SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 185
Yokotsuka T and Sasaki M (1998) Fermented protein
foods in the Orient: shoyu and miso in Japan. In: Wood
BJB (ed.) Microbiology of Fermented Foods, vol. 2, 2nd
edn., pp. 351
415. London: Elsevier Applied Science.
Relevant Websites
http://www.tempeh.info
A general site describing
all aspects of tempeh including health aspects and
food recipes using tempeh. Producers of tempeh in
the USA, Canada, and Belgium are listed and suitable
cultures for home production are available.
http://www.soyfoods.com
The US Soyfoods Direc-
tory with a free soyfoods guide available for down-
loading, as well as food recipes, mail order and new
soy research. Descriptions of all kinds of soyfoods
are given.
http://en.wikipedia.org
This is a site with a free,
multilingual encyclopedia. Type in the name of a soy
product or soy food to search for information.
http://www.japanweb.co.uk
A Japanese food and
restaurant guide that contains a glossary of Japanese
foods including soy foods. Information on the use of
soy sauce in various recipes is also given.
http://www.foodreference.com
A site dealing in
general with all aspects of food. It includes daily
food and beverage news, a culinary quiz and
a ‘‘Today in food history’’ section. There is a wealth
of information.
Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara
D K O’Toole, City University of Hong Kong,
Hong Kong, People’s Republic of China
ª 2004, Elsevier Ltd. All Rights Reserved.
Soybeans have been grown and consumed in China
for over 4000 years, and about 2000 years ago the
technology for extracting soymilk was developed.
Following this, three main products are now pro-
duced using soymilk, tofu, yuba, and okara, the
main waste product. With the increasing popularity
of soymilk and soymilk-based products, okara is be-
coming an increasing disposal problem. Many
approaches to using okara are being researched, in-
cluding fermentation methods for food products or
industrial products, and its use as a food additive. The
production of tofu involves the use of the traditional
calcium or magnesium salts, or the modern use of
glucono-delta-lactone from which acid is produced
to coagulate soymilk. Growth conditions, soybean
variety, and storage conditions influence soymilk
characteristics that vary considerably and affect
tofu production and yield, as well as characteristics.
Yuba is the thin film of protein that forms on hot
soymilk when heated openly. Soybeans contain anti-
nutritional factors that must be destroyed by heating
and the soymilk develops a ‘‘beany’’ taste that many
Westerners find distasteful. This flavor is due to the
action of an enzyme that oxidizes the long-chain un-
saturated fatty acids.
Introduction
Soybeans, first cultivated in the Yellow River Valley
in China 5000 years ago and on record from
 sixteenth to eleventh century BC, contain about
34% protein, 20% oil, and about 30% carbohydrate
that is comprised of a soluble and an insoluble frac-
tion. The soluble carbohydrate fraction, about 10%
of the bean, is a mixture of sucrose (5%), raffinose
(1%), and stachyose (4%), and the insoluble fraction
consists of pectin (30% of insoluble carbohydrate),
hemicellulose (50%), and cellulose (20%), and there
is less than 1% starch. Soy hemicellulose consists
mainly of arabinogalactan. About 12% of the protein
is water soluble. In the beginning soybeans were
cooked and eaten but then in the West Han Dynasty,
2000 years ago, Liu An, who dates from 164 BC, is
said to have invented tofu that required the extraction
of soymilk from the beans (see Milling and Baking,
History). A major problem with soybeans is that they
contain a trypsin inhibitor, an antinutritional agent
that prevents the intestinal digestive enzymes from
breaking down proteins, and that must be destroyed
by heating for a few minutes (Figure 1) to obtain
maximum nutritional value (see Nutrition: Beriberi,
A Deficiency Related To Grains).
Because soybeans have a high protein content, they,
and products derived from them, are seen as animal
protein substitutes. In their raw state the concentra-
tion of nutrients is high, by comparison with beef,
eggs, and milk (Table 1), but when prepared for con-
sumption soybean products have significantly lower
nutrient concentrations (Table 2). Apart from the
fermented products obtained from soybeans (see
Nutrition: Guidelines for Grain-Based Foods and
Soybean: Soy-Based Fermented Foods), there are
four main products and by-products: soymilk, tofu,
yuba, and okara.
Soymilk Production
The traditional soymilk production method invol-
ves soaking the beans to rehydrate them, rinsing,
186 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara

resuspension in water and grinding of the beans, fol- and the need to use mechanical means to filter the
lowed by filtration to separate the soymilk and fibrous hot mixture, as well as increased energy costs. Usually
residue. The Japanese developed a slight variation in the ratio of water to beans is in the range from 8 : 1 to
the traditional Chinese method (Figure 2) that im- 10 : 1. About 70% of bean solids, 80% of bean
proved soymilk yield and improved filtration charac- protein, and 89% of the oil end up in the soymilk.
teristics but at the cost of a tendency to burn the slurry The residue left is known by a variety of names:
okara, draff, tofukasu, soy pulp, tofu residue, tofu
cake, dou zha (Chinese), bejee (Korean), and tempeh
100 gembus (Indonesian).
3.1 During soymilk production distinctive flavors de-

Protein efficiency ratio (PER)

Trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA/mg)

(PER) velop that are variously described as ‘‘beany,’’

