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Pneumatic Structures

The Structure
The pneumatically-stretched skin
differs i n principle f r o m structural
forms which are not stabilized by
pressure differences of gases or
by D r - I n g F r e i Otto and Peter Stromeyer liquids. Pressure difference is the
essential structural element. When
a membrane is stretched between
two supports even a small atmos-
This article originally appeared in German in Deutsche Bauzeitung, July, pheric pressure suffices to keep it
1961, pages 518-527, pnblLshed in Stuttgart by Deutsche Verlagsanstalt suspended. A snow load of twenty
psf will be carried by an atmos-
GmbH. It has been translated for the A I A .loumal by Gudrun Hiiden pheric pressure of only 0.14 psi =
2.94" (water), without stressing the
skin directly.
Here we are confronted with
Designs based upon membranes erected a great number of pneu- the rare case of a construction
expanded or supported by air pres- matic structures. The first of Bird's which quite clearly does not show
sure are finding more and more solutions dealt with radar domes strains on structural members un-
applications in many technical for the northern air defense line der maximum loads. Practically
fields. They have become impor- of the American continent. Bird's speaking, there is no structural
tant not only f o r movable struc- successful and daring structures led member, since the snow load is
tures, but also f o r shell-type ele- many others to explore similar directly carried by atmospheric
ments of permanent buildings. problems. Only a few teams, how- pressure. Thus, this air pressure is
These skins—stretched by gas or ever, have attained recognition— structure, the skin merely a separa-
liquid pressure diff^erences—are Schjedahl, Irving, and US Rubber. tion layer.
tensile structures, related to hang- I n Europe the Stromeyer air-filled- In the ca.se of the child's balloon,
ing roofs and suspension bridges. hose-arch camping tents have been as with that of the pneumatically-
They permit .structural solutions known f o r quite a long time. More stretched dome, interior pressure
with little weight, and belong—as recently, structures by Texair and carries the membrane independent
do tents (see AIA Journal, Feb- K r u p p have appeared. of radius of curvature. Calculations
ruary and A p r i l 1961)—to the I n the field of pneumatic con- for membranes under interior
lightest of all methods in the field struction as an auxiliary structural pressure only are fairly simple—
of lightweight building. These element, Neff (US) used inflated consideration of snow and wind
methods are gaining steadily in balloons f o r f o r m - w o r k f o r con- loads, however, become difficult
importance in comparison to the crete shells, while Buckminster mathematical problems.
well-proved field of heavyweight Fuller used them f o r auxiliary rig-
construction. ging elements in r i b shell domes. Soap Bubbles
One of the authors worked on Soap bubbles are minimum
Early Developments theory and foundations of this sub- areas. Looking closely at thin soap
The most familiar pneumatically- ject. 1958-1960 at the Washing- skins within a soap bubble agglom-
stretched skins are sails, in which ton University of St. Louis, Yale eration (figure 1), all exhibit the
aerodynamic difl^erences in pres- University and the "Hochschule f i i r same membrane stresses. A l l skins
sure stretch the skin. Waterbags, Gestaltung" at U l m . stand at 120° angles to each other
warm-air and light-gas balloons, During recent years considera- or normal to the next row of bor-
garden, fire and warm-air hoses, ble research has been done by dering surfaces. When variously-
tires, rubber boats, balls and steam the "Entwicklungsstatte f i i r den sized soap bubbles hang together,
boilers, as well as high-pressure Leichtbau" in Berlin (Development the interior atmospheric pressure
gasometers, all illustrate these de- Center f o r Lightweight Construc- differs in each one and the parti-
velopments. tion), sponsored by L . