1

2 OFFSHORE SAND AS A FINE AGGREGATE

3 FOR CONCRETE PRODUCTION
4
5 D.A.R. Dolage1*, M.G.S. Dias2, and C.T. Ariyawansa3
6
1 ,
7 Department of Civil Engineering The Open University of Sri Lanka, Nawala, Sri Lanka
2
8 TEngineering Division, Coconut Development Authority, Colombo, Sri Lanka
3
9 Technology Education Division, Ministry of Industry and Commerce, Colombo, Sri Lanka
10
11 Authors’ contributions
12
13 This work was carried out in collaboration between all authors. Author DARD reviewed the
14 existing literature and placed the research objectives of the paper in perspective, analysed
15 the data, discussed the results and wrote the draft of the manuscript. The research paper is
16 based on the data obtained in an undergraduate student project undertaken by Authors GD
17 and TA where DARD is the academic supervisor. All authors read and approved the final
18 manuscript
19 ABSTRACT
20
The aim of this study is to test the relevant properties of offshore sand obtained soon after
dredging and to examine the effects on chloride levels of offshore sand when fresh water is
drained to simulate average monthly rainfalls. As per the results of sieve analysis, grading
of the offshore sand is within the limits specified in BS 882:1992. The compressive strength of
grade 25 concrete which is the mostly used structural concrete is also within the acceptable
limits. The shell content of offshore sand for shells finer than 10 mm and coarser than 5 mm
is 6.5 per cent. This is far below the 20 per cent limit specified in BS 882:1992.

A container was fabricated to form a sand column to measure the chloride content of
offshore sand when sprinkled water was drained through the sand column simulating the
maximum and the minimum rainfalls.

For grade 25 concrete produced with OPC, an allowable limit of 0.101 per cent by weight of
sand was computed for chloride content in offshore sand. The chloride content of offshore
sand obtained soon after dredging was 0.04%. Even a rainfall as low as 9.9 mm can reduce
the chloride content (range from 0.01 to 0.05) to levels far below the allowable limit (0.101).
Rainfalls as high as 581 mm could wash away chlorides almost completely (below 0.01). The
study revealed that offshore sand obtained from 2 to 7 km away from the western coast, Sri
Lanka soon after dredging, could be used as an alternative to river sand. Since the offshore
sand dredged from places about 2- 7 km away from the shore has a chloride content well
below the allowable limits, it is not necessary to expose stockpiles to rain. Comment [H1]: Please, re-write it because the
most abstracts are a paragraph only!
21
22 Keywords: Offshore sand; Concrete; Fine Aggregate; Chloride content
23
24