80
2.7 ‘‘painty,’’ ‘‘rancid,’’ and ‘‘bitter.’’ People from East
Asia are used to the flavor but those in other places
60 are generally not used to it. The flavor is due to the
2.3
action of a native soybean enzyme, lipoxygenase (see
40 Enzyme Activities). The enzyme reacts with the un-
1.9 saturated fatty acids in the oil (linoleic acid, etc.) in
the presence of water, and oxygen, by a process called
20
(TIA) 1.5 autoxidation resulting in hydroperoxides (Figure 3)
that are then broken down to aldehydes and ketones
0 2 4 6 10 20 with strong odors and flavors, e.g., hexanal that has
Minutes at 100°C a flavor threshold of less than 1 mg kg
1. Normally, in
the whole undamaged bean, the oil and the enzyme do
Figure 1 The effect of heating time on the protein efficiency not come into contact but, when the beans are ground,
ratio (PER) and its relationship to the trypsin inhibitor activity (TIA) contact with the necessary elements of the reaction
in soybean. As trypsin activity drops, the digestion of the protein
occurs so that the reaction can proceed. As heat
improves as shown by increased PER.

Table 1 The gross composition, and vitamin and mineral content of whole soybeans compared with other protein sources from
animals in the uncooked state

Food (kJ/100 g) Gross composition (g per 100 g) Vitamins and minerals (mg per 100 g)
Carbohydrate Protein Lipid Retinol Thiamine Riboflavin Niacin Ca P Fe
a
Soybean (1653) 30 36.1 17.7 2 660 220 2.2 226 546 8.8
Beef (464) 21.0 3.0 5 130 170 5.5 12 224 3.2
Eggs (631) 12.3 11.3 530 100 300 0.1 73 224 3.1
Cow milk (264) 5 3.1 3.5 38 40 653 0.2 114 102 0.1

a
Nutritionally most of this carbohydrate is not available to humans.
Vitamin contents may change when the foods are cooked.

Table 2 The gross composition, and mineral and vitamin contents, of some soybean-based products

Food Gross composition (g per 100 g) Minerals and vitamins (mg per 100 g)
Water Proteina Fat Carbohydrate Crude fiber Ca Fe Zn P Thiamine Riboflavin

Soymilkb 93.3 2.8 1.9 1.8 1.1 4 0.51 0.23 0.16 0.07
Tonyuc 89.4 4.5 22 0.52 78
Okara 81.6 3.2 1.7 12.5 4.1 80 1.30 0.02 0.02
Okarac 78 5.1 50 0.6 86
Tofu 84.6 8.1 4.8 1.9 0.1 105 5.36 0.80 0.08 0.05
Tofuc 86.3 7.0 78 0.75 105
Yubac 7.1 46.2 321 4.08 707
Tempeh 55.0 19.0 7.7 17.0 3.0 93 2.26 1.81 0.13 0.11

a
Kjeldahl N  5.71.
b
Concentration of components in soymilk depends on the soybean : water ratio used to make the slurry.
c
Values from a Japanese paper, tonyu is the Japanese term for soymilk.
 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 187

Whole soybeans, large

1
Water, 2–3 ×
bean volume

Soak overnight De-hull

2
Drain Waste
Water rinse,
2–3 times
Rinse Waste

Water : bean
ratio − 6 : 1

Chinese method Grind to produce slurry Japanese method

Filter to separate
Heat slurry to near
soymilk from fibrous
boiling temperature
residue (okara)
Okara
to
waste
Filter to separate soymilk
Boil soymilk for from fibrous residue
a few minutes (okara)

Soymilk

Packaging for sale as Further processing to

a beverage, as it is or coagulate and make
as a UHT product bean curd or tofu

Figure 2 A schematic diagram of the production of soymilk by the Chinese and the Japanese methods. Soybeans may be de-hulled
before they are put in to soak or the hulls may be removed at the end of the soaking stage, or the hulls may not be removed at all. Okara
is a major by-product from the process.

COOH
COOH

Lipoxygenase in H2O H 13-hydroperoxy-cis-9, trans-11-

Linoleic acid octadecadienoic acid

O2
CH3
CH3
OOH

O COOH CHO
An oxo acid Hexanal

Figure 3 The lipoxygenase enzyme is responsible for the ‘‘beany’’ flavor commonly noted in soymilk. The reaction catalyzed by
the enzyme involves water, the unsaturated oil, and oxygen and the end-product hexanal is one of the compounds responsible for the
beany flavor.
188 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara
destroys the enzyme, possible processes to prevent
bean flavor development include heating the dry
beans, grinding the beans in hot water, and blanching
the beans, but these processes render some soy protein
insoluble, may introduce cooked flavor, and affect soy
protein function. However, lipoxygenase is of value
for the organoleptic qualities of tofu and soymilk,
because tofu made with lipoxygenase-deficient soy-
beans lacks ‘‘mouthfulness’’ or richness, and soymilk
made with similar soybeans results in soymilk with
a darker yellow color.
Modern continuous production systems try to bal-
ance these factors. Recognized processes include:
 Cornell method. Soybeans are de-hulled and
ground in a hot grinder with hot water at 80

