UNIT 1

Simple present
The simple present (also called present simple or present indefinite) is a verb tense which is used to show
repetition, habit or generalization. Less commonly, the simple present can be used to talk about scheduled
actions in the near future and, in some cases, actions happening now.

Simple Present Forms

The simple present is just the base form of the verb. Questions are made with do and negative forms are made
with do not.

 Statement: You speak English.

 Question: Do you speak English?

 Negative: You do not speak English.

In the third person singular, -s or -es is added. Questions are made with does and negative forms are made
with does not.

 Statement: He speaks English.

 Question: Does he speak English?

 Negative: He does not speak English.

Simple Present Uses

USE 1 Repeated Actions

Use the simple present to express the idea that an action is repeated
or usual. The action can be a habit, a hobby, a daily event, a scheduled event or something that often
happens. It can also be something a person often forgets or usually does not do.

USE 2 Facts or Generalizations

The simple present can also indicate the speaker believes that a fact
was true before, is true now, and will be true in the future. It is not important if the speaker is correct about the
fact. It is also used to make generalizations about people or things.

USE 3 Scheduled Events in the Near Future

Speakers occasionally use simple present to talk about scheduled

events in the near future. This is most commonly done when talking about public transportation, but it can be
used with other scheduled events as well.
USE 4 Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

Speakers sometimes use the simple present to express the idea that
an action is happening or is not happening now. This can only be done with non-continuous verbs and
certain mixed verbs.

Present Continuous

The present continuous (also called present progressive) is a verb tense which is used to show that an
ongoing action is happening now, either at the moment of speech or now in a larger sense. The present
continuous can also be used to show that an action is going to take place in the near future. Read on for
detailed descriptions, examples, and present continuous exercises.

Present Continuous Forms

The present continuous is formed using am/is/are + present participle. Questions are indicated by inverting
the subject and am/is/are. Negatives are made with not.

 Statement: You are watching TV.

 Question: Are you watching TV?

 Negative: You are not watching TV.

Present Continuous Uses

USE 1 Now

Use the present continuous with normal verbs to express the idea that
something is happening now, at this very moment. It can also be used to show that something is not happening
now.

USE 2 Longer Actions in Progress Now

In English, "now" can mean: this second, today, this month, this year,
this century, and so on. Sometimes, we use the present continuous to say that we are in the process of doing a
longer action which is in progress; however, we might not be doing it at this exact second.

USE 3 Near Future

Sometimes, speakers use the present continuous to indicate that

something will or will not happen in the near future.

USE 4 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

 The present continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly"
expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happens. Notice that the meaning is like simple
present, but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly" between "be" and
"verb+ing."

COUNTABLE AND UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS

COUNTABLE NOUNS
Countable nouns are for things we can count using numbers. They have a singular and a plural form. The
singular form can use the determiner "a" or "an". If you want to ask about the quantity of a countable noun, you
ask "How many?" combined with the plural countable noun.

Singular Plural

one dog two dogs

I would like two books please.

How many friends do you have?
UNCOUNTABLE NOUNS
Uncountable nouns are for the things that we cannot count with numbers. They may be the names for abstract
ideas or qualities or for physical objects that are too small or too amorphous to be counted (liquids, powders,
gases, etc.). Uncountable nouns are used with a singular verb. They usually do not have a plural form.
EXAMPLES
tea
sugar
water
We cannot use a/an with these nouns. To express a quantity of an uncountable noun, use a word or
expression like some, a lot of, much, a bit of, a great deal of , or else use an exact measurement like a cup of,
a bag of, 1kg of, 1L of, a handful of, a pinch of, an hour of, a day of. If you want to ask about the quantity of an
uncountable noun, you ask "How much?"
Quantifier
A quantifier is a word or phrase which is used before a noun to indicate the amount or quantity:
'Some', 'many', 'a lot of' and 'a few' are examples of quantifiers.
Quantifiers can be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.
Examples:
There are some books on the desk
He's got only a few dollars.
How much money have you got?
There is a large quantity of fish in this river.
He's got more friends than his sister.
Examples of quantifiers
With Uncountable Nouns
much
a little/little/very little *
a bit (of)
a great deal of
a large amount of
a large quantity of
With Both
all
enough
more/most
less/least
no/none
not any
some UNIT 7
any
a lot of
lots of
plenty of
With Countable Nouns
many
a few/few/very few **
a number (of)
several
a large number of
a great number of
a majority of
Make' or 'Do'?
1: We use 'make' when we create or construct something.
 She made a cake.
 I've made us some coffee.
  Did you really make those trousers?
2: We use 'do' for general activities. In this case, 'do' is often used with 'something', 'nothing', 'anything' or
'everything':
 What did you do at the weekend?
 I didn't do anything yesterday.
 Are you doing anything interesting during the holidays?

