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Introduction to Solar Energy – cont.. 3

Lecture 5. 1
Breakdown of incoming solar energy – cont..

Qualitative study of Solar,

Wind & Ocean Energy Systems
Dr. R. Ramaprabha
Associate Professor, Department of EEE
SSN College of Engineering, Chennai

EE 6009 – Power Electronics for Renewable Energy Systems (PERES)

Solar Energy Conversion Systems 1 Introduction to Solar Energy – cont.. 4

Introduction to Solar Energy Breakdown of incoming solar energy –cont..
• The earth receives 174 PW and approximately 30 % is reflected back to
• The Sun is the major feature in our Solar System. space.
• Solar energy is energy from the Sun. • About half the energy reaches the earth’s surface.

• The sun delivers energy to the earth free of charge. • The total solar energy available to the earth is approximately 3850 zeta
joules (ZJ) per year.
• Solar power is used synonymously with solar energy. (Note: 1 ZJ = 1021J)
• Oceans absorb approximately 2850 ZJ of solar energy per year.
The Sun is the source of
• Biomass captures approximately 1.8 ZJ of solar energy per year.
Energy of Human Life
• Worldwide energy consumption was 0.471 ZJ.
• This shows that the abundance of the solar energy to meet the requirement
even if 1 % land area collects energy at 10 % conversion efficiency.
Surprisingly, less than 0.03% of solar energy is use for photosynthesis.

Introduction to Solar Energy – cont.. 2 5

Breakdown of incoming solar energy Solar Energy Conversion Methods
• Solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such as
heat and electricity.
• Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy and used
to:
Heat water – for use in homes, buildings, or swimming pools.
Heat spaces – inside greenhouses, homes, and other
buildings.
• Solar energy can be converted to electricity in two ways:
Photovoltaic (PV devices) or “solar cells” – change sunlight
directly into electricity.
Solar Power Plants - indirectly generate electricity when the
heat from solar thermal collectors is used
About half the incoming energy from the sun is absorbed by water and land to heat a fluid which produces steam that
masses, while the rest is reradiated back into space
is used to power generator.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/File:Breakdown_of_the_incoming_solar_energy.svg

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6 Solar Energy Conversion Methods –cont.. 9

Solar Energy Conversion Methods – cont.. Solar Photovoltaic System
• Solar energy can be converted into other forms of energy, such • In solar photovoltaic conversion, photovoltaic (PV) devices or solar
as heat and electricity. cells directly convert sunlight into electricity.

• Solar Energy can be used in three different ways: • Solar cells are semiconductor devices made of silicon or other
semiconductor materials. These cells produce electricity under light.
– Solar Thermal Systems.
• When photons in sunlight hit the solar cell, they are absorbed by
– Solar Photovoltaic Systems. semi conducting materials, such as silicon.
– Photosynthesis. • Electrons (negatively charged) are liberated from their atoms,
allowing them to flow through the material to produce electricity.
This phenomenon is called photovoltaic effect.

• An array of solar cells called solar PV panel, converts solar energy

into a usable amount of direct current (DC) electricity.

Solar Energy Conversion Methods –cont.. 7 Solar Energy Conversion Methods –cont.. 10
Solar Thermal System Solar Photovoltaic System
• Solar energy can be converted to thermal (or heat) energy.

• Solar energy is collected by solar collectors which collect radiations

and transfer the energy to a fluid passing in contact with it.

• Flat plate collectors are used to heat water for use in homes,
buildings, or swimming pools.

• Concentrating collectors are used to concentrate the energy on

absorbing surface by reflection or refraction.

• Parabolic collectors are used in solar power plants.

  QVoc  
• The collected energy is used to heat the water and converted into I  I L  I j  I L  I D exp  1
  AKT  
steam. This steam is then used to run a turbine which is coupled   
with alternators. This is the indirect way to generate electricity.

8 Solar Energy Conversion Methods –cont.. 11

Solar Thermal System – cont.. Photosynthesis
• Figure shows the concept of solar thermal systems. • In photosynthesis, energy
from sunlight is converted
into chemical energy that can
be used to fuel the
organisms’ activities.
• Carbohydrates, such as
sugars, are synthesized from
carbon dioxide and water.
• Surprisingly, less than 0.03 %
of solar energy is use for
photosynthesis.