100 C. The slurry is then boiled in a steam-jacketed
kettle and constantly stirred for 10 min, followed
by centrifugation or filtering to remove okara.
 Illinois method. Soybeans are de-hulled and either
presoaked and placed in boiling water for 10 min,
or placed dry in hot water for 20 min, then drained
and ground in sufficient cold water to make
a slurry with 12% solids that is then heated to
93.3 C and homogenized. Added sodium bicarbon-
ate (0.25
0.5%) in the early stage may be used to
hasten enzyme inactivation and has to be neutral-
ized after homogenization. The resulting product,
while bland in flavor, unfortunately has a chalky
feel in the mouth. Soybean hulls are the only solid
waste product.
 Rapid hydration hydrothermal cooking method.
Soybeans are ground into flour, mixed with hot
water, okara removed by centrifugation and soy-
milk pumped to a steam injection head where live
steam is injected to increase temperature instantly
(UHT conditions, 154 C for 30 s), and the soymilk
is held in a holding tube to deactivate trypsin in-
hibitors. Okara waste results (e.g., the Tetra
AlwinTM Soy system).
 Full fat soy flake method. The process begins
with a product called MicroSoy Flakes made by
the MyCal group of Iowa, USA, from de-hulled
soybeans.
 Commercial integrated production systems. Some
of these systems are designed to be continuous and
incorporate steps to minimize ‘‘beany’’ flavor de-
velopment, such as procedures to minimize incor-
poration of oxygen that reacts with lipoxygenase.
Large soymilk manufacturers may include
a deodorization step at the conclusion of soymilk ex-
traction. The hot soymilk is injected into a chamber
under strong vacuum in which volatile off-flavors,
such as sulfur flavors, short chain fatty acids and
vinyl or sterol compounds, and air in the soymilk,
Soak temperature (°C) 40
2.5 50
70 60
90 80
50 70
80 90
Hydration ratio
60 30
2.0
40
30
1.5
1.0
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7
Soak time (h)
Figure 4 The time to maximum water uptake (hydration) by
soybeans depends on the temperature of the soak water.
are vaporized and stripped out. The soymilk is also
rapidly cooled as it expands into chamber.
Whether or not the soybeans should be de-hulled
before processing is debatable, because the process
can damage the cotyledon thus releasing the enzyme
but some benefits include elimination of a ‘‘green or
raw’’ flavor, and reduced soaking time. Soaking time
to full soybean hydration is fastest at 80
90 C and
much slower at room temperature (Figure 4). During
maceration to produce the slurry, the seedcoat does
not behave the same way as the cotyledon cells.
Tofu
Tofu resembles a soft white cheese and can be defined
as ‘‘a water extracted and salt- or acid-coagulated soy
protein gel with water, soy lipids, and other constit-
uents trapped on its network’’ that was developed in
China and spread through East Asia (see Nutrition:
Soy-Based Foods). It was introduced into Western
cuisine less than 100 years ago. The manufacture of
tofu with consistent quality and yield is difficult as
many things can affect the outcome.
In the production of tofu, various coagulants are
used to solidify the soymilk. They include magnesium
chloride, calcium sulfate, and glucono-delta-lactone.
The general process is outlined in Figure 5. Factors
affecting the quality and yield of tofu include:
 Size, shape, and color of hilum and cotyledon of the
soybean. Light colors are favored and although
a large size, 200 mg per seed or larger, is
a traditional Japanese requirement, there seems
to be no scientific basis for it.
 Total protein and the 11S
7S protein ratio (see
Soybean: Soy Concentrates and Isolates). Japanese
manufacturers prefer soybeans containing 13%
moisture with a 38% or greater protein content.
The 7S fraction is b-conglycinin and the 11S frac-
tion is glycinin and the concentrations and ratio
 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 189

Traditional method Soymilk boiled for 10 min Acid method

Glucono-
Coagulant: choice of delta-lactone
gypsum (CaSO4),
nigari (MgCl2)
Cool to 78°C, add Cooled
solution and stir soymilk
vigorously for 30 s,
Water solution quiescent 30 min

Dispense in package and seal

Soft or silken tofu Curd is stirred and Heat by immersion in hot

is cut into cakes, broken, placed in water to coagulate with
removed under cloth lined forming gluconic acid from lactone,
water and cooled box and pressed 50 min
30 min, then cut
into cakes and
stored under cold Pasteurized silken tofu with no
water whey separation

Figure 5 A schematic diagram of the production of tofu. Traditionally calcium and magnesium salts have been used as coagulants but
a more recent innovation is the use of an acid coagulant, gluconon-delta lactone that slowly hydrolyzes to gluconic acid to cause the
coagulation of the proteins. The final product is manipulated in various ways to form the final shape and form of the tofu being produced.

Table 3 Soybean cultivars vary in their protein content and the ratio between the protein fractions 11S and 7S and they have an
impact on the tofu yield and tofu firmness

Cultivar Soybean (g per 100 g soybeans) 11S/7S ratio in protein Tofu firmness (N)
Moisture Protein Tofu yield

