1

REVIEWER • Controls the closing of stomata to

GENERAL BIOLOGY II
CHEMICAL AND NERVOUS CONTROL
Plant hormone – are chemical signals that
coordinate to the different parts of an
organism.
• Each plant cell in a specific region
(stem, shoots, roots) produces plant
hormone.
TYPES OF PLANT HORMONE
AUXIN are hormones produced in immature
parts of plants that stimulate growth
• Stimulates cell differentiation
• Stimulates stem elongation
• Synthesized at the tip of the shoot
• Also known as indole-3-acetic acid or
IAA
• Involved in cell growth and cell
expansion
• Promote apical dominance
regulate water loss
ETHYLENE is a small hydrocarbon gas
• Fruit ripening
• Stimulates maturation and ageing
(senescence)
TROPISM occurs when plant respond to a
certain stimulus.
• Biological mechanism
• Movement caused by a change in
plant’s growth pattern
• A plant movement towards (positive
tropism) or away (negative tropism)
from a stimulus.
PHOTOTROPISM – movement in respond to
sunlight
GEOTROPISM – movement towards or away
from the earth
GRAVITROPISM – movement towards or away
from the gravity

CYTOKININS produces in the roots, stimulate HYDROTROPISM – movement towards or away

growth and have anti-ageing effects. from the water

• Travel up through xylem THIGMOTROPISM – movement towards or

• Specifically promote growth and away from touch
development of chloroplast
STIMULUS
• Promotes cell division (cytokinesis)
• Delay senescene • It is a detectable change in internal and
external environment.
GIBBERILINS are hormones produced in
meristems of stems and roots that help regulate TYPES OF STIMULUS
stem elongation.
INTERNAL
• Nodes
• Triggers seed germination (initiates • Homeostatic imbalances
plant growth) • Blood Pressure

ABSCISIC ACID EXTERNAL

• Inhibit plant growth and development • Touch and Pain

• Promotes death of leaves (abscission) • Vision
• Responsible for seed dormancy • Smell
 2

• Taste RESPONSE
• Sound
• Reaction to a stimulus
• Equilibrium
TYPES OF RESPONSE

• Cellular response
• Systematic response

NERVOUS SYSTEM

CENTRAL NERVOUS PERIPHERAL

SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM

SENSORY
BRAIN SPINAL CORD MOTOR NEURONS
NEURONS

controls
SOMATIC AUTONOMIC
NERVOUS SYSTEM NERVOUS SYSTEM
involuntary
movements
controls
voluntary
movements SYMPATHETIC PARASYMPATHETIC

Fight or Flight Rest or Digest

 3

NEURON is the basic structural and functional
unit of Nervous System
• Transmits electrical signals called action
potential
BASIC PARTS OF NEURON
Dendrites – are several projections which
extends outward from the cell body to receive
chemical signals from the axon terminals of
another neuron.
Soma – or the cell body contains the nucleus
and most organelles.
Axon – single projection from the soma which
carries the impulse to the axon terminal. Maybe
envelope by myelin sheath for faster
conduction of impulse.
Synapse – a junction between two nerve cells,
consisting of a minute gap across which
impulses pass by diffusion of a
neurotransmitter.
IMPULSE is the sudden change in the electrical
potential of the cell membrane
NEUROTRANSMITTERS are chemicals released
which facilitates the transmission of an impulse
across a synapse.

GENERATING ACTION POTENTIAL

RESTING POTENTIAL

REPOLARIZATION

REFRACTORY PERIOD

DEPOLARIZATION RESTING PHASE

 4

• Schwann cells – Cells that wrap around • Controls conscious activities,

axons intelligence, memory, language,
muscles.
• Myelin – lipid/protein molecule that
makes up most of Schwann cells. • Wrinkled with countless folds and
grooves and covered with an outer
• Nodes of Ranvier – Gaps between
layer of gray matter called the cerebral
Schwann cells.
cortex.
• Saltatory Impulse - propagation from
• Divided into 4 lobes
Node to Node

BRAIN
CEREBELLUM
Three main sections
• Muscle coordination is developed here
• Cerebrum
as well as the memory of physical skills.
– 2 hemispheres
• If the cerebellum is injured, your
– Controls memory, intelligence, movements become jerky.
muscles
• When you see an amazing athlete
• Cerebellum perform, you are watching a well-
trained cerebellum at work.
– Controls balance, posture and
coordination BRAINSTEM

• Brainstem • Made up of the medulla oblongata,

pons and midbrain.
– Controls involuntary activities
such as breathing – Medulla oblongata controls
involuntary activities such as
CEREBRUM heart rate and breathing

– Pons and midbrain act as

pathways connecting various
part of the brain with each
other.

• Sometimes called the reptilian brain,

because it resembles the entire brain of
a reptile.