• Figure shows the basic

photosynthesis process.

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Advantages of Solar Energy Applications of Solar Energy

• Solar energy is free, clean and available abundant in Three major heads namely Power generation, Industrial &
Agriculture and Domestic.
nature.
• Power generation
• Solar energy does not cause pollution.
– Thermal
• Solar energy can be used in remote areas where it is too
– Hydrogen and Hydro-thermal
expensive to extend the electricity power grid.
– Solar ponds
• Simple applications such as calculators and other low
– Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
power consuming devices can be powered by solar
– Wind Energy Commercial Solar Electric Supply
energy effectively.
(WECS)
• Solar energy is infinite (forever). – Bio-mass conversion
– Photovoltaic

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Disadvantages of Solar Energy Applications of Solar Energy
• Solar energy can only be harnessed when it is daytime • Industrial & Agriculture
and sunny. – Solar water pumping systems and solar dryers.
• Solar collectors, panels and cells are relatively – Green houses.
expensive to manufacture although prices are falling – Desalination and Chilling.
rapidly. – Process steam and Solar furnaces.
• Solar power stations can be built but they do not match – Standalone photovoltaic systems and Building
the power output of similar sized conventional power integrated photovoltaic systems.
stations. They are also very expensive. • Domestic
– Heating and cooling of buildings.
• In countries such as the UK, the unreliable climate leads
to unpredictable solar energy generation. – AC and refrigeration systems.
– Solar cookers, solar water heaters and solar air heaters.

14 Wind Energy Conversion Systems 17

Disadvantages of Solar Energy Introduction to Wind Energy
• Wind energy is a source of renewable power which comes
• Large areas of land are required to capture the sun’s
from air current flowing across the earth's surface.
energy. Collectors are usually arranged together
• Wind turbines harvest this kinetic energy and convert it
especially when electricity is to be produced and used in into usable power which can provide electricity for
the same location. residential and large utility scales.
• Harnessing wind energy - 3000 BC - Egypt people used for
• Solar power is used to charge batteries so that solar sail boats.
powered devices can be used at night. However, the • 2000 BC - windmills- to grind grain - spread rapidly
batteries are large and heavy and need storage space. through the Middle East
They also need replacement from time to time. • These early devices consisted of one or more vertically-
mounted wooden beams, on the bottom of which was a
grindstone, attached to a rotating shaft that turned with
the wind.

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Introduction to Wind Energy –cont..
• It was in wide use long before the first windmill appeared
in Europe.
• The development of wind energy was rapid in 1930s when
an estimated 6, 00,000 windmills supplied rural areas with
electricity and water-pumping services.
• Due to the sudden price rise of fossil fuels, many
countries started working towards the development and
use of wind energy.
• 21st century - the continued evolution of wind turbine
technology - poised to power us into the future.
• The modern wind turbine is built to adapt to all kinds of
wind and weather conditions.
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Wind Energy Conversion
• Wind or air in motion contains the kinetic energy which is
converted into mechanical power by means of a wind
turbine.
• The wind turbine is connected to a generator for
producing electricity.
• They are classified as horizontal axis turbines or vertical
axis turbines depending upon the axis of rotation of their
rotors.
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Wind Energy Conversion
• In horizontal axis turbines, the main
rotor shaft is arranged horizontally at
the top of the tower.
• Modern horizontal wind turbine
usually features rotors that resemble
aircraft propellers, which operate on
similar aerodynamic principles, i.e.,
the air flow over the air foil shaped
blades creates a lifting force that
turns the rotor.
• The maximum efficiency of this type
of turbine can be reached when the
axis of wind wheel (rotor) and wind
direction are collinear.
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Wind Energy Conversion
• In vertical axis turbines, the main rotor
shaft is arranged vertically.
• These turbines typically operate closer to
the ground, which has the advantage of
allowing placement of heavy equipment,
like the generator and gearbox, near
ground level rather than in the nacelle.
• Another advantage of this type is that they
are always facing the wind, which might
make them a significant player in our quest
for cheaper, cleaner renewable sources of
electricity.
• Wind turbines have blades, sails fixed to a
central shaft and the extracted energy
causes the shaft to rotate. This rotating
shaft is used to generate electric power.
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Wind Energy Conversion
• Wind turbines are further classified into ‘lift’ (wind can rotate the
rotor of a wind turbine by lifting) and ‘drag’ (wind can rotate the
rotor of a wind turbine by passing against the blades) type.
• But lift type turbines are more suitable compared to drag type for
electric power generation.
• Different types of rotors used in wind turbines are: multiblade,
propeller, savanious and darrieus type.
1 3
Power Available: P  2 A C pV
where ρ is the density of the air; Cp is the coefficient of performance;
A is the capture area and V is the wind speed.
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Wind Energy Conversion
C  P /P
Power Captured PR in terms of Cp: p R
The electrical power output from the generator is less than the
power captured by the rotor, due to losses in both the gear train and
generator.
1 
PT  C p η g ηb  A  V 3 
2 
where ηg and ηb are efficiencies (power output over power input) for the
generator and the gearbox. Gearbox efficiencies are typically 90 ~ 95 %,
while generator efficiencies range from 50 % (for a car alternator) to
better than 80 % for a high quality, grid-connected model.
4