Vintron-81 9.67 49.6 293 3.33 10.02

S-20F8 9.40 49.1 269 3.57 9.91
HP-204 9.06 48.5 320 3.10 8.53
IA-2034 9.66 47.9 322 1.85 8.19
Steyer 9.71 47.9 314 2.40 7.97
IA-2020 9.19 45.9 343 2.24 7.84
S-2020 9.04 42.9 290 2.05 6.93

of these vary with seed cultivar (Table 3). The 11S
fraction controls hardness, brittleness, and gum-
miness of resulting tofu, and the 7S fraction requires
more calcium or magnesium for coagulation.
Hence, the ratio of these two proteins in a soymilk
influences the process and product characteristics.
The 11S fraction, the a0 polypeptide of 7S, and the
basic polypeptide of 11S seem to each affect tofu
yield but they are not related to tofu firmness.
However, there is a relationship between tofu firm-
ness and the 11S fraction, the 7S fraction, and
their ratio. The effect of the 11S : 7S ratio may be
modified by the processing conditions.
 When calcium sulfate is used for coagulation, the
concentration of the salt for optimum tofu quality
declines from 0.8% (w/w) to 0.4% as the
concentration of protein in the soybeans rises
from 31% to 38%. The recommended concentra-
tion is 0.02
0.04 mol, but in practice experienced
tofu makers know if the amount is correct by whey
color and curd texture. If concentration is just right,
the whey is transparent with amber or pale yellow
color and sweet taste, and if too much coagulating
agent is added the whey is slightly bitter and the
curd has a coarse texture.
 As grinding temperature rises from 2 C to 50 C,
the firmness of resulting tofu declines. This is due
to the activity of the lipoxygenase enzyme whose
reaction by-products, the peroxides, oxidize the

SH groups on the soybean protein being
released during the grinding and so reduce protein
cross-linking.
190 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara
 The percentage of total solids in soymilk is related
to the water : soybean ratio. The water value used is
the total amount of water absorbed by the dry
beans plus the final addition of water for grinding
plus any rinse waters from the residual okara added
back to the slurry. Maximum protein yields are
obtained at a ratio of 10 : 1, water : soybean, but
at a ratio of 9 : 1 pressed tofu has the lowest
fresh yield and cohesiveness, and highest brittleness
and hardness.
 The coagulation temperature depends on type and
concentration of coagulant, how the coagulant is
added in, and tofu type to be produced. Generally,
as the temperature used is increased (50
90 C)
tofu yield decreases, but at the lower temperatures
tofu is soft and at higher temperatures tofu is hard
and uneven. Consequently, the optimum tempera-
ture range is 70
80 C.
 If the soymilk is stirred with added coagulant, the
resulting tofu has a hard curd and a low fresh yield
is obtained. High-speed stirring favors hard curd
production and low-speed stirring for a short
time favors softer curds.
 Although soybean variety affects tofu qualities and
yield, the growing season for the production of the
soybeans has a major impact on tofu texture, due to
the effect of environmental growth conditions on
the 11S : 7S ratio in the protein.
 When soybeans are stored under adverse conditions
of high temperature and relative humidity, the
tofu yield decreases and tofu hardness increases
(Table 4).
During the production of tofu, additives are some-
times included to change the tofu characteristics or to
improve textural characteristics. Added blood in
Japan, algal cells (Chlorella sp.) in Korea, and chit-
osan have also been used to improve tofu texture.
Commercial transglutaminase or glucose at a low
level, when added at 5 mg l
1 to soymilk to make
Table 4 The affect of storage of soybeans under adverse con-
ditions, at 85% relative humidity and 30oC, on phytate concentra-
tion in the soybeans and the yield of tofu and the brittleness and
hardness of the tofu measured in grams
Months of storage Phytate Tofu yield Brittleness Hardness
(g per 100 g of (g) (g)
soybeans)
0 1.33 512 1020
1 1.21 505 1033
2 1.18 481 923
3 1.16 421 873
4 1.10 389 920
5 1.06 362 945
6 1.05 233 45000
glucono delta lactone tofu, suppresses retort-induced
water release during sterilization at 115 C for 20 min.
Tofu is classified into soft (silken), firm, and extra
firm varieties. Subsequent processing results in
a range of products. Silken tofu contains 88
90%
water and 6% protein and is made with soymilk con-
taining 10
12% solids. The curds, when broken and
pressed, result in firm and extra firm tofus. The firm-
ness makes it easier to handle the small curd blocks so
they keep their shape during slicing and cooking by
deep frying or pan frying.
Products, depending on subsequent handling, in-
clude plain tofu, frozen tofu (a 1000
1500 year
old Chinese tradition), dried-frozen tofu, deep-fried
tofu, grilled tofu, and fermented tofu (see Soybean:
Soy-Based Fermented Foods). Frozen tofu has an in-
teresting characteristic. On freezing the tofu solids
congeal into a firm network, and on thawing the
water is released from the tofu block leaving behind
a product with a sponge-like texture that is tough and
chewy but it absorbs flavors easily. The thawed tofu,
when dried (dried-frozen tofu), keeps well (up to 12
months), is easily handled and stored, and is a highly
concentrated source of protein and energy.
Soymilk- and Tofu-Based Foods
Although the name ‘‘soymilk’’ is commonly used,
there is some resistance to the use of ‘‘milk’’ in the
name, because milk has been more commonly asso-
ciated with the bovine-derived product. Conse-
quently, it is sometimes named ‘‘soy beverage.’’
Many modern products have been referred as sec-
ond-generation soy foods because they are modern
inventions as opposed to the traditional products
above, but a clear-cut definition of these products is
difficult. Broadly, they can be placed into three cate-
gories: dairy analogs, meat analogs, and tofu-based
foods.
The soymilk-based dairy analogs are foods basi-
cally the same as dairy products, but soymilk and
soy constituents are used instead of milk and milk
constituents. Consequently, the soy-based analogs in-
clude frozen soy deserts such as soy ice cream and
frozen soy yogurt. Generally, dairy ice cream is
made from a mixture of ingredients that include
water, high fructose corn sweetener (or sucrose),
2090
fruits, vegetable gums, salt, and colorant but in soy
2182 ice cream the dairy constituents are replaced with soy
2465 oil, tofu, isolated soy protein, and soy lecithin. Frozen
2704 soy yogurt is basically made from a mix similar to that
3080 found in soy ice cream except that it is cultured with
3278
45000
the two yogurt lactic acid bacteria (see Soybean: Soy-
Based Fermented Foods) and frozen and whipped as