UNIT 2

Simple Past

The simple past (also called past simple, past indefinite or preterite) is a verb tense which is used to show that
a completed action took place at a specific time in the past. The simple past is also frequently used to talk
about past habits and generalizations.

Simple Past Forms

The simple past is formed using the verb + ed. In addition, there are many verbs with irregular past forms.
Questions are made with did and negative forms are made with did not.

 Statement: You called Debbie.

 Question: Did you call Debbie?

 Negative: You did not call Debbie.

USE 1 Completed Action in the Past

Use the simple past to express the idea that an action started and
finished at a specific time in the past. Sometimes, the speaker may not actually mention the specific time, but
they do have one specific time in mind.

USE 2 A Series of Completed Actions

We use the simple past to list a series of completed actions in the

past. These actions happen 1st, 2nd, 3rd, 4th, and so on.

USE 3 Duration in the Past

The simple past can be used with a duration which starts and stops in
the past. A duration is a longer action often indicated by expressions such as: for two years, for five minutes, all
day, all year, etc.

USE 4 Habits in the Past

 The simple past can also be used to describe a habit which stopped in
the past. It can have the same meaning as "used to." To make it clear that we are talking about a habit, we
often add expressions such as: always, often, usually, never, when I was a child, when I was younger, etc.

USE 5 Past Facts or Generalizations

The simple past can also be used to describe past facts or

generalizations which are no longer true. As in USE 4 above, this use of the simple past is quite similar to the
expression "used to."

Present Perfect

The present perfect is a verb tense which is used to show that an action has taken place once or many times
before now. The present perfect is most frequently used to talk about experiences or changes that have taken
place, but there are other less common uses as well. Read on for detailed descriptions, examples, and present
perfect exercises.

Present Perfect Forms

The present perfect is formed using has/have + past participle. Questions are indicated by inverting the
subject and has/have. Negatives are made with not.

 Statement: You have seen that movie many times.

 Question: Have you seen that movie many times?

 Negative: You have not seen that movie many times.

USE 1 Unspecified Time Before Now

We use the present perfect to say that an action happened at an

unspecified time before now. The exact time is not important. You CANNOT use the present perfect with
specific time expressions such as: yesterday, one year ago, last week, when I was a child, when I lived in
Japan, at that moment, that day, one day, etc. We CAN use the present perfect with unspecific expressions
such as: ever, never, once, many times, several times, before, so far, already, yet, etc.

USE 2 Duration From the Past Until Now (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With non-continuous verbs and non-continuous uses of mixed verbs,

we use the present perfect to show that something started in the past and has continued up until now. "For five
minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all durations which can be used with the present perfect.

Present Perfect Continuous

The present perfect continuous (also called present perfect progressive) is a verb tense which is used to show
that an action started in the past and has continued up to the present moment. The present perfect continuous
usually emphasizes duration, or the amount of time that an action has been taking place. Read on for detailed
descriptions, examples, and present perfect continuous exercises.

Present Perfect Continuous Forms

The present perfect continuous is formed using has/have + been + present participle. Questions are
indicated by inverting the subject and has/have. Negatives are made with not.

 Statement: You have been waiting here for two hours.

 Question: Have you been waiting here for two hours?

 Negative: You have not been waiting here for two hours.

USE 1 Duration from the Past Until Now

We use the present perfect continuous to show that something started

in the past and has continued up until now. "For five minutes," "for two weeks," and "since Tuesday" are all
durations which can be used with the present perfect continuous.

USE 2 Recently, Lately

You can also use the present perfect continuous WITHOUT a duration
such as "for two weeks." Without the duration, the tense has a more general meaning of "lately." We often use
the words "lately" or "recently" to emphasize this meaning.

