau rajah \
(e) ubhavapy-anaparau guru varanakameva tamah pradipavaccdrthato vrttih \ \
(f) ubhau ca sarvagataviti | The ideas of the 1st half of karikd 12 are in columns (1) and (2). The
And again eka tu prakrtih ideas of karika 13 are in columns (3) and (4). The two are related.
(g) acetana We have shown prity-apriti-visadatmakah in the Table by splitting into
(h) triguna prity-aprity-atmaka etc. going by the grammatical maxim -
(i) bijadharmini dvandvante iruyamanam padam pratyekam abhisambadhyate - the
0) prasavadharmini final member of a Copulative Compound links severally with the
(k) amadhyastha-dharmini ceti \ components. So with prakdSartha etc.
440 Padartha - - Vijhana 441
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana

It is in the fitness of things to make some

1 g'
J
*2
comments regarding these.
Q 00
'CS 4-J C- -3 (a) and (b) pntyatmaka and apntyatmaka : the two
2 Oh
Q o S ,3 ^ O are not just opposites of each other, notes VacaspatimiSra
fc, E sib
_ H—» > <D
> on these. He also refutes the school that held thatpriti
3 J2 O J3
'w'' C/3 s—✓ V (love) is different from duhkhabhava (absence of pain)878.
0> (c) visadatmaka imparting delusion
-

u
3
H—> (d) (e) (f) prakaSa-pravrtti-niyama rajas spurs.
3

Table 312 : guna-s : Nature, Purpose, and Role

z Should it spur beyond limit, sattva would dominate all,
u
a i &
were it not for the fact that tamas regulates. Blocked by
uS o
3 tamas, rajas withholds, so that no guna becomes
tn o, i2
3 •s ^ o' .ts overwhelming.
CQ ^ 3 A s
w' o
si
w 3
(g) (h) (i) are the names of the guna-s.
CO
2 2 Sattvaguna
«•
§ O' 5
3 C 2
O ✓—s (j) laghu Buoyancy is the antithesis of otiosity. An
,3
co 3 • P-*

upward gait is an easy evidence of this as with the upward

‘flow’ of fire.
2
"I
^
IQ &
O 53 In certain instances, sattva may inspire even lateral
QJ
Vi
^
IQ
O & 1* motion as in the case of vayu. Taking eva with sattvam
© £•2 S o
a
u
11 2 3 (verse 13), we get sattvam eva laghu prakasakam istam.
3 s, e « 3
Oh c/3 ^ 00 (k) prakaSaka It is by virtue of the “not-so-heavy”
Ch^ <d
CJ 35=3 W' Vh
nature, that things get an opportunity to be active. It is
only such a person that is not bogged down by burdens
•2 and worries that can be spry and sprightly, blithesome and
Q

I § S.S
*Q o
3 •r? 3 ■g c2
3
liS •S? o 878 VacaspatimiSra argues that prityatmakah is studied thus: prltih
^ 3 « 3 > Oh
z (D z-n 3 atma [bhavah] yesarh te - prityatmakah | He summons our own
fH
3 *7^ JO g o o*
'—✓ C/3
W' Oh Oh
experience to vouch for this bhavasvarupata caisam
anubhavasiddha. Were they mere mutual negations, their mutual
r-H (N CO dependency obviates the truth of even one of the two, and can
culminate in an annulment of both.
442 Padartha - Vijhana 443
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana

spirited, active and energetic, agile and animated879. Thus Tamoguna

is the prakaSatmakatva of sattvaguna deduced from its
laghutva.
Rajoguna
(l) upastambhaka means ‘what instigates’. Sattva
and tamas are inactive by themselves, and need to be
stirred into action, divesting them thereby of their
inertia880.
(m) calam - it is because rajas is cala, dynamic, that
it is also upastambhaka. These two also show how and why
rajas is pravrttyarthaka. Taking eva with rajah, we get rajah
eva upastambhakarh calam ca \
(n) and (o) guru and varanaka - if allowed, rajas
dominates everywhere, hence it has to be under some
control. Tamas is the opposite that way of rajas, blocking
it, reducing the scope of rajas. The heaviness and the
consequent sluggishness can very well “put a blanket on”
rajas, enveloping it. And taking eva with tamah, we get
tamah. eva guru varanakam.
Thus the distinct features of sattva, rajas, and
tamas, explicated by adjoining eva in each case881, have
been well brought out by VacaspatimiSra882.
Mutual relationship among guna-s