for normal ice cream. The product resembles a regular
soft serve frozen product.
Attempts to make fermented dairy analogs such as
cheese and yogurt from pure soymilk have generally
failed for a variety of reasons. They include that the
soy protein molecules are larger than milk proteins
and have different functional groups and characteris-
tics; the fat to protein ratio in tofu is lower than in
cheese, 0.55 : 1 versus 1.1 : 1, that results in a hard
product; sugars in soymilk do not support growth
of dairy bacterial cultures; and acid production by
the usual dairy microorganisms in soymilk is variable.
Consequently, processes used for dairy products man-
ufacture cannot be easily adapted to soymilk. Pro-
ducts similar to cheese can be made but it requires
addition of dairy constituents and enzymes to obtain
products similar to dairy cheeses.
The idea of making meat analogs from soybean
dates from the 1950s. There are two basic processes
for manufacturing meat burger-like products, namely
fiber spinning and thermoplastic extrusion. Fiber
spinning is used to make fibrous meat-like products
that are used in the production of ‘‘meat’’ pies, cas-
seroles, seasoned vegetables, and sandwich fillings.
Flavors such as bacon flavor can be added to the
product. Thermoplastic extrusion is used to make
textured vegetable protein (TVP) that can be formed
into continuous slabs for eventual cutting into desired
shapes such as burger shapes. Various flavors and
spices can be added to make the product flavorful.
These meat analogs can be marketed as low fat and
cholesterol free as well as being vegetarian.
Tofu is very versatile and can be used to make very
many Western style foods. Tofu has been used to
make cheesecake, dips, pies, cream cheese, mayon-
naise, Italian meatballs, and almost any Western
style food.
Okara
About 1.1 kg of fresh okara is produced from every kg
of soybeans processed for soymilk. Okara contains
30% of the whole soybean solids, 20% of the
bean protein, and 11% of the oil. Huge quantities
of okara are produced, e.g., in Japan 700 000 ton
(t) of okara were produced from the tofu production
industry in 1986, and its disposal is a significant prob-
lem. The okara is used as an animal food, is dumped in
landfills, is used as a fertilizer, and, in Japan, most is
burnt. It has been used as a base for a low cost arti-
ficial food for silkworms for the first to the third larval
instar stages of growth. Research is ongoing to devise
uses for okara including the development of other
processed human foods. When dry okara is mixed
with rice powder in the ratio of 25 : 75 to prepare
SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 191
a sauce-like product using a soy sauce manufacturing
technique (see Soybean: Soy-Based Fermented Foods),
the resulting product has an excellent flavor with
a light and bright color, but total amino acids and
glutamic acid are lower than found with a 1 : 1 mix-
ture of defatted soybean meal and wheat. Okara is not
suitable for ethanol production.
Preservation of Okara
Due to its high water activity and microbial contam-
ination, okara can putrefy quickly so if it is not used
immediately it must be preserved. It is desirable that
during preservation the okara should retain its white
color and ability to easily absorb water. For short-
term storage a lactic acid fermentation will suffice, but
drying is the preferred solution.
Fresh okara tends to be lumpy so there are homo-
geneity problems during drying. Successful drying
systems depend on the initial moisture content of
the okara. Dehydration methods include addition
of water-absorbing synthetic polymers in various
forms to the okara; the use of a patented pro-
cess involving a pneumatic conveying drier and
a pulverizer; or a pneumatic drying system with hot
air (208
254 C) at a low velocity (192 m min
1) in
a large drying tower. Other drying systems include
a vibro-fluidized bed under vacuum, and drying in
pellet form (3 mm  10 mm) in hot air. Sterilized
wet okara can be produced continuously by finely
dividing it and feeding it into a scraper-type heat ex-
changer at not less than 120 C followed by cooling,
filling, and sealing aseptically in a suitable container.
Okara Composition
The main components of okara are ruptured cotyle-
don cells and the seedcoat. The proximate composi-
tion of the wet okara depends on the water extraction
efficiency from the slurry phase and soybean cultivar
from which it is extracted, amongst other factors.
Okara has a pH of 6.7, and on a dry-weight basis
its proximate composition is 27% protein, 10%
crude fat/oil, and 14% soluble fiber, 42% insoluble
fiber, and 3% ash. The proximate insoluble fiber con-
tent is 12% hemicellulose, 5.5% cellulose, 11.5%
lignin, and 0.2% phytic acid. Other nutritionally
important compounds include vitamins: thiamine,
riboflavin and nicotinic acid, as well as calcium,
phosphate, zinc, iron, copper, and magnesium
(Table 5). The phytic acid (inositol hexa-phosphate),
when consumed in large quantities in the diet, reduces
calcium balance and metal ion availability, and the
zinc has low bioavailability. Soluble carbohydrates
include sucrose as well as raffinose and stachyose
that cause meteorism (flatulence) (Table 6).
192 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara

Nicotinic
Fractionation of Okara

1.01
0.82
1.04
acid
Okara, as a waste product, is a cheap resource, so to
add value to it various components can be isolated in

Riboflavin
fractionating steps to produce high-value products
such as proteins and carbohydrates that can be

0.04
0.03
0.03
used as food additives.