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Wind Energy Conversion
• The power curve for a wind turbine shows the net power
output as a function of wind speed as shown in Figure
This curve shows the three key wind speeds.
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Wind Energy Conversion
• Cut in wind speed: This is the wind speed at which the
wind turbine will start generating power - typical cut-in
wind speeds are 3 to 5 m/s.
• Nominal wind speed: This is the lowest speed at which the
wind turbine reaches its nominal power output. Above this
speed, higher power outputs are possible, but the rotor is
controlled to maintain a constant power to limit loads and
stresses on the blades.
• Cut-out wind speed: This is the highest wind speed which
the turbine will operate at. Above this speed, the turbine is
stopped to prevent damage to the blades.
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Wind Energy Conversion
• wind reaches the cut-in speed - the turbine starts
generating power,
• nominal wind speed is attained - the turbine maintains a
constant power output
• Cut-out speed is reached - the turbine is stopped.
• The power curve combined with the annual wind speed
distribution can be used to estimate how much energy a
wind turbine could generate in a year. Specifically, the
power at each wind speed is multiplied by the number of
hours per year that the wind blows at that speed to
estimate how much energy is generated at each wind
speed. This is then summed to get the annual energy
generated.
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Advantages of Wind Energy
• It does not pollute the air because it does not use fossil
fuels.
• It is of low cost; costing between 4 and 6 cents per kW-h.
• Wind turbines benefit the economy in rural areas
because they can be built on farms or ranches where
most of the best wind sites are found.
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Disadvantages of Wind Energy
• Wind is intermittent and doesn’t always blow when
needed.
• Wind energy cannot be stored without the use of
batteries; another high investment.
• Wind sites are often located in remote locations, so the
electricity generated may have to travel great distances
to get where it’s needed.
• Some concern exists over the noise produced by the
rotor blades, the visual impact on the landscape, and
sometimes birds have been killed by flying into the
blades.
• .
Ocean Energy Conversion Systems 29
Introduction to Ocean Energy
• Oceans/Seas cover more than 3/4th of Earth's surface.
• The vast potential of energy of the seas and oceans can
make a significant contribution to meet the energy
requirements.
• The different forms of energy from oceans/seas which are
receiving more attention are tidal power, ocean thermal
energy conversion (OTEC), waves and ocean currents.
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Tidal Power
• Tidal power is also called as tidal energy which converts the energy of
into useful forms of power.
• The energy generation by tides is predictable.
• A tidal generator converts the tidal energy into electrical energy.
• The generated tidal electricity is increased with higher tidal variation
and tidal current velocities.
• Tidal power can be classified into three generating methods: Tidal
steam generator (make use of the kinetic energy of moving water to
power turbines), Tidal barrage (make use of the potential energy in the
difference in height between high and low tides) and dynamic tidal
power (exploit an interaction between potential and kinetic energies in
tidal flows).
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Ocean Thermal Energy Conversion (OTEC)
• OTEC generates electricity indirectly from solar energy by
harnessing the temperature difference between the sun-
warmed surface of tropical oceans and the colder deep
waters.
• A significant fraction of solar radiation incident on the
ocean is retained by sea water in tropical regions,
resulting in average year-round surface temperatures of
about 28o C.
• Deep, cold water, meanwhile, forms at higher latitudes and
descends to low along the seafloor toward the equator.
• The warm surface layer, which extends to depths of about
100 m-200 m, is separated from the deep cold water by a
thermo cline.