UNIT 3
Past Perfect
The past perfect is a verb tense which is used to show that an action took place once or many times before
another point in the past. Read on for detailed descriptions, examples, and present perfect exercises.
Past Perfect Forms
The past perfect is formed using had + past participle. Questions are indicated by inverting the subject
and had. Negatives are made with not.
 Statement: You had studied English before you moved to New York.
 Question: Had you studied English before you moved to New York?
 Negative: You had not studied English before you moved to New York.
Past Perfect Uses
USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Past
 The past perfect expresses the idea that something occurred before
another action in the past. It can also show that something happened before a specific time in the past.
USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Past (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With non-continuous verbs and some non-continuous uses of mixed

verbs, we use the past perfect to show that something started in the past and continued up until another action
in the past.
Although the above use of past perfect is normally limited to non-continuous verbs and non-continuous uses of
mixed verbs, the words "live," "work," "teach," and "study" are sometimes used in this way even though they
are NOT non-continuous verbs.
IMPORTANT Specific Times with the Past Perfect

Unlike with the present perfect, it is possible to use specific time words
or phrases with the past perfect. Although this is possible, it is usually not necessary.

Past Continuous

The past continuous (also called past progressive) is a verb tense which is used to show that an ongoing past
action was happening at a specific moment of interruption, or that two ongoing actions were happening at the
same time. Read on for detailed descriptions, examples, and past continuous exercises.

Past Continuous Forms

The past continuous is formed using was/were + present participle. Questions are indicated by inverting the
subject and was/were. Negatives are made with not.

 Statement: You were studying when she called.

 Question: Were you studying when she called?

 Negative: You were not studying when she called.

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Past

Use the past continuous to indicate that a longer action in the past
was interrupted. The interruption is usually a shorter action in the simple past. Remember this can be a real
interruption or just an interruption in time.

USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption

 In USE 1, described above, the past continuous is interrupted by a
shorter action in the simple past. However, you can also use a specific time as an interruption.

IMPORTANT

In the simple past, a specific time is used to show when an action began or finished. In the past continuous, a
specific time only interrupts the action.

USE 3 Parallel Actions

When you use the past continuous with two actions in the same
sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions were happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.

USE 4 Atmosphere

In English, we often use a series of parallel actions to describe the atmosphere at a particular time in the past.

USE 5 Repetition and Irritation with "Always"

The past continuous with words such as "always" or "constantly"

expresses the idea that something irritating or shocking often happened in the past. The concept is very similar
to the expression used to but with negative emotion. Remember to put the words "always" or "constantly"
between "be" and "verb+ing."

COULD HAVE
Could have + past participle means that something was possible in the past, or you had the ability to do
something in the past, but that you didn't do it. (See also modals of ability.)

 I could have stayed up late, but I decided to go to bed early.

 Julie could have bought the book, but she borrowed it from the library instead.

Couldn't have + past participle means that something wasn't possible in the past, even if you had wanted to
do it.

 I couldn't have arrived any earlier. There was a terrible traffic jam (= it was impossible for me to have
arrived any earlier).

UNIT 4
Reported speech

When we report someone’s words we can do it in two ways. We can use direct speech with quotation marks
(“I work in a bank”), or we can use reported speech (He said he worked in a bank.)

In reported speech the tenses, word-order and pronouns may be different from those in the original sentence.

Present simple and present continuous tenses

 Direct speech: “I travel a lot in my job” Reported speech: He said that he travelled a lot in his job.

The present simple tense (I travel) usually changes to the past simple (he travelled) in reported speech.

 Direct speech: “Be quiet. The baby’s sleeping.” Reported speech: She told me to be quiet because the
baby was sleeping.

The present continuous usually changes to the past continuous.

“I work in Italy” Reported speech: He told me that he works in Italy.

It isn’t always necessary to change the tense. If something is still true now – he still works in Italy – we can use
the present simple in the reported sentence.

Past simple and past continuous tenses

 Direct speech: “We lived in China for 5 years.” Reported speech: She told me they had lived in China
for 5 years.

The past simple tense (we lived) usually changes to the past perfect (they had lived) in reported speech.

 Direct speech: “I was walking down the road when I saw the accident.” Reported speech: He told me
he’d been walking down the road when he’d seen the accident.

The past continuous usually changes to the past perfect continuous.

Perfect tenses

 Direct speech: “They’ve always been very kind to me”. Reported speech: She said they’d always been
very kind to her.

The present perfect tense (have always been) usually changes to the past perfect tense (had always been).

 Direct speech: “They had already eaten when I arrived” Reported speech: He said they’d already eaten
when he’d arrived.

The past perfect tense does not change in reported speech.

