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Essentials
of Steam Turbine
Design and Analysis
Jimmy D. Kumana Effective design, analysis, and integration
Kumana & Associates
of steam turbines can help optimize steam
supply reliability and overall energy efficiency
across your plant.
S
team turbines are important components of process exclusively on steam turbines. Steam turbines have four
plant utility systems. They offer opportunities for typical operating modes:
optimizing steam supply reliability, as well as site- Backpressure steam turbines (BPSTs) produce low-
wide energy efficiency. Steam turbines are most common in pressure (LP) exhaust steam that can be used for one or
the oil refining, ammonia and urea, methanol, ethylene, and more process heating duties (Figure 1a). The objectives are
pulp and paper industries, where they are generally sized to provide the process with steam of the quantity and pres-
to produce 10–60 MW of power. Good economics are also sure required by the process, while generating the maximum
possible at smaller sizes as low as 2 MW, which are more amount of power so as to reduce the need for purchased
common in the food and beverage industries, as well as power. Because BPSTs cogenerate two energy products
in small to medium-sized plants in the chemical process (i.e., steam and power) simultaneously, they have an effec-
industries (CPI). tive heat rate of 4,500–5,500 Btu/kWh, which represents
Achieving favorable steam turbine economics depends an energy efficiency two to three times better than that of
on choosing the right type of turbine (e.g., backpressure vs. a condensing turbine, even after taking into account both
condensing) in the right size, as well as integrating it cor- boiler and turbine energy losses. (Heat rate is the amount of
rectly with the heat exchanger network (HEN) in accordance fuel that is converted by a heat engine into useful power —
with the appropriate placement principle of pinch analysis. the lower the number, the better. The minimum possible heat
This article reviews the thermodynamic relationships and rate is 3,413 Btu/kWh, representing 100% conversion of fuel
equations that link steam flow conditions and power output, energy into power.)
which are useful for estimating preliminary economics of Pure BPSTs are used mostly in industrial facilities that
new turbines and analyzing the performance of existing units. operate continuously, where the goal is high thermodynamic
efficiency and the energy demands are relatively stable.
The basics They are typically sized for 3–60 MW.
Any device that converts the chemical energy contained Condensing steam turbines (CSTs) exhaust steam to a
in a fuel into mechanical energy (i.e., shaftwork) via combus- condenser at atmospheric pressure or the lowest possible
tion is called a heat engine. Heat engines are generally clas- pressure at which it can be condensed with the available
sified according to the thermodynamic cycle that they follow. cooling utility (Figure 1b). In locations with a ready supply
The most common heat engines in industrial applications are of water, cooling is usually accomplished via a closed loop
steam turbines (Rankine cycle), gas turbines (Brayton cycle), that circulates through an evaporative cooling tower. In
and internal combustion engines (Otto cycle). arid regions, such as the Middle East, North Africa, and the
Although gas turbines can also play an important role in Southwestern U.S., air-cooled heat exchangers are usually
the economic optimization of the combined heat and power more practical than wet cooling towers.
(CHP) utilities at manufacturing plants, this article focuses Utility power plants use CSTs exclusively because
Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP August 2018 www.aiche.org/cep 29
Back to Basics
their objective is to maximize power generation and there Design and rating calculations
is no use for exhaust heat from BPSTs in the Rankine The expansion process that occurs in a properly insu-
power-generation cycle. Power plant CSTs are typi- lated steam turbine is essentially an adiabatic process. The
cally sized in excess of 100 MW and have heat rates of enthalpy difference between the inlet and exhaust steam
11,000–16,000 Btu/kWh, depending on factors such (neglecting frictional losses) is almost fully converted into
as the pressure and temperature of the inlet steam, the mechanical energy, which can then be used to drive a pump,
temperature of the cooling medium, and the turbine a compressor, or an electric generator.
