Newton’s Law of Viscous Flow

𝑑𝑣
F= η A
𝑑𝑧
If η is constant the fluid is called Newtonian , if it depends on the gradient, then the Fluid is called non-Newtonian.
Water is a Newtonian fluid.
Examples of non–Newtonian fluids are:
· polymer solutions and melts
· slurries of ore, sand, coal
· cement, asphalt
· paint, ketchup, peanut butter

If η increases as the shear force on the fluid increases then the fluid is called dilatant.
· wet sand, slime
In wet sand it is the particle spacing which determines this result. In slime the molecules are coiled and stress elongates them, thus
increasing the viscosity.

If η decreases as the shear force on the fluid increases then the fluid is called thixotropic.
· paint, tomato ketchup, toothpaste, peanut butter
This is the more common behavior because the shear force destroys the weak secondary (van der Waals) forces which hold the molecules
together.

Temperature Dependence

The temperature dependence of η is different for gases and liquids. For liquids as T increases, η decreases; for gases as η increases with T.

Liquid viscosity: In liquids, molecules must escape from its neighbors in order to move. A molecule moves only if it acquires at least a
minimum energy. The probability that a molecule has at least the necessary energy Ea to move is proportional to exp ( - Ea/RT)

The mobility of a molecule should follow this type of temperature dependence. It is also true that the coefficient of viscosity (η) is inversely
proportional to the mobility.

Thus η is proportional to exp (Ea/RT) or,

η = A exp (Ea/RT). A plot of ln η vs 1/T will give Ea.

Gas viscosity
Viscosity η =1/3 ρ <c> λ which can be simplified to
η =2/3 (mkT/πσ2)1/2 , where m is the mass per particle, K is the Boltzmann constant and sigma is the collision cross section (m 2) roughly
equal to ½ (diameter)2. Viscosity increases as a square root of temperature.
 Arrhenius
Bingham
Kendall & Monroe

How Do We Blend Viscosities?

• Desire to blend viscosity with either volume or mass amounts
• Linear blending with “Viscosity Blending Indices” of kinematic viscosity
May see an index based on log‐log terms with extra coefficients and/or natural‐log
terms. Give identical results.
For heavy fractions often mass blending is suggested with c of 0.8 to 1.0
• Refutas equation – mass blending
Other types of blending indices
• Chevron Method
Benchmark oils are used as references when pricing oils. There are approximately 161 different benchmark oils, of which the
main three West Texas Intermediate, Brent Crude, and Dubai Crude. Crude oil is the most actively traded commodity and is
bought and sold in “contracts.” A contract trades in units of 1,000 barrels of oil and benchmarks help to determine the price of a
barrel of oil in a contract.

West Texas Intermediate

WTI is probably the most famous of the bench mark oils. It is a light, sweet crude with an API gravity of 39.6 degrees. That
gives it a specific gravity of 0.827, which means that at 60 degrees Fahrenheit, WTI is only 8/10 as heavy as water. It contains
0.24% sulfur and is refined in the Midwest. It comes from the Southwestern United States

Brent Crude

Brent Crude, named after a goose, comes from the North Sea. It is a light, sweet crude with an API gravity of 38.06 and a
specific gravity of 0.835, making it slightly “heavier” than West Texas Intermediate. The sulfur content is 0.37%. The price of
Brent Crude is used to set prices for roughly 2/3 of the world’s oil. It is mostly refined in Northwest Europe and is also called
Brent Blend, London Brent, and Brent petroleum. The Brent field is located in the East Shetland Basin, halfway between
Scotland and Norway.

Dubai Crude

Dubai Crude is light and sour, with an API gravity of 31 degrees and a specific gravity of 0.871. Its sulfur content is 2%, making
it 6 times more sour than Brent Crude and 8 times more sour than West Texas Intermediate. It is generally used for pricing oil
that comes from the Persian Gulf. Dubai Crude is also known as Fateh. Its importance comes not only from its quality, but also
from the fact that it was the only freely traded oil from the Middle East until recently.

OPEC Reference Basket (ORB)

This is not a specific crude, but rather is a weighted average of petroleum that comes from OPEC countries. There are currently
11 different oils combined into the ORB. It averages an API gravity, with the present combination, of 32.7 degrees and has a
sulfur content of 1.77%. It was recently changed to reflect the average quality of crude oil in OPEC Member Countries. The
change decreased the API and increased the sulfur content of the basket.