1 (a) anyonyabhibhava-vrtti mutual subdual

879
Even these many epithets cannot bring out effectively and 2 (b) anyonyaSraya - vrtti mutual support
concisely the full implications of, and the essential logic of what is 3 anyonyjanana-vrtti mutual production
(c)
said in Sanskrit thus (Sdrikhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrikd
4 (d) anyonyamithuna-vrtti mutual consortation
13)): evarh kdrananam vjtti-patutvahetuh laghavam, gurutve hi
mandani syuh - iti sattvasya prakafdtmakatvam uktam | The
essential paradox is this: there is a conscious or unconscious play Table 313 : Mutual Relationship among guna-s
on words in the speech of anyone who has a very good hold over
his language. The more the nuances, the more effective it is in The three guna-s function in a mysterious manner.
communication. But ironically, the more the nuances, the more Theirs is a sort of love-hate relationship, and in fact, much
untranslatable the words become - so much so we may miss the
very logic or its force when we try to put the same in another
tongue. There will never be found in any other language a set of
881
words for sattva, rajas, and tamas, with all their rich imports and Sdrikhyatattvakaumudi (on Sankhyakarikd 13)
implications. evakarah pratyekam bhinna-kramah sambadhyate - sattvam eva,
880
Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sankhyakdrika 13) raja eva, tama eva - iti \
882
sattvatamasi svayam akriyatayd ... rajasa upastabhyete - avasddat Some material on the guna-s obtains in Caraka and SuSruta also.
pracyavya svakarye utsaham prayatnam karyete \ For example see Carakasamhita 4.5.13-26
444 Padartha - - Vijnana 445
28. Srsti-prakarana 28. Srsti-prakarana

more than that. Their actions883 are recounted as fourfold

by ISvarakrsna. (See Table 313).

(a) Anyonyabhibhava-vrtti
When any one of these rises to action, the other
two subdue it; or again one subdues the other
two. When sattva has its role, it overpowers
rajas and tamas, and thereby imparts Santa
vrttim. Similarly rajas would, in its turn, impart S

Table 315 : Mutual Support among triguna-s

ghora vrtti; and tamas, in turn, impart miidha
<y
vrtti. 43
4-*
OX)
The same may be tabulated as in Table 314(in c
o
the very words of VacaspatimiSra). E
C3
(b) A nyonyaSraya-vrtti C
o
The paradox of the function of the guna-s is *5
that each needs the support of the other two, in
order to perform its own action885. a
Oh
3
(Z)
The statements of VacaspatimiSra may be
13
tabulated as in Table 315. 3
3
2