* Corresponding author: E-mail: dadol@ou.ac.lk; 1

25 1. INTRODUCTION
26
27 1.1 General
28 Due to the recent growth in the construction industry, the demand for fine aggregate is
29 escalating rapidly. River sand has been the most widely used fine aggregate in Sri Lanka
30 and over-exploitation of river sand to meet the demand has led to various harmful
31 consequences such as increase in the depth of the river bed, lowering of the water table,
32 and salinity intrusion into the rivers. Because of these environmental problems, there is a
33 necessity to restrict river sand mining especially at vulnerable locations. As a remedial
34 measure, the government imposes various restrictions on the extraction of river sand with
35 consequent increases in prices. Not only has this inconvenienced the users directly, but also
36 indirectly impacted on the overall stability of the construction industry owing to concomitant
37 increases in construction prices.
38
39 In order to restrict river sand mining and to curb the price volatility in the construction
40 industry, it is necessary to introduce alternatives to river sand. In Sri Lanka, the total demand
41 for sand is about 12 million cubic meters per year, and almost 40 per cent of this volume is
42 used in the Western province. If an alternative source of sand supply can be introduced to
43 Western province, the immediate pressure could be released. There are number of
44 alternatives to river sand, such as offshore sand, shore sand (dune sand), quarry dust and
45 washed soil. Properties of fine aggregate affect that of hardened concrete such as durability,
46 strength, shrinkage, creep, thermal properties, unit weight, modulus of elasticity and surface
47 friction. This complexity has made the exploration for an alternative to river sand still
48 incomplete.
49
50 A pilot survey revealed that individuals and state sector clients seldom approve the use of
51 shore sand or offshore sand for concrete let alone reinforced concrete. Further, the initial
52 offshore sand stockpile lying in Muthurajawela is exhausted and fresh offshore stockpiles are
53 being formed, but they require exposure to rain. Therefore, further studies are required
54 looking at the suitability of offshore sand from different perspectives. Since the potential
55 environmental damage due to offshore sand extraction is far less when compared to that
56 due to river sand extraction, this concern is not considered in this research .
57
58 The objectives of the study are:
59 a) To determine the grading of offshore sand and compressive strength of concrete
60 produced with offshore sand obtained soon after dredging, before any exposure to rain.
61 b) To determine the shell content of offshore sand obtained soon after dredging, before any
62 exposure to rain.
63 c) To determine the chloride content of offshore sand obtained soon after dredging and
64 before any exposure to rain and changes in chloride content when water drains through
65 sand simulating the maximum and the minimum rainfalls.
66
67 1.2 Literature Review
68
69 1.2.1 Use of sea sand globally and locally
70
71 Sands obtained from seashore or dredged from the sea or river estuaries have been used in
72 the UK over a long period. Currently, in the UK, about 20 per cent of natural gravel and sand
73 requirement is sea dredged with submersible pumps making it possible to win the material
74 from depths up to 50 m [1]. Experimental studies about offshore sand extracted from
75 European and American coasts have shown that these materials are suitable as construction
76 materials for the base and sub base pavements [2]. Also material from marine deposits

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 77 around the coasts of Great Britain has been used in concrete production for several decades
78 [3].
79 In China, where coastal areas are rich in sea sand, sea sands are already in wide use in
80 local concrete construction due to convenience in mining and transportation, mature
81 technology, and lower costs; the cost of sea sand is only 50-70 per cent of imported
82 freshwater sand [4]. In recent years, most of the marine aggregate extractions have been
83 carried out in areas of the North Sea, followed by the Baltic Sea, the English Channel, the
84 Irish Sea and the North Atlantic Sea [2]. The main extracting countries are the Netherlands,
85 followed by the United Kingdom, Denmark and France. Also material from marine deposits
86 around the coasts of Great Britain has been used in concrete production for several decades
87 [3]. The dredged marine sediments [DMS] can be used in several applications, such as
88 erosive process control, coastal satabilisation, beach replenishment, productions of
89 construction materials (clay, bricks, a aggregate) or construction works (foundation fill, dikes
90 etc.). Much as the sea sand used in concrete is controversial, it is still an effective measure
91 to relieve the shortage of sand [5]. Studies show that (DMS) can be successfully used as a
92 fine aggregate for concrete production [2, 6].
93
94 Having carried out a comprehensive study by Dias et al. [7] using offshore sand samples
95 obtained from a stockpile, dredged in year 2002, just North of Colombo, Sri Lanka concluded
96 that offshore sand is suitable for reinforced concreting work. Sri Lanka Land Reclamation
97 and Development Corporation (SLLRDC) being the custodian of the stockpile took steps to
98 popularize the use of offshore sand as an alternative to river sand for reinforced concrete
99 work but to no avail. Recent surveys conducted revealed despite such steps consumers are
100 apprehensive in using off shore sand for concrete, let alone reinforced concrete. Further, the
101 stockpile just been exhausted, the SLLRDC has started dredging fresh offshore sand. It is
102 planning to expose the dredged sand to rain for a period of three months before making it
103 available to consumers. Therefore, it is opportune and timely to carry out a study to
104 investigate the characteristics of offshore sand.
105
106 1,2,2 Advantages and disadvantages of sea sand
107
108 Chandrakeerthy [8] comprehensively compared and contrasted the advantages and
109 disadvantages of river sand, offshore sand and crushed fine aggregate. Table 1 displays the
110 advantages and disadvantages of sea sand, over its alternatives, identified in his study. His
111 pioneering study on sea sand cleared the initial inhibitions of use of sea sand on an
112 industrial scale and created a surge in the local consumption.
113
114 Table 1. Advantages and Disadvantages of sea sand
Advantages Disadvantages
It is the cheapest form of fine aggregate It may lead to efflorescence and corrosion
of reinforcement
In contrast to crushed fine aggregate, it is If washing is necessary, it may be an
more rounded or cubical like river sand and additional burden
hence, demand for water and cement is low
Price fluctuations are small throughout the At present sea sand is recommended in Sri
year Lanka, and even if sea sand is found to be
satisfactory there will be considerable user
resistance to overcome
As it is found in natural deposits grading of Restrictions on mining sea shore sand, to
sea sand is generally good prevent sea erosion, do not allow full
potential of sea sand to be realized
It contains no organic contamination, silt or Offshore sand facility will require a large
weak small gravel particles capital investment