Minas

Minas oil is also referred to as Sumatran Light and comes from the island of Sumatra. It is a light, sweet crude. The API gravity
is approximately 35 and the specific gravity is 0.8498. It has a sulfur content of only 0.08%. It is produced at a rate of
approximately 420,000 barrels per day.

Tapis

Tapis is often referred to as the “World’s Costliest Oil” and comes from a single field in Malaysia. Its value comes from the fact
that WTI and Brent Crude are difficult and expensive to export to Asia and because it is of extremely high quality. Tapis has an
API gravity of 45.2 degrees and a sulfur content of 0.0343%. These are exceptional numbers, indicating that Tapis is very light
and very sweet. Unfortunately, output from the Tapis field has been falling steadily since 1998.

Bonny Light

Bonny light comes from Nigeria and is a light, sweet oil. It has an API gravity of 32.9 and a sulfur content of 0.16%

Isthmus-34 Light
This is a sour crude with and API gravity of 33.74 degrees and a sulfur content of 1.45%. It is produced in Mexico. Though
Mexico is not a part of OPEC, this oil was once part of the OPEC Reference Basket. It was removed in from the ORB when it
was changed in 2005.
Oil Pricing:

WTI Crude Oil Brent Crude Oil

$99.96 ▼-0.95 -0.95% $106.02 ▼-0.96 -0.91%
2014.07.15 end-of-day 2014.07.15 end-of-day