ro
QJ
3
883 Sahkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakdrika 13) Take vrtti (‘action’) 3
H
with all the four action words, vrttih kriya, sa ca pratyekam
abhisambadhyate \
884 Sahkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sankhyakarika 12)
sattvam rajas-tamasi abhibhuya Santam atmano vrttim
pratilabhate |
885 VacaspatimiSra cautions not to take aSraya in a literal sense - of
adharddheya-blidva. He defines dsraya thus-yadapeksaya yasya
kriya, sa tasydsrayah \ If B can function requiring the aid of A,
then A is the afiraya of B.
446 Padartha - 447
Vijhana
28. Srsti-prakarana
The Gita also speaks of these aspects886.
(c) Anyonyajanana-vrtti
To say one generates the other is not to say the
other was not earlier; nor even to say it is
impermanent. An effect concordant with one’s
own nature is what is meant by production887.
(d )Anyonyamithuna-vrttayah
This means that they always act in conjunction.
They are all mutual companions, and are never
to be found one without the others888.
Analogies
The excellent analogy of the lamp is furnished by
Sdhkhyakdrika illustrative of all these multifarious
relationships among the guna-s.
If the guna-s are all mutually antagonistic, is it not
natural, asks Vacaspati, that they destroy each other? He
gives the analogy of Sunda and Upasunda who destroyed
each other889.
886 Bhagavadgitd 14.10
rajas-tamas cabhibhuya sattvam bhavati bharata \
rajah sattvam lamas caiva, tamah sattvam rajas tatha | |
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 12)
jananarh ca gunanam sadrsarupah parinamah \
ata eva na hetumattvam... napyanityatvam... |
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdnkhyakdrika 12)
anyonya-sahacarah - avinabhavavrttayah - itiyavat \
Sankhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdhkhyakdrika 13)
nanu ete paraspara - vi rod hast hi gunah sundopasundavat
parasparam dhvamsante - ityeva yuktam ?
Sunda and Upasunda were two demons who sought and got a
448
28. Srsti-prakarana
The answer lies in the two analogies :
(a) the analogy of a lamp where the different elements
act towards a single
goal890. The wick and the oil are inimical towards
the flame: put a heap of wicks or a gallon of oil on
the flame all of a sudden, the flame will be snuffed
out.
(b) the analogy of the three ‘humours’ viz. vata, pitta,
and flesman, which, for all their opposite streaks,
act towards a common goal891.
As all the 4 types of actions are constantly at work,
each one of the three guna-s can have multiple behaviours
at the same time, after the analogy of a well-endowed
woman892.
boon to the effect that none could kill them, except themselves
mutually. And in exactly the same fashion, they destroy each
other.
890 Sdhkhyakdrika 13
pradipavaccarthato vrttih \
891
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sdnkhyakdrika 13)
(a) yatha vartitaile anala-virodhini, atha ca milite sahanalena rupa-
prakd&a-laksanarin karyam kurutah \
(b) yatha ca vata-pitta-Slesmanah paraspara-virodhinah Sarira-
dharana-laksana-karyakarinah |
892
Sdhkhyatattvakaumudi (on Sahkhyakarika 13)
ekaiva stri rupa-yauvana-kula-fda-sampanna
(a) svaminam sukhakaroti, tat kasya hetoh ? svdminam prati tasyah
sukharupa-samudbhavdt
(b) sapatnih duhkhdkaroti, tat kasya hetoh ? tah prati tasyah
duhkharupa-samudbhavat
(c) purusantararh tam avindamanarh saiva mohayati \ tat kasya hetoh ?
tam prati tasyah moharupa-samudbhavat |
Padartha - - Vijhana 449
28. Srsti-prakarana

A beautiful woman is a source of

(a) delight (sukha) to her husband,
(b) sorrow (duhkha) to her cowives,
(£) delusion (moha) to her lover who cannot access her
CHAPTER 29
Table 316 : Analogy for Triple Role of a Single Item
PRAKRTI-PURUSA-SAMYOGA
• •
Of the analogies above
(a) The analogy of the lamp (given by ISvarakrsna) and
Primary Factors
(b) The analogy of the beautiful woman (given by
VacaspatimiSra) The masculine and feminine genders of the words
find mention, explication, and application in purusa and prakrti have come in very handy and have very
Devibhagavata also893. well been exploited by the celebrated writers on Sahkhya
philosophy.
The three characteristics each of the three guna-s
may be tabulated thus: Sarga or srsti, ‘creation’, is an ‘issue’ of the ‘union’,
as of a woman and a man, of prakrti and purusa - so says
sattva sukha laghutva prakaSakatva Gaudapada in his commentary on a verse in
rajas duhkha calatva upastambhakatva Sdhkhyakdrika 894.
tarnas moha gurutva avaranakatva

Table 317: Triple characteristics of the 3 guna-s Analogy for Complimentality

The verse in question itself gives the analogy of the

The Devibhagavata presentation is as follows: lame and the blind. The lame cannot walk but see, and the
blind can walk but cannot see. But in order to achieve
pnti (—sukha) laghu praka&a = prakaSa Santa their goals, the two can cooperate. The blind can carry the
apriti (=duhkha) cala pravrtti = upastambha ghora
visada (=moha) guru niyama = varana mudha
•