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Tidal Power – cont.. OTEC – cont..
• The tidal electricity generation works as the tide comes in • The temperature difference, ΔT, between the surface and
and again when it goes out. thousand meter depth ranges from 10o C to 25o C, with
• The turbines are driven by the power of the sea in both the larger differences occurring in equatorial and tropical
directions which are shown in Figures waters.
• ΔT establishes the limits of the performance of OTEC
power cycles; the rule of thumb is that a differential of
about 20o C is necessary to sustain viable operation of an
OTEC facility.
• There are three kinds of OTEC systems: Open cycle (use
the tropical oceans warm surface water to make
electricity), closed cycle (utilize fluids with a low boiling
point, such as ammonia for rotating a turbine) and hybrid
cycle (combine the features of closed and open cycle
systems). Closed cycle method is commonly used.

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Tidal Power – cont.. (Tidal Barrage) OTEC – cont.. (Typical OTEC plant)

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OTEC – cont..
• Since OTEC exploits renewable solar energy, recurring
costs to generate electrical power are minimal.
• However, the fixed or capital costs of OTEC systems per
kilowatt of generating capacity are very high because
large pipelines and heat exchangers are needed to
produce relatively modest amounts of electricity.
• These high fixed costs dominate the economics of OTEC
to the extent that it currently cannot compete with
conventional power systems, except in limited niche
markets
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Waves and Ocean Currents
• When speaking of water, the word current refers to the
motion of the water.
• Currents are found in rivers, ponds, marshes and even
swimming pools.
• Few bodies of water have the complicated system of
currents that oceans do, though.
• Ranging from predictable tidal currents to fickle rip
currents, ocean currents may be driven by tides, winds or
differences in density.
• Wave energy is the transport of energy by ocean surface
waves, and the capture of that energy to do useful work,
for example, electricity generation, water desalination, or
the pumping of water (into reservoirs).
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Waves and Ocean Currents – cont..
• Machinery able to exploit wave power is generally known
as a wave energy converter (WEC). Wave power is distinct
from the diurnal flux of tidal power and the steady gyre of
ocean currents.
• Waves are generated by wind passing over the surface of
the sea.
• As long as the waves propagate slower than the wind
speed just above the waves, there is an energy transfer
from the wind to the waves.
• Both air pressure differences between the upwind and the
leeside of a wave crest, as well as friction on the water
surface by the wind, making the water to go into the shear
stress causes the growth of the waves.
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Waves and Ocean Currents – cont..
• Wave height is determined by wind speed, the duration of
time the wind has been blowing, fetch (the distance over
which the wind excites the waves) and by the depth and
topography of the seafloor (which can focus or disperse
the energy of the waves).
• A given wind speed has a matching practical limit over
which time or distance will not produce larger waves.
When this limit has been reached the sea is said to be
‘fully developed’.
• The typical example for the wave energy generation is
shown in Figure 1.11.
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Waves and Ocean Currents – cont..
• The typical example for the wave energy generation is
shown in Figure.
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Waves and Ocean Currents – cont..
• Wave power generation is not currently a widely employed
commercial technology, although there have been
attempts to use it since at least 1890.
• In 2008, the first experimental wave farm was opened in
Portugal, at the Aguçadoura Wave Park. The major
competitor of wave power is offshore wind power.
• Ref: http://www.emec.org.uk/marine-energy/wave-devices/
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Advantages of Ocean Energy
• Free.
• Renewable and not dependent on the rain.
• Non-polluting (does not add to global warming).
• Never-ending (in-exhaustible).
Disadvantages of Ocean Energy
• Difficult to get a good workable technology.
• Metal equipment corrodes in the salt water.

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