Crude oil prices

Month Year Brent Dubai Indian Oman WTI

Basket
May, 2014 109.61 105.66 106.94 105.80 101.93
April, 2014 107.63 104.68 105.62 104.93 102.02
March, 2014 107.54 104.32 105.29 104.34 100.53
February, 2014 108.87 105.04 106.19 105.04 100.79
JANUARY, 2014 108.25 104.02 105.29 104.02 94.93
December, 2013 110.81 107.86 108.72 107.89 97.81
October, 2013 109.04 106.64 107.38 106.72 100.41
September, 2013 111.89 108.28 109.46 108.56 106.19
August, 2013 111.25 107.11 108.45 107.24 106.55
July, 2013 107.95 103.52 104.86 103.53 104.66
June, 2013 102.91 100.32 101.16 100.35 95.75
May, 2013 102.49 100.33 101.14 100.49 94.60
April, 2013 101.92 101.68 101.58 101.72 91.97
March, 2013 108.37 105.55 106.45 105.56 92.87
February, 2013 116.29 111.10 112.68 111.10 95.28
January, 2013 113.01 107.94 109.55 107.94 94.74
December, 2012 109.36 106.34 107.28 106.34 88.23
November, 2012 109.11 107.26 107.87 107.27 86.57
October, 2012 111.61 108.87 109.79 108.90 89.45
September, 2012 112.86 111.22 111.77 111.31 94.45
August, 2012 113.37 108.59 110.07 108.90 93.99
July, 2012 102.59 99.15 100.34 99.43 87.80
June, 2012 94.84 94.44 94.52 94.49 82.32
May, 2012 110.20 107.31 108.13 107.37 94.62
April, 2012 119.54 117.30 118.04 117.44 103.35
March, 2012 125.33 122.47 123.61 122.92 106.31
February, 2012 119.56 116.17 117.67 117.15 102.29
January, 2012 110.58 109.80 110.47 110.83 100.35
December, 2011 107.84 106.43 107.20 107.28 98.55
November, 2011 110.66 109.00 109.62 109.35 97.17
October, 2011 109.44 103.95 106.11 104.76 86.45
September, 2011 113.13 106.31 108.79 106.65 85.55
August, 2011 110.37 105.02 106.94 105.35 86.31
July, 2011 116.89 109.99 112.37 110.41 97.28
June, 2011 114.04 107.77 109.85 107.90 96.21
May, 2011 114.56 108.38 110.65 108.89 101.22
April, 2011 123.49 116.01 118.46 116.56 109.89
March, 2011 114.60 108.71 110.72 109.00 103.03
February, 2011 103.76 100.24 101.62 100.60 89.57
January, 2011 96.54 92.52 93.87 92.66 89.38
December, 2010 91.36 89.05 89.78 89.12 89.08
November, 2010 85.33 83.65 84.26 83.83 84.20
October, 2010 82.75 80.22 81.11 80.44 81.89
September, 2010 77.80 75.12 76.09 75.42 75.17
August, 2010 77.15 74.09 75.13 74.37 76.62
July, 2010 75.64 72.49 73.54 72.59 76.32
June, 2010 74.85 73.99 74.33 74.18 75.29
May, 2010 75.17 76.78 76.16 77.04 73.67
April, 2010 84.89 83.59 84.08 83.67 84.44
March, 2010 78.90 77.31 78.02 77.72 81.25
February, 2010 73.63 73.48 73.65 73.92 76.45
December, 2009 74.28 75.42 75.02 75.48 74.47
November 2009 76.66 77.71 77.39 77.88 78.06
October 2009 72.76 73.15 73.07 73.34 75.73
September 2009 67.39 67.64 67.70 68.16 69.41
August 2009 72.83 71.34 71.98 71.57 71.07
July 2009 64.61 64.82 64.83 65.08 64.10
June 2009 68.55 69.41 69.12 69.47 69.64
May 2009 57.48 57.85 58.00 57.96 59.45
April 2009 50.34 50.10 50.16 50.16 49.82
March 2009 46.55 45.59 46.02 45.83 48.00
February 2009 43.07 43.09 43.22 43.52 39.16
January 2009 43.59 44.12 44.00 44.45 41.80
December 2008 40.35 40.53 40.61 40.99 41.45
November 2008 52.51 49.84 50.91 50.04 57.41
October 2008 71.87 67.42 69.12 67.96 76.54
September 2008 98.13 95.90 96.81 96.13 103.61
August 2008 113.03 112.86 113.05 113.28 116.58
July 2008 133.18 131.27 132.47 132.81 133.30
June 2008 132.44 127.82 129.72 128.32 133.89
May 2008 122.73 119.50 120.91 119.80 125.48
April 2008 108.97 103.41 105.77 104.09 112.64
March 2008 103.66 96.76 99.76 97.86 105.46
February 2008 95.04 90.02 92.37 90.68 95.40
January 2008 92.00 87.37 89.52 88.55 92.98
December 2007 90.98 85.58 87.92 86.44 91.39
November 2007 92.61 86.87 89.11 87.07 94.74
October 2007 82.50 77.12 79.33 77.55 85.87
September 2007 76.87 73.36 74.78 73.56 79.98
August 2007 73.18 68.65 70.99 68.34 72.37
July 2007 77.01 69.49 72.69 70.09 74.10
June 2007 77.01 65.79 68.19 66.08 67.44
May 2007 67.23 64.61 65.79 65.05 63.40
April 2007 67.51 63.97 65.54 64.45 63.84
March 2007 62.15 58.80 60.26 59.19 60.63
February 2007 57.43 55.75 56.49 55.96 59.20
January 2007 53.68 51.69 52.62 52.14 54.17
December 2006 62.32 58.68 60.34 59.34 61.96
November 2006 58.92 56.72 57.79 57.36 58.82
October 2006 57.80 56.42 57.27 57.38 58.82
September 2006 61.71 59.82 61.04 61.01 63.74
August 2006 73.11 68.77 70.84 69.97 73.01
July 2006 73.66 69.17 71.36 70.22 74.40
June 2006 68.69 65.22 66.95 66.17 70.88
May 2006 69.83 65.00 67.41 66.30 70.87
April 2006 70.16 64.06 67.02 65.54 69.46
March 2006 62.10 57.82 60.01 59.19 62.82
February 2006 60.12 57.61 58.95 58.61 61.57
January 2006 63.05 58.44 60.54 59.26 65.44
December 2005 56.91 53.20 55.05 54.19 59.41
November 2005 55.18 51.39 53.14 52.52 58.27
October 2005 58.61 53.96 56.28 55.23 62.28
September 2005 62.91 56.54 59.91 58.35 65.52
August 2005 64.12 56.60 60.02 57.52 64.96
July 2005 57.58 52.83 55.01 53.46 58.58
June 2005 54.39 51.08 52.72 51.95 56.35
May 2005 48.56 45.40 47.02 46.41 49.79
April 2005 51.82 47.20 49.43 48.19 53.09
March 2005 52.91 45.84 49.27 47.21 54.27
February 2005 45.37 39.87 42.58 41.08 47.94
January 2005 44.23 37.92 41.00 39.19 47.04
December 2004 39.53 34.20 36.65 35.44 43.20
November 2004 42.84 34.87 38.82 36.69 48.44
October 2004 49.64 37.54 43.37 39.75 53.24
September 2004 43.25 35.55 39.15 36.55 45.90
August 2004 43.04 38.55 40.53 38.73 44.90
July 2004 38.32 34.65 36.35 35.08 42.83
June 2004 35.04 33.43 34.22 33.79 38.00
May 2004 37.80 34.74 36.09 34.87 40.24
April 2004 33.25 31.68 32.36 31.71 36.69

Copyright © Indian Oil Corporation Ltd. Updated on July 01, 2014

Empirical equations for thermal properties
Heat of combustion

At a constant volume the heat of combustion of a petroleum product can be approximated as follows:

where is measured in cal/gram and d is the specific gravity at 60 °F (16 °C).