Thiamin Protein The protein in okara is of better quality than

0.59
0.49
0.48
Minerals and vitamins (mg per 100 g)

that from other soy products, e.g., the protein effi-

396
ciency ratio of okara is 2.71 compared with 2.11
444
407
Table 5 The proximate composition, mineral analysis, and vitamin analysis on a dry matter basis of okara prepared from three cultivars of soybeans

for soymilk (see Nutrition: Guidelines for Grain-

P

Based Foods), but the ratio of essential amino acids

Mn

2.5
3.1
2.3
to total amino acids is similar to tofu and soymilk.
Protein extracted from heat-treated and nonheat-
3.8
3.5
6.4
Zn

treated okara differs, the latter contains the same

1.1
1.1
1.2
Cu

basic 7S globulin found in soybeans, unlike the for-

mer. Okara protein isolate is similar to commercial
1046
1094
1233

soy isolate in having comparable emulsifying, water

K

and fat binding, and foaming properties.

16.2
19.1
18.4

Pepsin digests of proteins lower hypertension and

Na

blood pressure because they contain peptides that in-

6.2
7.2
8.2
Fe

hibit the angiotensin I-converting enzyme (ACE) that

converts angiotensin I to angiotensin II, a substance
163
158
165
Mg

that constricts arteries leading to hypertension and

raised blood pressure. The peptides have IC50 (con-
260
428
286
Ca

centration at which 50% inhibition is found) values

between 14 and 53 mmol.
3200
3700
3000
Ash

Okara fiber component Cellulose concentration is

Total
fiber

56.6
58.1
52.8

higher in the seedcoat than in the cotyledon but hemi-

cellulose is lower in the seedcoat and higher in the
Soluble

cotyledon, and although galactan hemicellulose is

14.6
14.5
12.6
fiber

present in the two seed components, araban hemicel-

lulose is present in cotyledon and pentosan hemicel-
Proximate composition (g per 100 g)
Insoluble

lulose in seedcoat. Arabinogalactan hemicellulose is

the main constituent in the alkaline extract (24%
fiber

42.0
43.6
40.2

KOH) from okara.

Demethylation of okara hemicellulose results in
Phytic
acid

a low-viscosity water-soluble carbohydrate that can

0.5
1.2
0.9

be used to stabilize soluble proteins under acid

Carbohydrate

conditions, e.g., in acidified milk beverages.

The hemicellulose content of okara can be fraction-
ated into hot-water-soluble, normal-soluble, and
5.3
3.8
4.6

alkali-soluble hemicellulose at ratios of 5 : 19 : 4 after

soaking at 30 C overnight. Hot water extraction from
10.9
9.6

9.3
Oil

okara has been done by hydrolyzing in an autoclave

at pH 4.5 in two volumes of water with or without
a
Protein

a chelator (hexametaphosphate or ethylene diamine

28.4
25.4
26.2

tetra-acetic acid (EDTA)). The extracted poly-

saccharides, molecular weight of 105, have emulsi-
Kjeldahl N  5.71.
Soybean cultivar

fication properties influenced by the amount of

bound protein. The use of sodium hexametaphos-
phate results in protein-free pectic polysaccharides
Hutton
Edgar