Table 318: Characteristics of guna-s

894 Gaudapadabhasya (on Sdhkhyakdrika 10)

893 (a) Devibhagavata 3.9.29-31
yatha stn-purusa-samyogat sutotpattih, tatha pradhana-
(b) Devibhagavata 2.9.11-12
purusa-samyogat sargasyotpattih \
450 Padartha - - Vijnana 451
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga
lame who can show the path. This serves the purpose of
both895.
Similar is the union of prakrti and purusa.
VacaspatimiSra pays attention to the syntactical nuances
in the verse, without which it can be a little confusing. For,
purusa needs no seeing - i.e. being seen; and prakrti needs
no kaivalya - i.e. is after all ineligible for the same; an
elementary knowledge of Sanskrit alone cannot help here;
it would rather be misleading to construe the phrasal
groupings as purusasya darSanartham and pradhanasya
kaivalyartham.
Bhoga and Apavarga
Take pradhanasya as karmani sasthi. Construe it
thus:
(a) pradhanasya yad darfonam purusena, tadartham \
Similarly, group the remaining two
(h) purusasya yat kaivalyarh pradhanena saha
sambhinnasya, tadartham \
To paraphrase and elucidate the two:
(a) bhogartham
(b) kaivalyartham
The idea is this. Purusa has a desire to enjoy the
bhoga-s offered by prakrti. And prakrti is only too willing
to give it.
895 Sahkhyakarikd 21
puntsasya darsandrtham kaivalyartham tatha pradhanasya
pahgvandhavad ubhayor api samyogah tatkrtah sargah \ \
452 Padartha -
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga
And again, prakrti wants that purusa should attain
kaivalya. But that desire will not arise till he has
undergone the various bhoga-s, which all amount to
duhkhatraya (viz. adhibhautika, adhidaivika, and
adhyatmika). At first purusa has desires aplenty; but
getting to know that his indulgences in what are
extraneous to him ultimately, the bhoga-s, that is, can only
lead from misery to misery, even if interspersed here and
there with some joys, he realizes that his pristine state is
one of desirelessness, the state of kaivalya. Prakrti can
offer support for either - depending upon his own
maturity or evolution.
Triple Analogy
Three more verses, each providing a delectable
analogy, bring out the causes for prakrti-purusa-samyoga.
The analogies are as follows:
(a) The cow wants her calf to grow well. Hence does its
milk flow. Prakrti wants purusa to be liberated.
Hence flow the impulses of prakrti*96.
(b) When something is new, there is great curiosity
evinced towards it. The same however soon dies
out when its charm is gone. Prakrti offers
896 Sdhkhyakdrika 57
vatsa-vivrddhi-nimittam ksirasya yatha pravrttir ajhasya |
pumsa-vimoksa-nimittam tatha pravrttih pradhanasya |
- Vijhana 453
 29. Prakrti-purusa-sarhyoga
29. Prakrti-purusa-sarhyoga

enjoyments to purusa so that he outgrows However, one often gets a doubt as to the basis of
this idea of rebirth. There are some clues in Ayurveda texts
them897.
regarding an answer to the doubt.
(c) The dancing girl presents herself on the stage.
Audience satisfied, she withdraws. Prakrti
presents herself to purusa in all her attires and Four Evidences
attractions. When he loses his relish for them,
he is no more bound to prakrti, whence the 1. Agama Indication
satisfied prakrti haunts him no more, but just
(a) The Dharmasastra texts of the sages do not
withdraws from him898-
speak of cessation of births in the case of
those whose minds are not yet freed of the
vitiations of mind900.
Punarjanma
2. Pratyaksa Indications
The desires of the purusa are however not easily Caraka gives 14 commonplace recurrences as
quenched in a single lifetime. The countless desires bind indicative of punarjanma, and each one has several
the purusa to the realm of prakrti for long. It is only details too.
suffering, it seems, that imparts maturity to the purusa*99.
(a) Parents having very dissimilar (visadrSa)
kids is an indication.
The backlog of karman or previous actions
have caused this difference : one is ugly,
897 Sankhyakdrikd 58 another, handsome.
autsukya-vinivrttyartham yatha kriyasu pravartate lokah \
pumsasya vimoksartham pravartate tadvad avyaktam \ \ (b) People having similar genesis (tulya-
sambhava) betray numerous particularities
898 Sankhyakdrikd 59 in terms of
rahgasya dariayitva nivartate nartaki yatha nrtyat \
purusasya tathatmanam prakafya vinivartate prakrtih \ \
899 Carakasamhita 1.11.28
na ca anativrtta-sattvadosdnam adosaih apunarbhavah
dharmadvaresu upadisyate | The Sanskrit here is very
delectable, but not transparent to a beginner. Hence some
notes: dharma-dvara = dharmasdstra; adosa = maharsi;
sattvadosa = manodosa = rajas-tamas; punarbhava = 900 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
matapitroh visadjSani apatyani
rebirth.
Padartha - • Vijnana 455
454
 29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga