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 It can be made abundantly available, as Sri
Lanka is an island with greater exploitation
potential for offshore and seashore sand
Seashore mining operation is easy while
offshore mining is complex. The latter is
done on a larger scale with mechanized
equipment and, hence, cost can be lowered
If chloride content is high, it can be reduced
to acceptable limits by washing with even
sea water
Grading of sea sand is finer than that of
river sand and since local crushed stone
coarse aggregate is coarser, it does not
show any adverse effects when used in
concrete
115 Source: Adapted from a study by Chandrakeerthy [8]
116
117
118 1.2.3 Impact of Shell content and other impurities
119
120 Offshore sand may contain a large content of shells. According to Chapmen and Roeder [9],
121 shell has no adverse effect on strength but the workability is reduced if the concrete is made
122 with aggregate having a large shell content. Although Table 1 of BS 812-1992 stipulates
123 limits on shell content for aggregates coarser than 5 mm, it does not set any limit on shell
124 content of aggregates finer than 5 mm; ie for fine aggregates [10]. With respect to the effect
125 of shell and other impurities, Limeira et a.l [2] attest that the presence of small, normally
126 acceptable percentages of coal, chalk or clay is unlikely to affect workability.
127
128
129 1. 2.4 Limits on chloride content of concrete
130
131 Chloride attack is one of the crucial aspects for consideration when the durability of concrete
132 is dealt with. The chloride ions present in sea sand, however, make its application potentially
133 threatening to the durability of concrete structures [4]. The consideration of chloride content
134 has drawn the scholarly attention because it is primarily responsible for chloride induced
135 corrosion of reinforcement. Concrete can get chloride from cement, water, aggregate and
136 sometimes from admixtures [10]. The admixtures presently available in the market either
137 contain negligible amount of chlorides or are completely chloride free.
138
139 Although the users are apprehensive about using offshore sand in concrete because of
140 chloride content, Neville [1] attests that sand obtained from the sea bed and washed even in
141 sea water does not contain harmful quantities of salts. BS 8110: Part 1:1995 (Structural use
142 of concrete) [11] specifies a maximum total chloride ion content in the concrete mix. While
143 Euro codes make no mention of sea sand, ICTAD Specification of Building Works prohibits
144 the use of sea sand.
145
146 Regarding aggregate, BS 882:1992 [12] sets the limits for chloride content expressed as a
147 percentage by mass of combined aggregate. The code says it is the responsibility of the
148 concrete mix designer to calculate the total chloride content of a concrete mix from the
149 chloride contents of the various constituents and to ensure that an appropriate maximum
150 value is not exceeded. IS 456 of 2000 [13] has its own limits on chloride content of concrete.
151 According to this code, the allowable chloride content in cement is 0.1 per cent.
152