Prima

with characteristics similar to commercial pectic

polysaccharides products.
a

Table 6 Carbohydrate (not fiber) contents on a dry matter basis, of okara from three cultivars of soybeans (g per 100 g)
Soybean cultivar Monosaccharides (unspecified)
Edgar 0.7
Hutton 0.6
Prima 0.7
The monosaccharides units in the polysaccharides in
the insoluble fiber components, when enzymatically
digested, include galacturonic acid, glucose, xylose,
arabinose, and galactose.
Human Consumption
The dietary fiber content of okara is greater than
50%, so its energy content is only half that of
wheat flour. Okara alone has some antinutritional
qualities; however, fermented okara may have definite
dietary advantages. It can act as a suitable replace-
ment for digestible food in a food prepared to reduce
calorie intake, when consumed, it can reduce choles-
terol levels in the blood stream, and as a food that
contains antioxidant activity, similar to vitamin E, it
can reduce the level of free radicals in the body.
Nonfermented products Haarman and Reimer
Corp. in the USA developed an okara-based snack
bar, and the Japanese National Food Research Insti-
tute patented a process for converting okara to a tex-
tured soybean product. Biscuits fortified with 60%
okara to give protein and dietary fiber contents of
8.72% and 5.98%, respectively, are acceptable to
consumers. The Japanese patented a process to pro-
duce okara coated with shortening for use as a wheat
substitute for making cakes acceptable to consumers.
A nougat candy based on peanut, glucose, hydroge-
nated oil, sugar, and natural essences with added
okara has been developed in Argentina. The candy
contains 18.3% okara and 27.4% peanut. Acceptable
corn tortillas can be made with 10% added okara, and
the tortillas have increased lysine and tryptophan lev-
els, amino acids that are nutritionally limited in corn.
Fermented products A traditional Chinese product
is meitauza that is produced with okara using the
fungus Actinomucor elegans in a solid-state fermen-
tation, and another is pickled okara. However, much
recent work has to do with using some traditional
fungi and bacteria to produce nutritious and flavor-
some okara-based products.
Okara-based natto has been produced using se-
lected strains of Bacillus natto. Indonesian ontjom
(oncom), an orange colored product, has been
prepared from okara using the fungus Neurospora
SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara 193
Oligosaccharides Starch
Stachyose Raffinose Sucrose
1.4 0.3 2.3 0.59
0.9 0.3 1.3 0.68
0.9 0.4 1.8 0.79
intermedia. The resulting product has no soybean
flavor, smooth mouth feel, and, when fried, the
texture of okara ontjom resembles chicken (see
Soybean: Soy-Based Fermented Foods).
The tempeh fungus, Rhizopus oligosporus, and the
soy sauce fungus, Aspergillus oryzae, improve protein
digestibility, and availability of nutrients in the fer-
mented okara along with its antioxidant activities.
In rats fed with a diet containing 50% okara protein
enriched with okara koji fermented with A. oryzae,
plasma- and liver-cholesterol levels and triglycerides
(compared with a casein-based control diet) are
lower. The protein and fiber components in okara
koji made with A. oryzae and R. oligosporus affect
lipid metabolism in rats. Plasma levels of cholesterol
and bile acid are significantly lower in okara tempeh
fed animals apparently due to cholesterol and bile
acid being more strongly bound to okara fiber than
cellulose fiber and so they are excreted in the faeces.
Dietary fiber, particularly that from the soybean, may
be effective in modifying colonic conditions in
a positive way (see Nutrition: Guidelines for Grain-
Based Foods). Rats fed with fermented okara absorb
more iron than those fed with unfermented okara,
possibly due to reduced levels of phytic acid.
Fermented okara, compared with unfermented
okara, contains more of an antioxidant, called NTX,
that has an anti-inflammatory effect on gastric injury in
the gastric mucosa. In in vitro tests NTX scavenges the
superoxide anion, a process that also occurs in vivo.
When foot pad edema is induced in rats by subcutane-
ous injection of croton oil, NTX fed rats exhibit re-
pressed edema but rats fed with a control diet or
vitamin E show no repression of edema. The antioxid-
ants in A. oryzae fermented okara seem to be g-and
d-tocopherol, the isoflavones genistin, daidzein, genis-
tein, and 3-hydroxyanthranilic acid. In vitamin-
E-deficient rats fed with okara supplemented with the
oxidizedoil,thebodyweightgainwaslowerandplasma
peroxidase activities lower than in those fed with fer-
mented okara suggesting that the antioxidants in the
fermented okara scavenged lipid peroxides in vivo.
Fermentation for Nonfood Products
Some unusual and possibly useful chemicals, new and
previously described, including iturin A and surfactin,
194 SOYBEAN/Soymilk, Tofu, and Okara
have been produced by some microorganisms
growing on okara only but not other substrates in
a solid-state fermentation (see Soybean: Soy-Based
Fermented Foods). When growing on okara, Penicil-
lium brasilianum Batista JV-379 produces two
compounds, namely brasiliamide A and B, that
cause convulsive responses in silkworms. Strains of
the fungus P. simplicissimum produce okaramines,
some with insecticidal properties. In addition, they
produce a unique oleanane triterpene, and another
species of Penicillium produces two new dihydroqui-
nolinones, one toxic for the classic toxin indicator
Artemia salina at an LC50 value of 20 mg ml
1.
Other Products
The Japanese have patented a process in which okara
is used to make a reinforced ceramic via the pozzo-
lanic reaction. Fly ash (50
70%), clays (10
30%),
and okara (10
20%) along with Ca(OH)2 (10