Reporting verbs
In the sentence "James said that he was my neighbour", said is a reporting verb (was is a reported verb).
There are other reporting verbs we can use depending on the statement. We can also use the verbs
like told, offered and promised. Let's take a look at some examples.
Told
"My brother is buying a car" said Anne (direct speech) becomes Anne told me (that) her brother was buying a
car.
Use told + person + what was said. Don't use told with to: Anne told to me (that) her brother was buying a
car is not correct.
Offered
Use offered + to + infinitive verb.
"I'll do the shopping for you", said Simon becomes Simon offered to do the shopping for us .
Promised
Use promise + to + infinitive verb
"I'll buy you lunch", said Mark becomes Mark promised to buy me lunch.
OR Promise + clause (change the tense of the verb):
Mark promised (that) he would buy me lunch.

UNIT 5

When to use GOING TO

The structure BE GOING TO is normally used to indicate the future but with some type of connection to the
present. We use it in the following situations:
1. When we have already decided or we INTEND to do something in the future. (Prior Plan)
The decision has been made before the moment of speaking.

 They're going to retire to the beach - in fact they have already bought a little beach house.

 I'm going to accept the job offer.

2. When there are definite signs that something is going to happen. (Evidence)
Something is likely to happen based on the evidence or experience you have.

 I think it is going to rain - I just felt a drop.

 I don't feel well. I think I'm going to throw up. (throw up = vomit)

3. When something is about to happen:

 Get back! The bomb is going to explode.

When to use WILL

In other cases, where there is no implicit or explicit connection to the present, use WILL:
1. For things that we decide to do now. (Rapid Decisions)
This is when you make a decision at that moment, in a spontaneous way.

 I'll buy one for you too.

 I think I'll try one of those. (I just decided this right now)

2. When we think or believe something about the future. (Prediction)

 My team will not win the league this season.

 I think it will rain later so take an umbrella with you.

Note: You can use both Will and Going to for making future predictions.
3. To make an offer, a promise or a threat.
  I'll give you a discount if you buy it right now.

 I promise I will behave next time.

 I'll take you to the movies if you'd like.

4. You use WON'T when someone refuses to do something.

 I told him to take out the trash but he won't do it.

 My kids won't listen to anything I say.

 My car won't start.

Zero Conditional

We can make a zero conditional sentence with two present simple verbs (one in the 'if clause' and one in the
'main clause'):

 If + present simple, .... present simple.

This conditional is used when the result will always happen. So, if water reaches 100 degrees, it always boils.
It's a fact. I'm talking in general, not about one particular situation. The result of the 'if clause' is always the
main clause.
The 'if' in this conditional can usually be replaced by 'when' without changing the meaning.

First Conditional

The first conditional has the present simple after 'if', then the future simple in the other clause:

 if + present simple, ... will + infinitive

It's used to talk about things which might happen in the future. Of course, we can't know what will happen in
the future, but this describes possible things, which could easily come true.

First vs. Zero Conditional:

The first conditional describes a particular situation, whereas the zero conditional describes what happens in
general.

When, As Soon As, Unless

ALTERNATIVE TO “IF” WHY USE IT?

When When the “condition” will definitely happen.

As soon as To emphasize immediacy

Unless In place of “if not”

UNIT 6
 Phrasal Verb

A phrasal verb is a combination of a verb and preposition, a verb and an adverb, or a verb with both an adverb
and a preposition.

A phrasal verb has a meaning which is different from the original verb.

The adverb or preposition that follows the verb are sometimes called a particle. The particle changes the
meaning of the phrasal verb in idiomatic ways.

They are also known as ‘compound verbs’, ‘verb-adverb combinations’, ‘verb-particle constructions", “two-part
words/verbs’ and ‘three-part words/verbs’ (depending on the number of words).

Phrasal verbs are usually used informally in everyday speech as opposed to the more formal Latinate verbs,
such as “to get together” rather than “to congregate”, “to put off” rather than “to postpone”, or “to get out” rather
than “to exit”. They should be avoided in academic writing.

Second Conditional

The second conditional uses the past simple after if, then 'would' and the infinitive:

 if + past simple, ...would + infinitive

(We can use 'were' instead of 'was' with 'I' and 'he/she/it'. This is mostly done in formal writing).

It has two uses.

First, we can use it to talk about things in the future that are probably not going to be true. Maybe I'm imagining
some dream for example.

 If I met the Queen of England, I would say hello.

 She would travel all over the world if she were rich.

Second, we can use it to talk about something in the present which is impossible, because it's not true.

 If I were you, I wouldn't go out with that man.

Wish and If only

Wish and ‘If only’ are both used to talk about regrets – things that we would like to change either about the
past or the present.

Talking about the past

 I wish I’d studied harder when I was at school. He didn’t study harder when he was at school.
 I wish I hadn’t eaten all that chocolate. I feel sick.