PARTS OF SPINAL CORD

• Thoracic
• Lumbar
• Sacral
• Cervical

CAUSE OF DAMAGES IN NERVOUS SYSTEM

 5

• Accidents

• Drugs

• Alcohol

DAMAGES

• Disease

• Chronic Pain
• Hearing Loss
• Depression Disorders
• Alzheimer's Disease
• Stroke
• Epilepsy
• Traumatic Head Injury
• Schizophrenia
• Parkinson's Disease
• Multiple Sclerosis
• Traumatic Spinal Cord Injury

ENDOCRINE GLAND SYSTEM • Stimulates release of GH from the

Chemical coordination of body functions is
mediated by the endocrine system, composed
of ductless glands that release hormones.
Hormones
pituitary gland
Corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)
• Stimulates release of ACTH from
pituitary gland

Hormones are chemical messengers Thyroid-releasing hormone

secreted by a gland and affect the specific
• Stimulates release of TSH from thyroid
target tissue or organ.
gland
HYPOTHALAMUS
Gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH)
• section of the brain responsible for the
• Stimulates release of FSH and LH from
production of many of the body’s
pituitary gland
essential hormones, chemical
substances that help control different Antidiuretic hormone (ADH)
cells and organs.
• Promotes reabsorption of 𝐻2 O by
• The hormones from the hypothalamus kidneys
govern physiologic functions such as
Oxytocin
temperature regulation, thirst, hunger,
sleep, mood, sex drive, and the release • Induces labor and milk release from the
of other hormones within the body. mammary glands in females
Growth-hormone-releasing hormone Anti-diuretic Hormone (ADH) and Oxytocin is
manufactured in Hypothalamus but the
 6

excretory nerve ending makes these hormones • Increases metabolic rate and heart rate;
stored in posterior Pituitary Gland. promotes growth

PINEAL GLAND

Melatonin ADRENAL GLAND

• It helps regulate other hormone and Epinephrine

maintains the body’s circadian rhythm;
• Produces many effects related to short-
is an internal 24-hour clock that plays a
term stress response
critical role in our sleeping pattern.
Cortisol
ANTERIOR PITUITARY GLAND
• Produces many effects related to short-
Growth Hormone (GH)
term and long-term responses
• Stimulates growth
Aldosterone
Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH)
• Increases reabsorption of 𝑁𝑎+ by
• The function of ACTH is to regulate kidneys
levels of the steroid hormone cortisol,
PANCREAS
which released from the adrenal gland.
• Islets of Langerhans
• Stimulates adrenal glands to secrete
glucocorticoids such as cortisol Insulin
Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) • Decreases blood glucose (beta cells)
• Stimulates thyroid gland to secrete Glucagon
thyroxine
• Increases blood glucose (alpha cells)
Follicle-stimulating hormone (FSH) and
Luteinizing Hormone (LH) KIDNEYS

• Involved in production of sex hormone; Erythropoietin (EPO)

regulates menstrual cycle in females • Increases synthesis of red blood cells
Prolactin (PRL) Vitamin D
• Stimulates mammary gland growth and • Decreases blood 𝐶𝑎2+
milk production in females
OVARIES
PARATHYROID GLAND
Estradiol
Parathyroid Hormone
• Regulates development and
• Increases blood 𝐶𝑎2+ maintenance of secondary sex
THYROID GLAND characteristics in females; other effects

Thyroxine Progesterone

• Prepares uterus for pregnancy


TESTES
Testosterone
• Regulates development and
maintenance of secondary sex
characteristics in males; other effects
ENDOCRINE GLAND DISEASES
HYPOTHALAMUS
• Anorexia Nervosa
• A lack or loss of appetite for food
• Bulimia Nervosa
• Characterized by binge eating followed
by purging (vomiting)
PITUITARY GLAND
• Cushing Syndrome
• Is an extremely complex hormonal
condition that involves many areas of
the body (weight gain) caused by over
production of ACTH.
• Acromegaly
• Abnormal growth of the hands, feet,
and face, caused by over production of
growth hormone
• Gigantism
• Characterized by excessive growth and
height significantly above average in
childhood
THYROID GLAND
• Hyperthyroidism
• Over activity of the thyroid gland,
resulting in a rapid heartbeat and an
increased rate in metabolism
• Hypothyroidism
• (underactive thyroid) is a condition in
which your thyroid gland doesn’t
produce enough of certain important
hormones
7
• Goiter
• A swelling of neck resulting from
enlargement of the thyroid gland
PARATHYROID GLAND
• Hyperparathyroidism
• Weakening of the bones because of
high concentration of calcium in the
blood
• Hypoparathyroidism
• Deficiencies of calcium results on
muscular spasms
ADRENAL GLAND
• Addison’s Disease
• A disease characterized by progressive
anemia, low blood pressure, great
weakness, and bronze discoloration of
the skin. (weight loss)
PANCREAS
• Diabetes
• A disease in which the body’s ability to
produce or respond to the hormone
insulin is impaired, resulting in
abnormal metabolism of carbohydrates
and elevated levels of glucose in the
blood and urine
GONADS
• Hypogonadism
• Reduction or absence of hormone
secretion or other physiological activity
of the gonads (testes or ovaries)
SENSORY AND MOTOR SYSTEMS
• A sensory system consists of sensory
neurons (including the sensory receptor
cells), neural pathways, and parts of the
brain involved in sensory perception.
Commonly recognized sensory systems
are those
for vision, hearing, touch, taste, smell,
and balance.