30%) are mixed and heated in an inert gas to
1300
1500 C. The carbonized okara reacts with
SiO2 to form silicon carbide that strengthens the
ceramic product.
Yuba
This product is made in Japan from soymilk. The
soymilk is placed in a wide, open pan and brought
to and held at a temperature close to boiling, the ideal
temperature being 82  2 C. Over time a slowly
thickening film forms that can eventually be removed
with two sticks. The film is placed on a wire mesh
shelf to dry out. From 10 to 20 sheets may be pro-
duced from one batch of soymilk. It has a very high
protein content and is highly digestible and nutrit-
ious (Table 2). It is highly perishable and is best
eaten fresh but it is also sold in dried or semi-dried
forms.
The yield and characteristics of yuba are affected by
11S and 7S proteins in the soymilk. Yuba made with
soymilk containing 11S proteins is smooth, opaque,
and strong, but that made with 7S soymilk is trans-
lucent, full of creases, and weaker by comparison (see
Soybean: Soy Concentrates and Isolates). The pH of
the soymilk is important. The normal pH of soymilk is
6.7 but if the pH is below 6.2 the film will not form,
and if the pH is 9 the yield and protein incorporation
are at a maximum. Generally, a pH of 7
8 is recom-
mended.
Detection of GM Soybean
As genetically modified soybeans are of concern, de-
tection of genetically modified soybeans, e.g.,
Roundup Ready beans, in a batch is of interest.
Using a Polymerase Chain Reaction process the
Agrobacterium derived enzyme, 5-enol-pyruvyl-shiki-
mate-3-phosphate synase gene used in the modifica-
tion process, can be detected at the level of one
modified soybean in 5000 unmodified seeds.
See also: Milling and Baking, History. Nutrition:
Beriberi, A Deficiency Related to Grains; Guidelines for
Grain-Based Foods; Soy-Based Foods. Soybean: Soy
Concentrates and Isolates; Soy-Based Fermented Foods.
Further Reading
Bourne MC, Clemente MG, and Banzon J (1976) Survey
of the suitability of thirty cultivars of soybeans for
soymilk manufacture. Journal of Food Science 41:
1204
1208.
Hou HJ and Chang KC (2003) Yield and textural
properties of tofu as affected by the changes of phytate
content during soybean storage. Journal of Food Science
68: 1185
1191.
Ikeda S and Murakami T (1995) Zinc chemical form in
some traditional soy foods. Journal of Food Science 60:
1151
1156.
Kwok KC and Niranjan K (1995) Review: effect of thermal
processing on soymilk. International Journal of Food
Science and Technology 30: 263
295.
Liu K-S (1997) Soybeans: Chemistry, Technology, and
Utilization. New York: Chapman and Hall.
Ma CY, Liu WS, Kwok KC, and Kwok F (1996) Isolation
and characterization of proteins from soymilk residue
(okara). Food Research International 29: 799
805.
Matsuo M (1997) In vivo antioxidant activity of okara
koji, a fermented okara, by Aspergillus oryzae.
Bioscience, Biotechnology and Biochemistry 61:
1968
1972.
Messina MJ, Persky V, Setchell KDR, and Barnes S (1994)
Soy intake and cancer risk: a review of the in vitro and
in vivo data. Nutrition and Cancer 21: 113
131.
Mujoo R, Trinh DT, and Ng PKW (2003) Characterization
of storage proteins in different soybean varieties and
their relationship to tofu yield and texture. Food
Chemistry 82: 265
273.
Ohno A, Ano T, and Shoda M (1995) Production of
a lipopeptide antibiotic, surfactin, by recombinant
Bacillus subtilis in solid state fermentation. Biotechnol-
ogy and Bioengineering 47: 209
214.
O’Toole DK (1999) The characteristics and use of okara,
the soybean residue from soymilk production: a review.
Agricultural and Food Chemistry 47: 363
371.
Van der Riet WB, Wight AW, Cilliers JJL, and Datel JM
(1989) Food chemical investigation of tofu and its
byproduct okara. Food Chemistry 34: 193
202.
Wang HL and Cavins JF (1989) Yield and amino acid
composition of fractions obtained during tofu produc-
tion. Cereal Chemistry 66: 359
361.

Yamaguchi F, Ota Y, and Hatanaka C (1996) Extraction
and purification of pectic polysaccharides from soybean
okara and enzymatic analysis of their structures.
Carbohydrate Polymers 30: 265
273.
Relevant Websites
http://www.dietobio.com
A combined French and
English site concerned with vegetarian foods. Choose
language and go to ‘‘Articles’’ for information on soy
foods.
http://www.ellenskitchen.com
A site dealing with
recipes and special diets for those with metabolic
dietary problems, as well as vegetarian diets.
http://hcf-nutrition.org
The site of the HCF
Nutrition Foundation with a focus on the nutritional
aspects of foods, in particular soyfoods, and how
they are all related to disease.
http://www.fao.org
The site of the FAO of the
United Nations. Type ‘‘soybean’’ in the search
window to obtain information. Go to ‘‘World
Agricultural Information Centre’’ and under ‘‘En-
gineering, Technology and Research.’’ Go to the
STARCH
Contents
Uses of Native Starch
Analysis of Quality
Chemistry
Modification
Synthesis
Uses of Native Starch
J W Lawton, National Centre for Agricultural Utilization
Research, USDA, Peoria, IL, USA
Published by Elsevier Ltd.
Introduction
Foods high in starch have always been an important
part of the human diet. Traditionally, these foods high
STARCH/Uses of Native Starch 195
‘‘Post Harvest Operations’’ to obtain comprehensive
information about postharvest treatments of soy-
beans. The site is multilingual.
http://www.wishh.org
The site of the World
Initiative for Soy in Human Health, an initiative
from the United States of America. The site includes
news items.
http://www.soya.be
Information on soyfoods
including recipes as well as a wide range of foods.
News items are also included.
http://www.aces.uiuc.edu
A University of Illinois
website dealing with soybeans.
http://www.foodsubs.com
The Cook’s Thesaurus
and Encyclopedia covering thousands of recipes and
kitchen tools.
http://www.soyfoods.com
The US Soyfoods Direc-
tory with a free soyfoods guide available for down-
loading, as well as food recipes, mail order and new soy
research. Descriptions of all kinds of soyfoods are given.
http://www.soybean.on.ca
From the Ontario
soybean growers in Canada and includes information
on the nutritive value of soybeans as well as recipes
and descriptions of soyfoods.
in starch have found their way into either human or
animal food. Due to the abundance of these starchy
natural materials, it is not surprising that applications
other than its caloric value have been found for starch.
Early in human history, starch was used to coat
papyrus and the Romans documented the production
of paste from white flour and vinegar. The variation
found in the different sources of starch gives it great
versatility in the types of uses. Starch can contribute
to adhesion, viscosity, film forming, binding, and