isentropic efficiency. This process can be followed on an enthalpy-entropy
Extraction-condensing turbines (ECTs) are hybrids, in (H-S) diagram, known as a Mollier chart. In the example
which some of the exhaust steam is extracted at pressures diagram (Figure 2), the path from Point 1 to Point 2 rep-
high enough for process heating (cogeneration mode) and resents typical BPST operation at a chemical plant, pulp
the rest is condensed by a cooling utility for power genera- and paper mill, oil refinery, or food processing facility;
tion (noncogeneration mode) (Figure 1c). ECTs are less superheated 600-psig steam at 700°F (Point 1) expands as it
common in industry, because they are more expensive to passes through the turbine and is exhausted at a pressure of
buy and maintain and are more difficult to control. 50 psig (Point 2). The path from Point 1 to Point 3 represents
Induction turbines are hybrids that offer very high CST operation with the goal of maximum power genera-
system efficiencies, because they extract power from steam tion to minimize the need for imported power under normal
that would otherwise have to be let down in pressure through operation or to compensate for temporary loss of imported
a throttling valve (Figure 1d). They typically receive two power from the grid. HP steam is exhausted at vacuum con-
sources of inlet steam at different pressures (e.g., high pres- ditions and is condensed against a cooling utility.
sure and medium pressure) and exhaust at a single lower Steam turbines typically rotate at 3,000–15,000 rpm. At
pressure (e.g., ambient pressure or vacuum). that speed, water droplets can form and unbalance the tur-
Figure 1d illustrates a simple case in which an induction bine blades, causing severe mechanical damage. BPSTs can
turbine would be appropriate. The process is exothermic usually operate safely at up to 3% moisture (i.e., a minimum
and generates more LP steam than is needed for process steam quality of 97%). CSTs specially designed for utility-
heating duties, but it needs high-pressure (HP) steam for scale power plants can handle as much as 10–12% moisture.
other higher-temperature duties. With only two steam pres- Process plants should avoid normal operation at this limiting
sure levels, the required amount of HP steam is sent straight condition, and should aim to stay at least 20°F above the
to the processes that need it, while the surplus exhaust from exhaust steam dewpoint.
the turbine is condensed by a cooling utility for additional These operational constraints are needed to effectively
power generation (noncogeneration mode). Induction analyze turbine power output, whether for design or rating
turbines are even less common than extraction turbines, calculations. To determine the adiabatic power output of the
because they are more expensive to buy and maintain and example BPST (Point 1 to 2, Figure 2), we first determine
more difficult to control. the total enthalpy change for isentropic expansion down to
Steam
Turbine Generator Steam Turbine Steam Turbine Steam Turbine
Process
Condenser Condenser
p Figure 1. Steam turbines come in many different configurations, including (a) backpressure turbines (BPSTs) operated in cogeneration mode and
(b) condensing turbines (CSTs) for power generation. Hybrid configurations, such as (c) extraction turbines and (d) induction turbines, are less common.
30 www.aiche.org/cep August 2018 CEP Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
t Figure 2. The adiabatic expansion of steam
1,580- in a turbine is most conveniently represented
1,200 on the enthalpy-entropy (H-S) Mollier diagram.
600
Point 1 = turbine inlet, Point 2 = low-pressure
1,530- Saturation 300
150 exhaust for process heating (cogeneration
Pressure, psig 50 mode), Point 3 = exhaust to utility condenser
Quality, % stm (power-generation mode).
1,480-
Temperature, °F
1,380- 700
1
1,330- 600
1,280- 500
Enthalpy, Btu/lb
–12
400
1,230-
2
300
1,180-
215
1,130- 2*
Saturation Line
1,080-
97%
1,030- 3
92% Quality
980-
930- 3*
1.20 1.30 1.40 1.50 1.60 1.70 1.80 1.90 2.00 2.10
Entropy, Btu/lb-°F
the exhaust pressure of 50 psig (Point 1 to Point 2*). Then of steam (lb/hr), and 3,412 is the approximate conversion
we apply the isentropic efficiency (ηT), which is a combined factor to convert Btu to kWh.
indicator of the original machine design and its present The isentropic efficiency cannot be determined exactly,
mechanical condition: but it can be estimated fairly accurately using empirical
correlations based on historical industry experience, which
are usually available from steam turbine vendors. When
purchasing a steam turbine, it is good practice to require all
bidders to provide values of ηT for each machine over the
range of expected load conditions. Monitoring an existing
where H1 is the enthalpy of the HP inlet steam (Btu/lb), H2 turbine’s efficiency loss can provide advance warning of
is the actual enthalpy of exhaust LP steam (Btu/lb), and H2* impending turbine problems.
is the enthalpy of the exhaust LP steam assuming isentropic Reference 1 provides some data on real turbine opera-
expansion (Btu/lb). tion, but the dataset is too small to draw general conclusions.