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153 The most commonly used limit on total chlorides is the 0.4% limit (by weight of cement)
154 specified in BS 5328: Part 1: 1997 for reinforced concrete [14]. As for chloride concentration,
155 the EHE 2008 (Spanish Standard of Structural Concrete) establishes two limits for mass
156 concrete with reinforcement to reduce cracking; the total amount of chloride from the
157 components should not exceed 0.05% in mass of aggregate and/or 0.40% of cement weight
158 [2]. Dias et al [7] establish acceptable chloride content 0.3% by weight of cement for the total
159 chloride of the concrete mix, based on review of literature.
160
161 The presence of chloride in concrete beyond the acceptable limits not only could induce
162 corrosion in steel reinforcement but also cause efflorescence, having absorbed moisture
163 from the air. Efflorescence is caused when salts present in concrete oozes out to the surface
164 forming unsightly while patches. Since efflorescence is more likely in permeable cement-
165 sand mixes than in impermeable concrete, it need not be a consideration when sea sand is
166 used for concreting. Chandrakeerthy’s [8] study on use of sea sand in concrete provides no
167 evidence of formation of efflorescence.
168
169
170 2. MATERIAL AND METHODS
171
172 An experimental programme was carried out using samples obtained from the offshore sand
173 dredged for the use of Colombo Port Expansion Project. At the time these samples were
174 taken, in 2010, the dredged sand was used to produce ‘core loc’, which were in turn used to
175 construct the layer in between quarry run and the wave wall of the breakwater structure of
176 the project. The sand required for the project was being extracted from areas 2 -7 km
177 offshore of the project. These samples were tested for aggregate properties crucial for local
178 offshore sands which are as follows; grading, shell content chloride ion content.
179
180 2.1 Grading of offshore sand
181
182 In order to determine grading pattern of offshore sand the relevant test was conducted
183 according to BS 812 – 103: 1985 (2000). The sieves used were 5 mm, 4.75 mm, 3.35 mm,
184 2.00 mm, 1.18 mm, 6 μm, 4.25 μm, 3 μm, 2.12 μm and 1.5 μm.
185
186 2.2 Concrete mixture composition
187
188 Mix design for grade 25 concrete was carried out according to BS 5328: Part 1:1989 [14].
189 The investigation was limited to grade 25 concrete, this being the most commonly used
190 grade in Sri Lanka. The ordinary Portland cement (OPC) was used as the cement type.
191
192 The OPC used has the following physical properties:
3
193 Bulk Density =180 g/cm
194 Specific gravity = 1.3
195 Fineness passing 45μ sieve = 96
2
196 Specific surface (Blain’s) (m /kg)=340
197
198 The chemical composition of OPC used is LOI (4.33), SiO2 (19.56), Al2O3 (4.75), Fe2O3
199 (3.39), CaO (63.88), MgO (1.68), SO3, 2.03, K2O (0.32), Na2 (0.04) Cl (0.01).
200 The most common of all tests on hardened concrete is the compressive strength test, partly
201 because it is an easy test to perform, and partly because many, though not all, of the
202 desirable characteristics of concrete are qualitatively related to its strength; but mainly
203 because of the intrinsic importance of the compressive strength of concrete in structural
204 design [1]. The coarse aggregate, cement & fine aggregate in their specified proportions
205 were initially added to the drum mixer and then water was added. Thereafter, the entire

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 3
206 batch of 0.03 m in volume was mixed thoroughly. The specimens are cast in cast-ion
207 moulds of robust construction, generally 150 mm cubes, which should conform within narrow
208 tolerances to the cubical shape, prescribed dimensions and planeness. Before assembling
209 the mould, its mating surfaces were covered with mineral oil to the inside surfaces of the
210 mould in order to prevent any development of bond between the mould and the concrete [1].
211 Each layer of concrete is compacted by not fewer than 35 strokes with a 25 mm MS rod. The
212 compressive strength was tested at 7 and 28 days, with the average of three test cube
213 results obtained for each age.
214
215 They had the
216 2.3 Shell content in offshore sand
217
218 The shell content of offshore sand samples was measured separately for the aggregate
219 sizes greater than and less than 5 mm, as per BS 882: 1992 [12]. This was measured from a
220 sample weighing 1000 g. The shell content greater than 5 mm was measured by ‘hand-
221 picking’ method. The shell content less than 5 mm was measured by dissolving in HCl.
222
223
224 2.4 Chloride content test
225
226 The chloride ion content of fresh offshore sand was measured before their exposure to rain.
227 Thereafter chloride ion content of offshore sand was measured after two different quantities
228 of water corresponding to the minimum and the maximum monthly rainfalls percolate
229 through the sand simulating the effect of rain. Before using the offshore sand for chloride
230 testing, it was sieved to remove dirt and pebbles.
231 In order to test offshore under the above two situations, a special container of diameter 457
232 mm was fabricated to hold a column of sand 2743 mm high. The sand column was
233 supported, at the bottom of the container, on a strainer which facilitated the water to drain
234 into another container. The container had four holes along a vertical line, which could be
235 plugged and made watertight. These holes had been positioned at four levels so that the
236 sand could be sampled at four different levels from A to D; Fig. 1 shows the device used to
237 measure chloride levels in offshore sand.