 If only I’d known you were coming.

Both wish and if only are followed by the past perfect tense when we talk about past regrets.

Wish/if only and would

We use wish + would to talk about something in the present that we would like to change – usually something
that we find annoying.

 I wish you wouldn’t borrow my clothes without asking.

UNIT 7

OBLIGATION AND ADVICE

We can use have to + infinitive, must + infinitive and should + infinitive to express obligation (something
you have to do).

Present Positive

have to / don't have to strong obligation (possibly from outside)

Children have to go to school.

(sometimes 'have got to')

must / mustn't strong obligation (possibly based on the speaker's opinion)

I must study today.

should / shouldn't mild obligation or advice

You should save some money.

Be careful about the difference between mustn't and don't have to!
Mustn't means it's not allowed, or it's a bad idea:

 You mustn't eat so much chocolate, you'll be sick

Don't have to means you don't need to do something, but it's fine if you want to do it:

 I don't have to get up early at the weekend(of course, if I want to get up early, that's fine, but I can stay
in bed if I want).
Past Positive

had to / didn't have to obligation in the past

I had to wear a school uniform when I was a child.

must* changes to 'had to'

should have + pp / shouldn't a past action which didn't happen: the advice / regret is too late
have + pp
You should have gone to bed earlier, now you have missed the train.

Comparatives Superlatives

Comparatives are used to compare two Superlatives are used to compare more than two things or two
things or two people: people. Superlative sentences usually use 'the':
Alan is taller than John. Alan is the most intelligent.

UNIT 8

INDEFINITE PRONOUNS
The indefinite pronouns are:

somebody someone something

anybody anyone anything

nobody no one nothing

everybody everyone everything

 We use indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things without saying exactly who or what they are. We use
pronouns ending in -body or -one for people, and pronouns ending in -thing for things:
Everybody enjoyed the concert.
I opened the door but there was no one at home.
It was a very clear day. We could see everything.
We use a singular verb after an indefinite pronoun:
Everybody loves Sally.
Everything was ready for the party.
When we refer back to an indefinite pronoun we normally use a plural pronoun:
Everybody enjoyed the concert. They stood up and clapped.
I will tell somebody that dinner is ready. They have been waiting a long time.
We can add -'s to an indefinite pronoun to make a possessive.
They were staying in somebody’s house.
Is this anybody’s coat?
We use indefinite pronouns with no- as the subject in negative clauses (not pronouns with any.)
Anybody didn’t come >> Nobody came.
We do not use another negative in a clause with nobody, no one or nothing:
Nobody came.
Nothing happened.
We use else after indefinite pronouns to refer to people or things in addition to the ones we already
mentioned.
All the family came, but no one else.
If Michael can’t come we’ll ask somebody else.
So that's eggs, peas and chips. Do you want anything else?

LINKERS OF CONTRAST

BUT / HOWEVER
But is more informal than however. You can use however at the beginning of a sentence, but you can’t
use but at the beginning of a sentence (in written English).
 I tried to lift the box, but it was too heavy for me.
 I tried to lift the box. However, it was too heavy for me.
ALTHOUGH / EVEN THOUGH
These linking words are the same, and they are both followed by a subject + verb.
 Although I exercise every day, I can’t seem to lose any weight.
 She still loves him, even though he treated her very badly.
DESPITE / IN SPITE OF
These linking words are the same, and they are followed by a noun or a gerund (-ing form of the verb, which
can function as a noun).
 Our plane arrived on time in spite of the delay during takeoff.
 We won the game despite having two fewer players.
DESPITE THE FACT THAT / IN SPITE OF THE FACT THAT
These phrases are followed by a subject + verb.
 Our plane arrived on time in spite of the fact that it left 30 minutes late.
 We won the game despite the fact that we had two fewer players.
WHILE / WHEREAS / UNLIKE
 These linking words are used to make contrasts. While and whereas are usually used between two complete
phrases. Unlike is typically used with only a subject.
 I like tennis, while my brother prefers bowling.
 This cell phone plan costs $0.05 per minute, whereas that one gives you up to 800 minutes per month
for a fixed price.
 His boss allows him to work from home, unlike mine.
 She’s very friendly, unlike her sister.
Clauses of purpose
to + infinitive; David went out to buy a bottle of wine.
in order to/so as to + infinitive (formal); We were asked to say over in order to finish the project.
so that + can/will – used for a present or future reference; Here’s my number so that you can call me if you
have a problem.
so that +could/would – used for a past reference; We left early so that we would be able to park close to the
stadium.
in case + present tense – present or future reference – Take your hat in case it gets too hot.
in case + past tense – used for past reference – We took an umbrella in case it rained.
for + noun – used to express purpose – We went out for a pizza.
for + -ing – used to express purpose and/or function of something – This function on the air conditioner is for
reducing humidity.
Negatives
For negative purpose we use:
in order not to/so as not to + infinitive – we walked in quietly so as not to wake up the children.
prevent + noun/pronoun + from + ing – I parked the car under a tree to prevent it from getting too hot.
UNIT 9
relative clauses