The adiabatic power output can then be calculated by: The most reliable and useful correlations for new turbines
can be found in Ref. 2. The ηT for a steam turbine can be
determined iteratively using:
Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP August 2018 www.aiche.org/cep 31
Back to Basics
Table 1. Empirical parameters for estimating steam turbine isentropic efficiency from Ref. 2
and adjusted values of parameter a for a smoother transition at W = 2,000 kW.
Mode Parameter W<2,000 kW W>2,000 kW
a (original) 1.08ΔT 4.23ΔT
BPST a (modified) 1.26ΔT —
b 1.097 + 0.00172ΔT 1.155 + 0.000538ΔT
a (original) 0.622ΔT 3.53ΔT – 463
CST a (modified) — 3.9ΔT – 463
b 1.191 + 0.000759ΔT 1.22 + 0.000148ΔT
Table 2. These sample calculations for a steam model compare power output in both
cogeneration (BPST) and power-generation (CST) operating modes.
BPST Exhaust CST Exhaust
Variable Inlet
(Cogeneration) (Power)
Steam Pressure, psig 600 50 –12
Steam Pressure, psi 614.7 64.7 2.7
Saturation Temperature, °F 489 298 137
Saturated Steam Enthalpy, Btu/lb 1,204 1,179 1,120
Target Steam Temperature, °F 700 334 137
Superheat, °F 211 37 0
Steam Enthalpy, Btu/lb 1,350 1,199 1,032
Steam Entropy, Btu/lb-°F 1.5844 – –
Exhaust/Extraction Flow klb/hr – 100 100
Saturated Liquid Enthalpy, Btu/lb – 267.3 105.3
Isentropic Vapor Enthalpy Out, Btu/lb – 1,139 935
Isentropic Change in Enthalpy, Btu/lb – 211.6 414.8
Isentropic Turbine (estimated), % – 71.3 76.6
Isentropic Turbine (assumed), % – 71.3 76.6
Adiabatic Change in Enthalpy, Btu/lb – 150.9 317.7
Actual Steam Temperature, °F – 334.4 137.3
Allowable Minimum Steam Quality, wt% – 97 91
Exhaust Steam Quality, wt% vapor – 100 91.3
Actual Superheat, °F – 36.7 0
Generator Efficiency, % – 98 98
Power Output, kW-hr/klb – 44.2 93.1
Power Output, kW – 4,332 9,122
System Energy Balance: Total Inlet Energy = 135 MMBtu/hr, Boiler Efficiency (assumed) = 84%
LP Exhaust Steam to Process, MMBtu/hr – 119.9 0
Useful Heat in LP Exhaust Steam, MMBtu/hr – 91.2 0
Energy in Electric Power, MMBtu/hr – 14.8 31.1
Total Useful Energy Out, MMBtu/hr – 106 31.1
Effective Turbine Efficiency, % – 78.5 23.1
Overall System Efficiency, % – 65.9 19.4
Power Generation Heat Rate, Btu/kW-hr – 3,483 14,800
Overall Cogeneration Heat Rate, Btu/kW-hr – 6,703 14,800
32 www.aiche.org/cep August 2018 CEP Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
where a and b are functions of W (Table 1). Determining the in average steam wetness in the turbine, efficiency drops by
values of a and b from Table 1 requires iteratively calculat- about 1%. Thus, the actual work output of the CST is closer
ing the difference between the saturation temperature at the to 8.5 MW.
inlet (Tsat,i) and outlet (Tsat,o) in degrees Celsius (ΔT). These calculations are most easily performed using a
My experience at multiple large industrial sites suggests spreadsheet linked to a steam properties database (Table 2).
that a practical optimum steam-generating pressure for most I use SteamTab (4), which is a Microsoft Excel add-in.
process plants is 600 psig, with about 200–250°F of super- Figure 3 depicts the BPST (cogeneration) and CST
heat. Above those conditions, capital costs for the boiler and (power generation) examples using the data in Table 2. The
water treatment system rise rapidly. width of the arrows is roughly proportional to the energy
Consider again the BPST represented by Figure 2. We flows. At a glance, it is clear that the loss of energy (mostly
want to determine the work output of this turbine. At a flow- to condensate) is far greater in the CST case than in the
rate of 100,000 lb/hr, ηT is 71.3%, from which we can then BPST case.