enjoyments to purusa so that he outgrows However, one often gets a doubt as to the basis of
them897. this idea of rebirth. There are some clues in Ayurveda texts
regarding an answer to the doubt.
(c) The dancing girl presents herself on the stage.
Audience satisfied, she withdraws. Prakrti
presents herself to purusa in all her attires and Four Evidences
attractions. When he loses his relish for them,
he is no more bound to prakrti, whence the 1. Agama Indication
satisfied prakrti haunts him no more, but just
(a) The Dharmasastra texts of the sages do not
withdraws from him898.
speak of cessation of births in the case of
those whose minds are not yet freed of the
vitiations of mind900.
Punarjanma
2. Pratyaksa Indications
The desires of the purusa are however not easily Caraka gives 14 commonplace recurrences as
quenched in a single lifetime. The countless desires bind indicative of punarjanma, and each one has several
the purusa to the realm of prakrti for long. It is only
details too.
suffering, it seems, that imparts maturity to the purusa*99.
(a) Parents having very dissimilar (visadrSa)
kids is an indication.
The backlog of karman or previous actions
have caused this difference : one is ugly,
897 Sdhkhyakarikd 58 another, handsome.
autsukya-vinivrttyartham yatha kriyasu pravartate lokah \
purusasya vimoksartham pravartate tadvad avyaktam | | (b) People having similar genesis (tulya-
sambhava) betray numerous particularities
898 Sdhkhyakarikd 59
in terms of
rahgasya darSayitva nivartate nartaki yatha nrtyat \
purusasya tathdtmanarh prakaSya vinivartate prakrtih | |
899 Carakasamhitd 1.11.28
na ca anativrtta-sattvadosanam adosaih apunarbhavah
dharmadvaresu upadifyate | The Sanskrit here is very
delectable, but not transparent to a beginner. Hence some
notes: dharma-dvara = dharmasastra; adosa = maharsi;
sattvadosa = manodosa = rajas-tamas; punarbhava = 900 Carakasamhitd 1.11.30
matapitroh visadjSani apatyani
rebirth.
- Vijnana 455
454 Padartha - 31
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga 29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga

complexion/voice/shape/strength/mind/luck (i) Each has unique bodily features909.

901. One is fair, another dark etc902.
(j) For the selfsame action different person get
(c) Some are born in a high family, others in different fruits910.
low families903.
(k) Some have natural skills in certain actions,
(d) Some are slaves, some masters904. ' ' ail

and not in others .