We use defining relative clauses to give essential information about someone or something – information that
we need in order to understand what or who is being referred to. A defining relative clause usually comes
immediately after the noun it describes.

We usually use a relative pronoun (e.g. who, that, which, whose and whom) to introduce a defining relative
clause

Non-defining relative clauses

We use non-defining relative clauses to give extra information about the person or thing. It is not necessary
information. We don’t need it to understand who or what is being referred to.

We always use a relative pronoun (who, which, whose or whom) to introduce a non-defining relative clause

Articles
 Articles are words that define a noun as specific or unspecific.

The Definite Article

The definite article is the word the. It limits the meaning of a noun to one particular thing. The definite article

can be used with singular, plural, or uncountable nouns.

The Indefinite Article

The indefinite article takes two forms. It’s the word a when it precedes a word that begins with a consonant. It’s

the word an when it precedes a word that begins with a vowel. The indefinite article indicates that a noun refers

to a general idea rather than a particular thing. The indefinite article only appears with singular nouns.

Exceptions: Choosing A or An

There are a few exceptions to the general rule of using a before words that start with consonants

and an before words that begin with vowels.

Similarly, when the first letter of a word is a vowel but is pronounced with a consonant sound, use a. This holds

true with acronyms and initialisms, too: an LCD display, a UK-based company, an HR department, a URL.

UNIT 10

Third Conditional

We make the third conditional by using the past perfect after 'if' and then 'would have' and the past
participle in the second part of the sentence:

 if + past perfect, ...would + have + past participle

It talks about the past. It's used to describe a situation that didn't happen, and to imagine the result of this
situation.

 If she had studied, she would have passed the exam (but, really we know she didn't study and so she
didn't pass)

modal verbs

The modal verbs are:

can could

may might

shall should

will would

mus
t

Modal verbs are used to express ability, obligation, permission, assumptions, probability and possibility,
requests and offers, and advice. Each modal verb can have more than meaning which depends on the context
of that sentence (or question).

 You can go now. (= permission)

 I can play the guitar. (= ability)

to + infinitive

We use the to-infinitive:

• to express purpose (to answer "Why...?"):

He bought some flowers to give to his wife.

He locked the door to keep everyone out.

We sometimes say in order to or in order not to:

We set off early in order to avoid the traffic.

They spoke quietly in order not to wake the children

… or we can say so as to or so as not to:

We set off early so as to avoid the traffic.

They spoke quietly so as not to wake the children.

• after certain verbs, particularly verbs of thinking and feeling:

choose, decide, expect, forget, hate, hope, intend, learn, like,

love, mean, plan, prefer, remember, want, would like, would love

… and verbs of saying:

 agree, promise, refuse

They decided to start a business together.

Remember to turn the lights out.

Some verbs are followed by a direct object and the infinitive:

advise, ask, encourage, invite, order, persuade, remind, tell, warn,

expect, intend, would prefer, want, would like

She reminded me to turn the lights out.

He encouraged his friends to vote for him.

• after certain adjectives.

Sometimes the to-infinitive gives a reason for the adjective:

 disappointed

 glad

 sad

 happy

 anxious

 pleased

 surprised

 proud

 unhappy

We were happy to come to the end of our journey

= We were happy because we had come to the end of our journey
John was surprised to see me
= He was surprised because he saw me

Other adjectives with the to-infinitive are:

 able

 unable

 due

 eager

 keen
 likely

 unlikely

 ready

 prepared

 unwilling

 willing

Unfortunately I was unable to work for over a week.

I am really tired. I’m ready to go to bed.

We often use the to-infinitive with these adjectives after it to give opinions:

 difficult

 easy

 possible

 impossible

 hard

 right

 wrong

 kind

 nice

 clever

 silly

 foolish

It’s easy to play the piano, but it’s very difficult to play well.
He spoke so quickly it was impossible to understand him.

We use the preposition for to show who these adjectives refer to:

 difficult

 easy
 possible

 impossible

 hard

It was difficult for us to hear what she was saying.