calculate the actual work output from the BPST using Eq. 2:
Part-load operation
W = [100,000 (1,350 – 1,139) 0.713]/3,412 = 4.4 MW Plants typically do not operate at a steady rate or at the
exact design conditions. Instead, the norm is part-load opera-
Notice that the steam exhaust temperature of 334°F tion, which typically averages 95% of the design rate. There-
(Point 2) is well above the dewpoint of 298°F, so condensa- fore, it is critically important to request part-load efficiency
tion inside the turbine casing is not a concern. data from steam turbine vendors as an essential deliverable
Now, consider the CST represented by Figure 2. The during the purchasing process, and to store this information
exhaust pressure is 2.7 psia (–12 psig) and the dewpoint is where plant engineers can readily access it. In the absence of
137°F (Point 1 to Point 3*). The isentropic efficiency based vendor data, part-load efficiency can be approximated by:
on the Table 1 correlations is 76.6%. With this information,
we can use Eq. 2 to calculate the adiabatic power output
before generator losses to be 9.3 MW. The exhaust steam is
firmly in the wet zone, with 9% moisture content (Point 3),
which is dangerously close to even the higher moisture
tolerance of power plant turbines, so this is not a technically where y is the relative efficiency index (design rate = 100),
feasible solution. x is the relative power index (design rate = 100), and α is a
The Baumann rule (3) states that for every 1% increase correlation constant that must be extracted from available
machine data (Figure 4). The value of α is typically approxi-
mated to be 3, but it can vary from turbine to turbine and
(a) Losses
0.3 MMBtu/hr
can change over time due to wear. Accounting for expected
91.2 MMBtu/hr
part-load operation is vital when evaluating the economics
HP Steam Useful
of a proposed steam turbine project.
LP Steam Process
135 MMBtu/hr BPST 111.9 MMBtu/hr Heat Article continues on next page
100
Net Steam Shaft Work (Power) Condensate 90
Efficiency = 78.5% 14.8 MMBtu/hr 28.7 MMBtu/hr
80
Relative Efficiency, %
70
(b) Losses
0.6 MMBtu/hr 60
Power 31.1 MMBtu/hr 50
HP Steam 40
135 MMBtu/hr CST 30
20
10
Net Steam 0
Efficiency = 23.1% 0 20 40 60 80 100
Condensate
103.3 MMBtu/hr Relative Power, %
Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP August 2018 www.aiche.org/cep 33
Back to Basics
60% 15%
conditions of P1 = 600 psig, T1 = 700°F,
M = 100,000 lb/hr. As P2 drops, PHR
40% 10%
increases. Condensation begins to form at a
Power-to-Heat Ratio PHR of about 13%. As P2 falls further, the
20% 5% quality of the exhaust steam gets worse. The
system efficiency tops out at 93% when P2
0% 0% reaches 0 psig, the moisture content is 6%,
0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8
and PHR is 19%. Even if the turbine could
P2/P1
tolerate 8–10% moisture, the PHR would
p Figure 6. System efficiency in cogeneration mode varies significantly with pressure ratio. The not exceed 24% — i.e., the maximum
data shown are for inlet steam at 600 psig and 700°F and a steam flowrate of 100,000 lb/hr. The machine efficiency for a pure CST can be
general shape of the curve is comparable for other conditions. no more than 24%.
34 www.aiche.org/cep August 2018 CEP Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
Interstage Heater
t Figure 7. Multistage steam turbines with
Generator
reheating between stages are typically used
when the ratio of the HP steam pressure to
High Medium Low kW the LP exhaust steam pressure is high and
Pressure Pressure Pressure “free” medium-grade excess heat from the
process is available for heating between stages
Low-Pressure to extract additional power without risking
Very-High-Pressure Steam to Process
Steam from Boiler Three-Stage Turbine internal condensation.
It is possible to get more power out of a steam turbine by: q Figure 8. The hot and cold composite curves in pinch analysis represent
• increasing the amount of superheat of the inlet steam, the available and required thermal energy profiles of a process and reveal
the opportunity for heat recovery, as well as the associated energy targets.
but it is not easy to get above 700–720°F The process pinch (PP) is the point of closest temperature approach in the
• increasing the inlet pressure, which increases boiler heat exchanger network. (a) A process without heat recovery has higher
capital cost heating and cooling duties than (b) the same process with heat integration
to optimize heat recovery and minimize utilities.