(e) Some have a happy lifespan, others (l) Remembering past lives - that I was here
unhappy905. .912
etc .
(f) Lifespans themselves differ906. (m) Instinctively liking someone just upon
(g) Some get in return of their performance seeing, and disliking913.
here907.
3. Anumana Indications
(h) Even the untaught [kids] know [when and Inference is based on pratyaksa. On the basis of the
how] to cry, to drink mother’s milk, to items presented under the pratyaksa head, some
laugh, to panic etc908. conclusions are drawn. Inference can work both
ways : from action to result; from result to
action91 .
901 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
tutyasambhavanam varna-svarakrti-sattva-buddhi-bhagya-
viSesah 908 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
aSiksitandm ca mdita-stanapdna-hdsa-trdsadindrh pravrttih
902 Ayurvedadipika(on Carakasamhita 1.11.30)
ka&cid gaurah, kaScit krsnah 909 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
laksanotpattih
903 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
pravaravara-kula-janma 910 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
karmasadrfye phalavifesah
904 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
dasyaiSvaryam 911 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
medha kvacit kvacit karmanyamedha
905 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
sukhasukham ayuh 912 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
jatismaranam - ihagamanam itaScyutdnam iti
906 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
ayusath vaisamyam 913 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
samadar&ane priyapriyatvam
907 Carakasamhita 1.11.30
iha krtasyavaptih 9,4 Carakasamhita 1.11.31
phalad bijam anumiyate, phalam ca bijat \
456 Padartha -
- Vijnana ^
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga
Here is the fruit915 of my own action in a previous
body - action that I cannot escape, that is not
nullified (except through experiencing its
consequences), and tracks me through births and is
designated Destiny (daiva)916.
And if I act elsewise now, the results will be
different too917.
4. Yukti Indication
There is also this integrative logic:
(a) Being born in the womb is a consequence of
the coming together of the 6 dhatu-s,18.
(b) Actions are possible only when the agent
and the instrument come together919.
(c) Fruits spring from out of only deeds done,
not ones not done: after all there can be no
915 Ayurvedadipika(on Carakasamhita 1.11.31)
visadr$a - apatyotpada-adiphalam
916 Carakasamhita 1.11.31
svakrtam apariharyam avinaSi paurvadaihikarh
daivasamjhakam anubandhikam karma \ tasyaitat phalam |
917 Carakasamhita 1.11.31
itasca anyad bhavisyati - iti \
918 Carakasamhita 1.11.32
saddhatu-samudayad garbhajanma which is to say, without
the atman, the life element, there can be no birth from a
womb.
919 Carakasamhita 1.11.32
kartr-karana-samyogat kriya which is to say, without atman,
the agent, no action can be possible.
458 Padartha •
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga
sprout from something that does not count
for a seed at all920.
(d) Fruits are commensurate with deeds; “like
' ' . nil
seed, like fruit”; not otherwise .
Cakrapani also adds that there is much to be
added, but fear of prolixity has constrained the writer922.
To conclude, four pramatia-s have been adduced in
order to teach punarbhava or rebirth.
Punarbhava has been taught by the great sages of very
very ancient times. They have seen it with their divine
eyes923 and only then taught it924. How are the sages
themselves?
920 Carakasamhita 1.11.32
krtasya karmanah phalam nakrtasya; nahkurotpattir abijat -
which is to say slavery or mastery, the result, cannot spring
but out of apposite action.
921 Carakasamhita 1.11.32
karmasadrSath phalam, nanyasmad bijad anyasyotpattih
which is to say good kids and riches are the fruit of good
deeds done in the past, Cakrapani adds further: Salibijad
anyasya yavahkurasya na utpattih \
922 Ayurvedadipika(on Carakasamhita 1.11.32)
atra bahuvaktavye prameye tathavidha-upayogabhavad
vistarabhayacca visataro na krtah |
923 Ayurvedadipikd(on Carakasamhita 1.11.29) explains
divyacaksurbhih as divyam [=atindriyarthadarSi] caksuh
[samadhiriipam jhanarh] yesam te, taih \ The maharsi-s are
endowed with e knowledge of Samadhi which can behold
trans-sensory entities.
459
- Vijhana
29. Prakrti-purusa-samyoga

(i) They are attentive to the channels of dharma (or

texts expounding dharma)925
(ii) They are free from fear, bias, hatred, greed,
delusion, and pride926
CHAPTER 30
(iii) They are devoted to spiritual knowledge927
(iv) They are apta-s92S MOKSA
(v) They know what deeds (sacrifices etc.) are to be
Caraka provides a definition and description of
performed929
moksa. Moksa is primarily apunarbhava or non-rebirth.
(vi) The function of their intellect is on the sound Cessation of the cycle of births (and deaths) is moksa. It
ground of unvitiated sattvaguna930. also necessarily involves separation from all
associations931.
All this does not happen very easily. On the other
hand, this comes at a rather heavy price. This necessitates
the extinguishment and extirpation of all powerful
karman-s. This, in turn, requires an annulment of rajas
i 932
924 Carakasamhita 1.11.29 and tamas .
purvaih purvataraih maharsibhih divyacaksurbhih drstva
The only way to annul all pain is to resort to yoga
upadistah punarbhavah
and moksa. The difference between the states oiyoga and
925 Carakasamhita 1.11.29 moksa is that yoga is the penultimate step and moksa is
dharmadvara-avahitaih the ultimate. While moksa involves withdrawal
926 Carakasamhita 1.11.29 completely, yoga brings about moksa933.
vyapagata-bhaya-raga-dvesa-lobha-moha-manaih