Water sprinkling
device
152

A
Cylindrical sand
851

Column

B
851

Sand sampling
points

C
851

Drained water
collecting pan
571

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238
239 Fig. 1. Container used to measure chloride levels in offshore sand
240
241 A sample taken directly from the offshore sand was checked for its chloride content. Then
242 the container was filled with offshore sand and a volume of fresh water corresponding to a
243 height of 10 mm (the lowest average monthly rainfall for the last 03 years in Colombo being
244 9.9 mm) was sprinkled evenly from the top surface of container. Four samples were taken
245 after 5 days of drainage through the holes made for sampling. This sprinkling was repeated
246 with a further 571 mm height of water (the highest average monthly rainfall in Colombo being
247 581 mm), and another set of samples were taken after 5 days of drainage. The samples had
248 to be oven dried prior to Chloride testing as per BS 1377: Part 3 (1990) [7].
0
249 Each sand sample weighing 100 g was oven dried at 110 C overnight; moisture content was
250 measured after oven drying the sand samples for 24 hrs. A sample of 50 g sand (dried) was
251 placed in a conical flask and a volume of 100 ml distilled water was added to it and
252 thereafter the mixture was shaken overnight with a shaker. Filtered (the chloride contain
253 water) by using a No. 01 filter paper. Silver Nitrate 25 ml (V1), Nitric acid 5 ml, Ferric Alum
254 indicator solution 5 ml was added to the extracted sample (then chloride has been
255 precipitated). Thiocyanate solution (Concentration of C) drops were added from a burette
256 until the first permanent colour change occurs (NH4SCN or KSCN). When the colour
257 changed to brick-red, the volume of thiocyanate (V2 in ml) was measured; the Chloride ion
258 content is given by 0.007092 (V1 -10CV2).
259 Testing the concentration of thiocyanate
260  Transferred 25 ml of the Silver Nitrate solution into a 250 ml conical flask, using a
261 pipette, and added 5 ml of the nitric acid solution and 1 ml of ferric alum indicator
262 solution
263  Added thiocyanate solution from a burette until the first permanent colour change
264 occurred, that is from colourless to pink.
2.5
265  Recorded the volume of thiocyanate solution (V) C
V
266 2.5 Market survey
267
268 A market survey was carried out to find the prices of offshore sand, confining it to the
269 western province as 40 per cent of country’s sand requirement is used in this area.
270 .
271
272 3. RESULTS AND DISCUSSION
273
274 3.1 Grading of offshore sand
275
276 Table 2 displays the result of sieve analysis of the offshore sand sample which weighed 1438
277 g. Fig.2 represents the sieve analysis results of the offshore sand graphically and by
278 interpolation the D50 value of the sample was computed to be around 0.9 mm. The offshore
279 sand sample obtained from Muthurajawela stockpile had a D50 value of around 0.6 mm which
280 according to the authors is very appropriate for concrete production [7].
281
282 Table 2. Sieve analysis of the offshore sand
Sieve Weight Retained Cumulative % Weight % Specified Limits
size Retained % Retained passing (%)
mm g
Lower Upper
5.000 0.00 0.00 0.00 100.00 89 100

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 4.750 0.80 0.06 0.06 99.94 85 100
3.350 13.80 0.96 1.02 98.98 74 100
2.000 114.70 7.97 8.99 91.01 53 100
1.180 424.70 29.53 38.52 61.48 30 100
0.600 439.20 30.54 69.05 30.95 15 100
0.425 212.60 14.78 83.84 16.16 11 85
0.300 108.70 7.56 91.39 8.61 5 70
0.212 82.50 5.74 97.13 2.87 3 40
0.150 41.30 2.87 100.00 0.00 0 15
Total 1438.30
Sieve Size (mm) Vs. Percentage Passing (%)
283
100.00