It is easy for you to criticise other people.

We use the preposition of with other adjectives:

It’s kind of you to help.

It would be silly of him to spend all his money.

• As a postmodifier after abstract nouns like:

 ability

 desire

 need

 wish

 attempt

 failure

 opportunity

 chance

 intention

I have no desire to be rich.

They gave him an opportunity to escape.
She was annoyed by her failure to answer the question correctly.

• We often use a to-infinitive as a postmodifier after an indefinite pronoun:

When I am travelling I always take something to read.

I was all alone. I had no one to talk to.
There is hardly anything to do in most of these small towns.

UNIT 11

Future Perfect

Future perfect has two different forms: "will have done" and "be going to have done." Unlike simple
future forms, future perfect forms are usually interchangeable.
FORM Future Perfect with "Will"

[will have + past participle]

Examples:

 You will have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

 Will you have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.?

 You will not have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

FORM Future Perfect with "Be Going To"

[am/is/are + going to have + past participle]

Examples:

 You are going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

 Are you going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.?

 You are not going to have perfected your English by the time you come back from the U.S.

NOTE: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" to create the future perfect with little or no difference in
meaning.

USE 1 Completed Action Before Something in the Future

The future perfect expresses the idea that something will occur before
another action in the future. It can also show that something will happen before a specific time in the future.

Examples:

 By next November, I will have received my promotion.

 By the time he gets home, she is going to have cleaned the entire house.

 I am not going to have finished this test by 3 o'clock.

USE 2 Duration Before Something in the Future (Non-Continuous Verbs)

With non-continuous verbs and some non-continuous uses of mixed

verbs, we use the future perfect to show that something will continue up until another action in the future.

Examples:

 I will have been in London for six months by the time I leave.
  By Monday, Susan is going to have had my book for a week.

Future Continuous

Future continuous has two different forms: "will be doing " and "be going to be doing." Unlike simple
future forms, future continuous forms are usually interchangeable.

FORM Future Continuous with "Will"

[will be + present participle]

Examples:

 You will be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

 Will you be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?

 You will not be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

FORM Future Continuous with "Be Going To "

[am/is/are + going to be + present participle]

Examples:

 You are going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

 Are you going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight?

 You are not going to be waiting for her when her plane arrives tonight.

REMEMBER: It is possible to use either "will" or "be going to" to create the future continuous with little
difference in meaning.

USE 1 Interrupted Action in the Future

Use the future continuous to indicate that a longer action in the future
will be interrupted by a shorter action in the future. Remember this can be a real interruption or just an
interruption in time.

Examples:

 I will be watching TV when she arrives tonight.

 I will be waiting for you when your bus arrives.

 I am going to be staying at the Madison Hotel, if anything happens and you need to contact me.

 He will be studying at the library tonight, so he will not see Jennifer when she arrives.
USE 2 Specific Time as an Interruption in the Future

In USE 1, described above, the future continuous is interrupted by a

short action in the future. In addition to using short actions as interruptions, you can also use a specific time as
an interruption.

Examples:

 Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.

I will be in the process of eating dinner.

 At midnight tonight, we will still be driving through the desert.

We will be in the process of driving through the desert.

REMEMBER

In the simple future, a specific time is used to show the time an action will begin or end. In the future
continuous, a specific time interrupts the action.

Examples:

 Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to eat dinner.

I am going to start eating at 6 PM.

 Tonight at 6 PM, I am going to be eating dinner.

I am going to start earlier and I will be in the process of eating dinner at 6 PM.

USE 3 Parallel Actions in the Future

When you use the future continuous with two actions in the same
sentence, it expresses the idea that both actions will be happening at the same time. The actions are parallel.

Examples:

 I am going to be studying and he is going to be making dinner.

 Tonight, they will be eating dinner, discussing their plans, and having a good time.

 While Ellen is reading, Tim will be watching television.

Notice "is reading" because of the time clause containing "while." (See Explanation Below)

USE 4 Atmosphere in the Future

In English, we often use a series of Parallel Actions to describe atmosphere at a specific point in the future.

Example:

 When I arrive at the party, everybody is going to be celebrating. Some will be dancing. Others are
going to be talking. A few people will be eating pizza, and several people are going to be
drinking beer. They always do the same thing.
Future in the Past

Like simple future, future in the past has two different forms in English: would and was going to. Although the
two forms can sometimes be used interchangeably, they often express two different meanings.

FORM Would

[would + VERB]

Examples:

 I knew you would help him.