927 Carakasamhita 1.11.29 931 Carakasamhita 4.1.142

brahmaparaih viyogah sarvasamyogaih apunarbhava ucyate \
Cakrapani glosses samyoga as atmasambandhi and
928 Carakasamhita 1.11.29 explicates it as Sanra-buddhi-ahahkara-adibhih.
aptaih
932 Carakasamhita 4.1.142
929 Carakasamhita 1.11.29 mokso rajas-tamobhavat balavatkarma sarhksayat \
karmavidbhih
933 Carakasamhita 4.1.137
930 Carakasamhita 1.11.29 yoge mokse ca sarvasarh vedananam avartanam \
amipahata-sattva-buddhi-pracdraih mokse nivrttih nihdesa, yogo moksapravartakah 11
460 Padartha - Vijhana 461
Moksa

Caraka lists 18 factors that conduce to the

attainment of moksa. To illustrate: serving the noble is a
means for this. So is grasping and retention of
Dharmafastra-s, so is non-ego, examining the truth of
things934.
The most important of all the factors is the
strength viz. tattvasmrti, the sole path to moksa. Going by
this path one never returns935. This is the path stated by
Yogin-s and Sarikhyans936.

Appendix

Bibliography

934 Carakasamhitd 4.1.143-147

935 Carakasamhitd 4.1.150-151
934 Carakasamhitd 4.1.151
ayanam punarakhyatam etad yogasya yogibhih \
sankhyatadharmaih saiikhyaLf ca mukter moksasya
cayanam | |
462 Paddrtha -
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‘ The Source Names are given in Sanskrit Alphabetical Order