• senses are transducers from the
physical world to the realm of the mind
where we interpret the information,
creating our perception of the world
around us.
STIMULUS
• Receptors send impulses in certain
patterns to send information about the
intensity of a stimulus (for example,
MECHANORECEPTORS
how loud a sound is).
• The location of the receptor that is
stimulated gives the brain information
about the location of the stimulus
CHEMORECEPTORS
• The duration of the stimulus (how long
it lasts) is conveyed by firing patterns of
receptors. These impulses are
transmitted to the brain
PHOTORECEPTORS
through afferent neurons.
RECEPTORS
• The initialization of sensation stems
from the response of a specific receptor
to a physical stimulus. The receptors
which react to the stimulus and initiate
the process of sensation. All receptors
receive distinct physical stimuli and
transduce the signal into an
electrical action potential.
• The receptive field is the area of the
body or environment to which a
receptor organ and receptor cells
respond. For instance, the part of the
world an eye can see, is its receptive
field; the light that each rod or cone can
see, is its receptive field.
SENSORY RECEPTORS
• Sensory receptors are usually modified
neurons or epithelial cells occurring
singly or within groups in sensory
organs
8
• Sensory receptors do not interpret
stimuli; they are transducers that
convert stimuli energy into an action
potential (electrical signal)
• They are used by animals obtain
information about the environment
• All receptor cells have the same four
functions: transduction, amplification,
transmission, and integration.
• A sense organ or cell that responds to
mechanical stimuli such as touch or
sound
• A sensory cell or organ responsive to
chemical stimuli
• A structure in a living organism,
especially a sensory cell or sense organ,
that responds to light falling on it.
TYPES
ROD CELLS are photoreceptors in the retina
that can function in less intense light (dim
light) also used in peripheral vision
CONE CELLS are photoreceptors in the
retina that is responsible for color vision,
best in relatively bright light.
EAR
• PINNA is the only visible part of the ear
(the auricle) with its special helical
shape. It is the first part of the ear that
reacts with sound
• THE EAR CANAL – THE AUDITORY
CANAL Once the sound waves have
passed the pinna, they move two to
three centimetres into the auditory
canal before hitting the eardrum, also
known as the tympanic membrane. The

function of the ear canal is to transmit
sound from the pinna to the eardrum.
• EARDRUM (tympanic membrane), is a
membrane at the end of the auditory
canal and marks the beginning of the
middle ear.
• THE BONES OF THE MIDDLE EAR The
vibrations are transmitted further into
the ear via three bones in the middle
ear: the hammer (malleus), the anvil
(incus) and the stirrup (stapes).
• OVAL WINDOW is a membrane
covering the entrance to the cochlea in
the inner ear. When the eardrum
vibrates, the sound waves travel via the
9
hammer and anvil to the stirrup and
then on to the oval window.
• ROUND WINDOW in the middle ear
vibrates in opposite phase to vibrations
entering the inner ear through the oval
window.
• EUSTACHIAN TUBE is also found in the
middle ear, and connects the ear with
the rearmost part of the palate.
• COCHLEA, sound waves are
transformed into electrical impulses
which are sent on to the brain. The
brain then translates the impulses into
sounds that we know and understand.
• AUDITORY NERVE is a bundle of nerve
fibres that carry information between
the cochlea in the inner ear and the
brain.
 10

HOMEOSTASIS AND FEEDBACK MECHANISMS • Relay: The transmission of the message,

via nerves or hormones or both, to the
HOMEOSTASIS is the maintenance of a constant
effector.
internal environment in response to changes in:
• Effector: The cells or tissue, usually a
– the changing conditions of the
gland or muscles, which cause the
external environment.
response to happen.
– the changing conditions of the
• Response: An action, at cell, tissue or
internal environment.
whole organism level which would not
• structural: have occurred in the absence of the
stimulus.
• the animal or plant has particular
physical features which help its survival • Feedback: The consequence of the
in an otherwise hostile environment. response on the stimulus. May be
positive or negative.
• functional:
Negative Feedback
• the metabolism of the animal or plant is
able to adjust to changes in conditions
as they are detected.

• behavioral:

• the actions and interactions of the

individual, either alone or with others,
help it to survive in its particular
environment.

FEEDBACK MECHANISMS are the general Positive Feedback

mechanism of nervous or hormonal regulation
in animals.

• Negative feedback is when the

response diminishes the original
stimulus.

• Positive feedback is when the response

enhances the original stimulus.

• FEEDBACK LOOPS

• Stimulus: The change from ideal or

resting conditions.

• Receptor: The cells or tissue which

detects the change due to the stimulus.