• reducing the discharge pressure, which increases the
cost of process heaters, assuming that the process heating can (a)
Qhot
be accomplished at a lower steam temperature; however, this
can create problems, such as condensation inside the turbine
Temperature
• choosing a multistage turbine that reheats the exhaust
between stages (Figure 7); reheating effectively converts
100% of the supplied heat into power — a fantastic thermo
dynamic deal, especially if it can be accomplished with
low-grade process heat that would otherwise be wasted.
For a BPST, the minimum degree of superheat required Qcold
to avoid condensation and the power output can be estimated
Heat Load
with reasonable accuracy (±10%) for inlet pressures of
600–900 psig using:
(b)
Qhot
Temperature
Process Pinch
Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP August 2018 www.aiche.org/cep 35
Back to Basics
process pinch (PP). Above the PP temperature, only hot util- temperature will likely be low, and integration will most
ity is required, and below the PP, only cooling is required. likely be across the PP (Figure 9a). While a high W/Q
The difference between the hot stream temperature and may appear attractive, the heat balance reveals that on
the cold stream temperature at the process pinch is called a system basis, this configuration has the same energy
the minimum approach temperature (MAT). For each value efficiency as one with no integration at all. We would basi-
of MAT, there are corresponding values of minimum heat- cally be spending capital for no financial gain — a poor
ing and cooling requirements, Qh,min and Qc,min. These are design choice.
the energy targets that can be established based on thermo- If we integrate exclusively above the PP (Figure 9b),
dynamics alone, even before the heat exchanger network the net steam demand of the process is reduced by (Q – W),
has been designed. The PP divides the process into two which is the usable heat from the turbine exhaust, and the
thermodynamic domains in heat balance. If an amount of heat-to-work conversion efficiency approaches 100%. This
heat X is removed from the process above the PP tempera- is definitely worth evaluating further, whether for on-site
ture, an amount X hot utility must be added: power generation or large direct-drive applications.
Similarly, integrating exclusively below the PP
(Figure 9c) makes use of true waste heat that would other
wise be dumped into cooling water. Only in such cases
does a CST make more sense than a BPST. The benefit is
Similarly, if an amount of heat X is added to the process
A+Q
below the PP, an amount X cooling utility must be supplied: (a)
A Q
BPST, low-grade exhaust energy from the turbine can either (b)
A – (Q – W) Q
be used for process heating above or below the PP, with
the HP steam being supplied from either above or below
the process pinch. When operated as a CST, it will have to Heat
Engine W
compete with the process for purchased power imported into Q–W
the site. The PHR in all of these cases is W/Q. Because high-
PHR turbines have a large temperature range, they will most
(c)
likely straddle the PP. Q
We have three options for integrating the steam turbine
Temperature
with the process heat recovery system: across the PP, above
Heat
the PP, or below the PP. Figure 9 is a conceptual depiction of Engine W
the three scenarios, where A is the thermal energy required
by the process above the PP, B is the thermal energy that
must be removed from the process below the PP, Q is the B–Q Q–W
thermal energy supplied to the steam turbine, and W is the
p Figure 9. This conceptual representation of options for thermal integra-
mechanical work output.
tion of steam turbines shows a steam turbine that operates (a) across the
For a BPST with a high power-to-heat ratio (i.e., high process pinch temperature, (b) above the process pinch temperature, and
W/Q), the temperature range will be large, so the exhaust (c) below the process pinch temperature.