Appendix
 Ganitasarasangraha (of Mahavlracarya) (Ed.) Rangacharya, M/1912
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Gita (= Bhagavadgitd) s.v.
Carakasamhita (of Caraka) with Ayurvedadipikd (of Cakrapanidatta)
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Jayamangala (Ed.) Sharma, H/1926 / Pub: Calcutta Oriental Series
Tattyacintdmani (of Gangesa) with Aloka and Darpana (Ed.) Mishra,
V /1957 Darbhanga/
Tattyamuktakaldpa (of VedantadeSika) with Saryankasa (Of and
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Tarkakaumudi (of Laugaksibhaskara) (Ed.) Dvivedi M N/ 1886
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Tarkabhdsd (of KesavamiSra) (Ed.) Paranjape S N/ Poona/
Tarkasangraha (of Annambhatta) with Nyayabodhini (of Govardhana)
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Varadacharya, K S/2008 [2001 *] Mysore/ Pub: Arsha Grantha
Prakashana
Tarkasangraha (of Annambhatta) with Dipika (Autocommentary)
(Ed.) Jha A A /1976 Lucknow/ Pub: Hindi Grantha Academy
Tarkasangraha (of Annambhatta) with Dipika (Autocommentary) and
Nyayabodhini (of Govardhana) (Ed.) Athalye, Y V and
Bodas, M R/19182 [ 1897*] Bombay/ Pub: Department of
Public Instruction
Tarkdmrta (of Jagadlsa) (Ed.) Mishra R /1955 Benaras/
Taittiriya Upanisad - See Eighteen Principal Upanishads, The
Dhdtupdtha (of Panini) with Dhdtvarthaprakdsika (of Sharma K L)
/1969 Varanasi/ Pub: Chowkhamba
Nighantu and Nirukta (of Yaska) (Ed.) Sarup, Lakshman /1927
Lahore: 1967 Delhi Reprint/ Pub: Motilal Banarsidass
ii Appendix
Nirukta (of Yaska) with Vivrti (Ed.) Bakshi and Mukund Jha /1989
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Naisadhiyacarita (of SrlharSa) (Ed.) Acharya N R /1952 Bombay/ Pub:
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Nyayakosa (of Jhalakikar B) (1874) (Ed.) Abhyankar V S /19764 Pune/
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Nyayadarsana (=Nyayasutra of Gotama) with Bhasya (of Vatsyayana)
(Ed.) Shastri, Swami Dvarikadasa /1984 Varanasi/ Pub:
Bauddhabharati
Nydyamahjari (of Jayantabhatta) with Nyayasaurabha (of
Varadacarya) (Ed.) Varadacharya K S /1969 Mysore/ Pub:
Oriental Research Institute
Nyayasutra (of Gautama) (Ed.) Jha, G /(1919 Allahabad/ Reprint:)
1984 Delhi/ Pub: Motilal Banarsidass
Nyayasutra (of Gautama) with Bhasya (of Vatsyayana) and Varttika
(of Uddyotakara) and Tatparyatika (of VacaspatimiSra) and
Vrtti (of Visvanatha) (Ed.) Nyayatarkatirtha T and
Tarkatirtha A /(1936 Calcutta/ Pub: Calcutta Sanskrit Series
Pahcadasi (of Vidyaranya) with Vyakhya (of Ramakfsna) (Ed.)
Acharya N R /19497 Bombay/ Pub: Nirnaya Sagara Press
Brhadaranyaka Upanisad - See Eighteen Principal Upanishads, The
Brahmasutrabhasya (of Sankara) (Ed.) Acharya N R1 19483 Bombay/
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Bhagavadgitd (=Ch.6.25 to 6.43 of Mahabharata (of Vyasa))(Ed.)
Belvalkar S K /1945 Bombay/ Pub: Editor
Bhavaprakasa (of BhavamiSra) - 2 Vol.s (Ed.) MiSra B S / 1961
Benaras / Pub: Kashi Sanskrit Series
Bhasapariccheda (of Visvanatha Nyayapancanana) (Ed.)
Madhavananda, Swami /1996 Calcutta/ Pub: Advaita
Ashrama
Bhelasarhhitd (Ed.) Shukla G / 1959 Benaras/ Pub: Vidyabhavan
Ayurveda Grantha Mala
Manusmrti (of Manu) with Manvarthamuktavah (of KullukabhaHa)
(Ed.) Shastri J L 1983 Delhi/ Pub: Motilal Banarsidass
Appendix iii
Mahabhdrata /1975 Poona/ Pub: Bhandarkar Oriental Research Sarhgadharasamhita (of Siiingadli.ua) (I d.) Murthy. K K S/ 1984
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PubrGurukul Jhajjar Svetasvatara Upanisad - See Eighteen Principal Upanishads, The
Mahavagga - 2 Vols (Ed.) Bhagavat N K /1952 Bombay/ Pub:
Sarvadarsanasangraha (Ed.) Abhyankar K V /1951 Pune/ Pub:
University of Bombay Bhandarkar Oriental Research Institute
Magha = Sisupdla vodka s.v.
Sankhyakarikd (of Isvarakrsna) with Sdrabodliini (of
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Srlkanthadatta) (Ed.) Acharya J T / 1955^ Bombay / Pub: VacaspatimiSra) /1940 Bombay/ Pub: Nirnaya Sagara Press
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iv Appendix Appendix V
 Paddrtha Vijnana Vol.l by Shastri, Sri Satyanarayana /Samvat 2016
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vi Appendix
About I-AIM
I'AIM is a multi-disciplinary research, education and outreach arm of a public
trust called Foundation for Revitalisation of Local Health Traditions
(FRLHT). In 2008, the FRLHT governing council resolved to subsume
FRLHT initiatives developed during 1993-2008 into an Institute of Ayurveda
and Integrative Medicine (I-AIM) in order to execute a bold strategy to
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demonstrate an innovative Institutional model for the promotion of Ayurveda
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About the Book

Just as the theoretical foundations of modern medicine are based on logical
positivism and aristolian logic, the system of Ayurevda is based on the
epistemology and ontology of the Indian philosophical systems of Nyaya,
Vaisheshika and Sankhya etc. Ayurvedic practitioners today are generally not
well-versed in this aspect which leads to a lack of the proper knowledge of the
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About the Author

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