90.00

80.00

70.00
Percentage Passing

60.00

50.00

40.00

30.00

20.00

10.00

0.00
0.010 0.100 1.000 10.000

Seive Size (m m )

284
285 Fig. 2. Sieve analysis of offshore sand
286
287 As per the results of the sieve analysis, the offshore sand complies with the overall limits
288 specified in the BS 882: 1992 [12]. Therefore, the grading of the offshore sand used in the
289 test is suitable for concrete production. The specific gravities of offshore sand and the coarse
290 aggregate are 2.65 and 2.63 respectively.
291
292 3.2 Concrete mix properties
293 Table 3 presents the concrete mix design results, together with strength results, for concretes
294 made with offshore sand for grade 25 concrete being the most widely used structural
295 concrete. The fresh offshore sand, without being washed and cleaned, was used for the
296 concrete mix design specified above.
297
298 In this study, freshly dredged offshore sand brought to the site, was used to check the
299 strength of concrete. From the results obtained for grade 25 concrete it can be seen that the
300 strength of concrete is within the specified limits. According to literature review, the study
301 done on offshore sand stockpiled at Muthurajawela [7] shows that the compressive strength
302 is within the required level.

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303
304 Table 3. Test results of mix design (grade 25)
Attribute Value
2
Target mean Strength (N/mm ) 35
3
Cement (kg/m ) 339
3
Coarse Aggregate (kg/m ) 1027
3
Fine Aggregate (kg/m ) 837
3
Water (kg/m ) 200
2
7 day Strength (N/mm ) 28
2
28 day Strength (N/mm ) 34
305
306 3.3 Shell content in offshore sand
307 Table 4 gives the shell content as a percentage of the total weight sample offshore sand. It
308 also gives the limits on shell content as per BS 882: 1992 [12].
309
310 Table 4. Shell content of offshore sand
Grading Shell Content Limits as a
percentage
Finer than 10 mm
and coarser than 5
> 5mm 6.35% mm- 20 %
Coarser than 10
mm- 8 %
< 5 mm 5.5% No Requirement

311 From the results obtained for shell content of off shore sand it can be said that the shell
312 content is within the specified limits.
313
314 3.4 Chloride levels in offshore sand
315
316 The limits stipulated in BS 882:1992 on the chloride ion content by mass, expressed as a
317 percentage of the mass of the combined aggregate, are as follows[12]:
318
319 Prestressed concrete and heat cured concrete -0.01
320 Concrete containing embedded metal with cement complying with BS 4027 -0.03
321 Concrete containing embedded metal with other cement-0.05
322 Other concrete – No limit
323 Dias et al. [7] define an acceptable level for chloride ions in offshore sand, which is 0.086 per
324 cent of by weight of sand for grade 25 concrete used for reinforced concrete. This is to be
325 produced with Portland cement when w/c=0.59, cement=300, sand=875, sand/cement 2.9.
326
327 A fresh sample was tested for chloride ion and it contained 0.04 per cent of water soluble
328 chloride. This value is almost same as that (0.044) obtained by Dias et al. [7]. The
329 acceptable level of the chloride ion for grade 25 concrete can be computed as below:
330
331 Allowable chloride in concrete is 0.3 per cent by weight of cement
332 Cement too has chloride up to 0.05 per cent
333 So, off shore sand can afford to have chloride up to 0.25 per cent
3
334 According to Table 3, concrete mixture has 1 m of concrete which contains 339 kg of
335 cement and 837 kg of sand. Hence, sand can afford to have chloride up to 0.101 per cent