Thermal conductivity

The thermal conductivity of petroleum based liquids can be modeled as follows:

where K is measured in BTU · °F−1hr−1ft−1 , t is measured in °F and API is degrees API gravity.
Specific heat[edit]

The specific heat of a petroleum oils can be modeled as follows:[42]

where c is measured in BTU/lbm-°F, t is the temperature in Fahrenheit and d is the specific gravity at 60 °F (16 °C).

In units of kcal/(kg·°C), the formula is:

where the temperature t is in Celsius and d is the specific gravity at 15 °C.

Latent heat of vaporization

The latent heat of vaporization can be modeled under atmospheric conditions as follows:

where L is measured in BTU/lbm, t is measured in °F and d is the specific gravity at 60 °F (16 °C).

In units of kcal/kg, the formula is:

where the temperature t is in Celsius and d is the specific gravity at 15 °C

Base of the crude oil.

Characterization factor, K= (TB)1/3 / Sp. Gr at 15.6oC (60oF).

TB =Mean av. Boiling point in Rankin
Paraffinic base K = >12.1;
Intermediate base K= 11.5-12.1;
naphthenic K = 11.5;
aromatics k = 9.8-12.0

BMCI (Bureau of Mines Correlation Index)

Carbon Black Feed Stock (CBFS) in the raw material for manufacture of carbon black, which is used by the tyre industry. A small portion of
this product is also used by processors to make various downstream chemicals like Agarbatti Oil, White Oil etc. This is also used for
manufacture of Rubber Process Oils. There are two types of CBFS viz. High BMCI type and General type. “BMCI” (Bureau of Mines Co-
relation Index) effectively measures the degree yield of Carbon Black. The higher the number, the better the yield of Carbon Black. Sulphur
content in CBFS reduces the effect of BMCI value. High BMCI CBFS is produced only at Barauni Refinery of IOC. The other grade is
produced at Haldia and CPCL Refineries. High BMCI CBFS is taken by Carbon Black Manufacturers.

BMCI= 48640/ oK +473.7 g- 456.8

K is the avg boiling point in Kelvin, g is the specific gravity at 15.6 oC
BMCI value:
Paraffinic = <15;
Intermediate =15-50
Naphthenic = >50

Viscosity Gravity correlation (VGC)

VGC= (10 G- 1.0752 log(V-38))/(10-log(V-38))
G is sp gravity and V is Saybolt universal viscosity
Paraffinic base: 0.80-0.83;
Intermediate base: 0.83-0.88,
Naphthenic base: 0.88-0.95

Carbon hydrogen ratio

CH ratio=(74+15d)/(26-15d),
where d is sp. Gr. at 15oC

Diesel index It is an indication of ignition quality of a diesel.

Diesel index = (Aniline point in F x API)/100
Diesel Index = cetane number- 10/0.72

Characteristics of Various Crude Oil of India

Salient features
Assam Crude Nahorkatia/ Moran: 31oAPI, Sulphur 0.3%, Pour point +30oC, High
aromatics, Total distillate yield 65%.
ONGC, Lawkwa,Rudrasagar: 27 API, Sulphur 0.3%, High aromatics, Distillate yield 57%.
Ankleshwar Crude 48 API, Sulphur 0.1%, Pour point +18 oC, Distillate yield 80-82% (Light distillates 24%, Middle distillate 47%), Wax
content 9.9%, total sulphur 0.02%.
North Gujarat Crude 28 API, Sulphur content 0.1%, Pour point +27 C, Distillate yield low 33-35%, High organic acidity.
Bombay High Crude 38 API, Sulphur 0.2%, Pour point +30 C, Distillate yield 65-70% (Light distillate 24%, Middle distillates 46%), High
aromatics.
Narimanam Crude 46 API, Sulphur 0.1%, Pour point 3 C, Distillate yield 80%.
KG Basin Ravva Crude 36API, Sulphur 0.1%, Pour point +30 C, Distillate yield 61%.