36 www.aiche.org/cep August 2018 CEP Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE)
not only the value of the power produced but also a reduc- • the electric grid supply is unreliable, and needs to be
tion in the total site cooling duty. bolstered against excursions such as voltage sags, which
Unfortunately, very few processes have a PP tempera- could disrupt the manufacturing operation (e.g., in remote
ture high enough to produce enough HP superheated steam areas with underdeveloped infrastructure)
to generate significant quantities of power. The problem • emergency backup power is needed for critical duties
usually is not that available heat below the PP is insufficient for safe shutdown during unexpected power outages. CEP
to generate LP steam, but that the CST needs the inlet steam
to be significantly superheated to minimize condensation
inside the turbine, which may not be possible. Nomenclature
Integrating exclusively above or below the PP are both
attractive options for further analysis, but it is clear that A = thermal energy required by the process above the
process pinch
integration across the PP is always a bad idea. The next step
a = parameter calculated using Table 1 relationships
is to incorporate the turbine into a CHP system model to B = thermal energy to be removed from the process
evaluate operating costs (6, 7). below the procss pinch
b = parameter calculated using Table 1 relationships
Closing thoughts H 1 = enthalpy of high-pressure inlet stream
The appropriate placement principle for steam turbines is H2 = enthalpy of low-pressure exhaust steam
to never integrate across the process pinch. This is funda- H2* = enthalpy of low-pressure exhaust steam,
assuming isentropic expansion
mental to energy-efficient design and operation. Other keys
M = mass flowrate of inlet steam
to energy efficiency are estimating the isentropic efficiency m = mass flowrate of exhaust steam
of turbines, avoiding condensation inside the turbine casing, P1 = inlet pressure
and accounting for part-load efficiencies when doing an P2 = exhaust pressure
economic feasibility analysis. Q = enthalpy of the inlet stream
BPSTs run in cogeneration mode are typically the best Qc,actual = actual cooling requirement
option for most process applications. CSTs should only be Qc,min = minimum cooling requirement
Qh,actual = actual heating requirement
considered when:
Qh,min = minimum heating requirement
• the fuel has a negative cost because it requires disposal SHmin,safe = minimum superheat required for inlet steam
for environmental or other reasons (e.g., black liquor at a T 1 = inlet temperature
kraft paper mill), or is free Tsat,i = saturation temperature at the inlet
• the process is highly exothermic and has the potential Tsat,o = saturation temperature at the outlet
to generate excess steam at high pressures and temperatures W = work output
Wmax,safe = maximum power output safely extracted
x = relative power index
Literature Cited y = relative efficiency index
1. U.S. Environmental Protection Agency, “Technology
Characterization — Steam Turbines,” EPA, Washington, DC Greek Letters
(Dec. 2008). α = correlation constant for Eq. 4
2. Smith, R., “Steam Systems and Cogeneration,” Ch. 23 in ΔT = difference between inlet and outlet temperature
“Chemical Process: Design and Integration,” John Wiley & Sons, η = system efficiency
Hoboken, NJ (2005). ηST = machine efficiency/power-to-heat ratio
3. Hyungsul, M., and S. J. Zarrouk, “Efficiency of Geothermal ηT = isentropic efficiency
Power Plants: A Worldwide Review,” in the Proceedings of λ2 = latent heat of exhaust steam condensed
the New Zealand Geothermal Workshop, Auckland, New
Zealand (2012).
4. ChemicaLogic Corp.,“SteamTab 4.0,” ChemicaLogic Corp.,
JIMMY D. KUMANA (Houston, TX; Email: jkumana@aol.com) has more
Carlisle, MA (2016). than 35 years of experience working for both manufacturing and
5. Kelhofer, R., “Combined Cycle Gas and Steam Turbine Power engineering-construction companies. He is the founder of Kumana &
Plants,” PennWell Publishing Co., Tulsa, OK (1997). Associates, a consulting firm specializing in process integration (pinch
analysis) techniques for energy/water optimization, as well as general
6. Kumana, J. D., et al., “CHP Modeling as a Tool for Electric process performance troubleshooting/improvement in the full range
Power Utilities to Understand Major Industrial Customers,” of chemical industries. He and his company have been consultants to
from the proceedings of the 19th Industrial Energy Technology major corporations worldwide, as well as to the U.S. Dept. of Energy,
Conference, Houston, TX (Apr. 1997). Natural Resources Canada, the World Bank, and the United Nations.
He has authored or co-authored over 70 technical papers and book
7. Office of Industrial Technologies, “How to Calculate the chapters, and regularly teaches courses on pinch analysis, energy
True Cost of Steam,” U.S. Dept. of Energy, Technical Brief efficiency in the process industries, and related subjects. He holds an
#DOE/GO-102003-1736 (Sept. 2003). MS in chemical engineering from the Univ. of Cincinnati.
Copyright © 2018 American Institute of Chemical Engineers (AIChE) CEP August 2018 www.aiche.org/cep 37