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336 (0.25 x 339/837). The chloride in fresh offshore sand (0.04 per cent) is far below the
337 acceptable level of 0.101 per cent.
338
339 As can be seen from Table 5, offshore sand can be used without any washing for concreting
340 purposes. Nevertheless, it is prudent to know to what extent exposure to minimum or
341 maximum rainfall, could wash away chlorides ions from offshore sand, which is a cost
342 effective procedure. This enables to achieve lower chloride ion levels and making it usable
343 under different circumstances.
344 According to the rainfall data for Colombo for the period 2007 through 2009, the minimum
345 rainfall is reported in February 2007, which is 9.9 mm (approximated to 10 mm). Table 5
346 displays chloride ion levels of samples extracted at given levels when a rain water height
347 equivalent to the minimum rainfall was sprinkled evenly from the top of the sand container.
348 Even a very low rainfall can reduce the chloride content significantly (from 0.4 to 0.1).
349 However, due to capillary action moisture content of sand placed at the bottom of the
350 container is high; as a result chloride content of sand has increased.
351 The table also displays chloride ion levels of samples extracted at given levels when a rain
352 water height equivalent to the maximum rainfall was evenly sprinkled from the top of the
353 sand container. The water percolation through the sand column is so high that it has been
354 able to wash away chloride almost completely (<0.01).
355
356 Table 5. Chloride levels of samples of sand column test
Sample description Location of sample Chloride
extraction (Water
Soluable)
(as Cl¯, w/w%)
Position Level
(measured
from the top)
9.9 mm rainwater to A 0.152 0.01
simulate minimum rainfall;
after 5 days of drainage B 1.003 0.02
C 1.854 0.03
D 2.705 0.05
581 mm rainwater to A 0.152 <0.01
simulate maximum
rainfall; after 5 days of B 1.003 <0.01
drainage
C 1.854 <0.01
D 2.705 <0.01
357
358 In the second set of readings taken after a water height of 10 mm is made to percolate
359 through the sand, simulating exposure to the minimum monthly rainfall of 10 mm. The
360 chloride ion content varied from 0.01% - 0.05%, the highest concentration being at the
361 bottom of the sand column. At the bottom of the sand column, the chloride ion content is
362 higher because of the higher moisture content due to the capillary action.
363 In the third set of readings when a water height corresponding to the maximum monthly
364 rainfall made to percolate the chloride ion content reduced to levels < 0.01, which is far
365 below the acceptable limit. Therefore, by exposing offshore sand to rain the chloride ion
366 content can be reduced drastically. Therefore, by keeping offshore sand exposed to rain, the

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367 chloride ion in offshore sand can be washed away making it more suitable to be used in
368 concrete.
369
370 3.5 Market survey
371
372 A breakdown of type, location, supplier and price of sand supplied to Colombo are depicted
373 in Table 6, as at February 2013.
374
375 Table 6. Breakdown of sand supplied to Colombo
Type Location (Extraction) Supplier Price per cube at
site(in Sri Lankan
Rupees
Offshore sand (exposed
Muthurajawela SLLRDC 7,400
to rain
Offshore sand Kirinda Individual 8,500

River sand Manampitiya Individual 11,500

376
377 According to the market prices in Table 6, the offshore sand comes from Muthurajawela is
378 much cheaper than any other sand available in the market. Further, since this sand is sold by
379 a statuary body, the reliability of quality with respect to chloride content is guaranteed.
380 However, since this sand is only available at two sites; Muthurajawela and Nawala, the Comment [H2]: ????? Please, use citation
381 consumers have been inconvenienced and required to pay additional transport charges. On format...
382 the other hand, Kirinda sand is not only available at many outlets around Colombo but also
383 finer than Muthurajawela making it more suitable for specific uses. This explains why Kirinda Comment [H3]: ???
384 sand despite being priced 15 per cent higher still has a market share. Since the price of river
385 sand is 55 per cent higher than Muthurajawela sand, there is a potential for increased market
386 share for offshore sand.
387
388
389 4. CONCLUSION
390
391 1. As per the results of sieve analysis, grading of the offshore sand is within the limits
392 specified in BS 882:1992. D50 value is around 0.9 mm which is much higher than the
393 same obtained for Muthurajawela sand (0.6 mm). The characteristic compressive
2
394 strength (25 N/mm ) is also within the limits and therefore offshore sand obtained soon
395 after dredging, before any exposure to rain, is suitable for producing concrete with
396 respect to gradation.
397 2. The shell content of offshore sand for shells finer than 10 mm and coarser than 5 mm is
398 6.5 %. This is far below 20 %, the limit specified in BS 882:1992.
399 3. For grade 25 concrete produced with OPC, an allowable limit of 0.101% by weight of the
400 sand was worked out for chloride content in offshore sand. The chloride content of
401 offshore sand obtained soon after dredging was 0.04%. Even a rainfall as low as 9.9 mm
402 can reduce chloride content (range from 0.01 to 0.05) to levels far below the allowable
403 limit (0.101). Rainfalls as high as 581 mm could wash away chlorides almost completely
404 (below 0.01).
405 4 Since the offshore sand dredged from places about 2- 7 km away from the shore is
406 having a chloride content well below the allowable limits, it is not necessary to expose
407 stockpiles to rain. However, when stockpiled to heights more than 1 m, the sand lying
408 below this level tend to contain higher chloride contents (in the region of 0.03). The high