 I knew you would not help him.

FORM Was/Were Going To

[was/were + going to + VERB]

Examples:

 I knew you were going to go to the party.

 I knew you were not going to go to the party.

USE 1 Future in Past

Future in the past is used to express the idea that in the past you
thought something would happen in the future. It does not matter if you are correct or not. Future in the past
follows the same basic rules as the simple future. "Would" is used to volunteer or promise, and "was going to"
is used to plan. Moreover, both forms can be used to make predictions about the future.

Examples:

 I knew Julie would make dinner. voluntary action

 Jane said Sam was going to bring his sister with him, but he came alone. plan

 I had a feeling that the vacation was going to be a disaster. prediction

 He promised he would send a postcard from Egypt. promise

Passive Form

In passive sentences, the thing receiving the action is the subject of the sentence and the thing doing the
action is optionally included near the end of the sentence. You can use the passive form if you think that the
thing receiving the action is more important or should be emphasized. You can also use the passive form if you
do not know who is doing the action or if you do not want to mention who is doing the action.

[Thing receiving action] + [be] + [past participle of verb] + [by] + [thing doing action]
Examples:

Used To

FORM

[used to + VERB]

Example:

 I used to go to the beach every day.

USE 1 Habit in the Past

Used to expresses the idea that something was an old habit that
stopped in the past. It indicates that something was often repeated in the past, but it is not usually done now.

Examples:

 Jerry used to study English.

 I used to start work at 9 o'clock.

USE 2 Past Facts and Generalizations

Used to can also be used to talk about past facts or generalizations

which are no longer true.

Examples:

 I used to live in Paris.

 Sarah used to be fat, but now she is thin.

BE USED TO: be used to is an expression. It is not a tense.

Do not confuse be used to with with the special structure used to do. They have different meanings.

Structure of be used to

The structure of be used to is:

 subject + main verb + used to + object
be

main verb used

subject be not to object

+ I am used to horses.

- He is not used to children.

We are n't used to big cities.

? Are you used to her temper?

Note that if the object involves a verb, we use the -ing form (-ing form):

 I am not used to being lied to.

Why do we use -ing for a verb after be used to? Because we always use -ing for a verb after a preposition -
and the to is a preposition.

Use of be used to

The be used to expression is for talking about something that is familiar to us or easy for us.

 I am used to driving on the left.

Tenses

We can use be used to in any tense. We just conjugate the verb be in the tense that we need.

UNIT 12
Question tags

Question tags are the short questions that we put on the end of sentences.

Positive/negative

If the main part of the sentence is positive, the question tag is negative ….

 He’s a doctor, isn’t he?

 ... and if the main part of the sentence is negative, the question tag is positive.

 You haven’t met him, have you?

With auxiliary verbs

The question tag uses the same verb as the main part of the sentence. If this is an auxiliary verb (‘have’, ‘be’)
then the question tag is made with the auxiliary verb.

 They’ve gone away for a few days, haven’t they?

 This isn’t working, is it?

Without auxiliary verbs

If the main part of the sentence doesn’t have an auxiliary verb, the question tag uses an appropriate form of
‘do’.

 I said that, didn’t I?

 You don’t recognise me, do you?

 She eats meat, doesn’t she?

With modal verbs

If there is a modal verb in the main part of the sentence the question tag uses the same modal verb.

 They couldn’t hear me, could they?

 You won’t tell anyone, will you?

With ‘I am’

Be careful with question tags with sentences that start ‘I am’. The question tag for ‘I am’ is ‘aren’t I?’

 I’m the fastest, aren’t I?

THE REFLEXIVE PRONOUNS

The reflexive pronouns are:

Singular myself - yourself - himself - herself

: - itself

Plural: ourselves - yourselves - themselves

When we use a reflexive pronoun
We use a reflexive pronoun:
• as a direct object when the object is the same as the subject of the verb:
I am teaching myself to play the piano.
Be careful with that knife. You might cut yourself.
We can use a reflexive pronoun as direct object with most transitive verbs, but these are the most common:

amuse blame cut dry enjoy help

hurt introduce kill prepare satisfy teach

We use a reflexive pronoun...

• with the preposition by when we want to show that someone did something alone and/or without any help:
He lived by himself in an enormous house.
• to emphasise the person or thing we are referring to:
Kendal itself is quite a small town.
especially if we are talking about someone very famous:
Sir Paul McCartney himself sang the final song.
We often put the reflexive pronoun at the end of the clause when we are using it for emphasis:
I baked the bread myself.
She mended the car herself