* Corresponding author: E-mail: dadol@ou.ac.lk; 11

409 D50 also affords a greater drainage capacity to offshore sand. Hence to make the
410 maximum benefit of stockpiling, the draining has to be done to moderate heights.
411 5. The study revealed that offshore sand obtained from 2 to 7 km away from the Western
412 coast, soon after dredging, can be used as an alternative to river sand, which is
413 considered the most viable of all alternatives, in terms of availability, ease of extraction,
414 environmental impact and cost.
415 6. It is required to conduct further research to determine the suitability of offshore sand
416 extracted from other areas around the country along the coastal belt particularly in the
417 Northern and Eastern provinces where construction industry has increased after civil war
418 was over.
419
420 REFERENCES Comment [H4]: Re-format based on journal
421 manual.
422 1. Neville AM, Properties of Concrete, Pearson; 1995.
423 2. Lieira J, Etxeberria M, Agullo L, Molina D, Mechanical and durability properties of
424 concrete made with dredged marine sand, Journal of Construction and Building
425 Materials. 2011; 25: 4165-4174.
426 3. Newman K. Aspects of workability, strength, shrinkage and creep, sea dredged
427 aggregates for concrete, Proceedings of a Symposium, Sand and Gravel
428 Association of Great Britain, Buckinghamshire; 1968.
429 4. Huiguang Y, Yan L., Henglin L, Quan G, .Durability of sea sand containing concrete:
430 Effects of chloride ion penetration, Mining Science and Technology (China), 2011;
431 21:123-127.
432 5. Newman K, Aspects of workability, strength, shrinkage and creep, Sea dredged
433 aggregates for concrete, In Proceedings of a Symposium, Sand and Gravel
434 Association of Great Britain, Buckinghamshire. Comment [H5]: Year?
435 6. Lieira J, Etxeberria M, Dredged marine sand in concrete: An experimental section of
436 a harbour pavement, Journal of Construction and Building Materials.2010; 24: 863-
437 870.
438 7. Dias WPS, Seneviratne GAPSN, Nanayakkara SMA, Offshore sand for reinforced
439 concrete, Journal of Construction and Building Materials. 2008; 22:1377-1384. .
440 8. Chandrakeerthy SRDeS, Suitability of sea sand as a fine aggregate for concrete
441 production, Transactions, Institution of Engineers, Sri Lanak.1994: 93-114.
442 9. Chapmen GP, Roeder AR, The effect of sea shells in concrete aggregates,
443 Concrete Transactions 1969; July: 251-63.
444 10. Shetty MS, Concrete Technology, S. Chand & Company Ltd., India; 2009.
445 11. BS 8110: Part 1:1997, Structural use of concrete, British Standards Institute,
446 London; 1997.
447 12. BS 882:1992, Specification for aggregate from natural sources for concrete, British
448 Standards Institute, London; 1997.
449 13. IS 456 of 2000, Code of practice for plain and reinforced concrete, Indian Standards
450 Bureau, New Delhi; 2000.
451 14. BS 5328: Part 1:1997, Guide to specifying concrete, British Standards Institute,
452 London; 1997.

* Corresponding author: E-mail: dadol@ou.ac.lk; 12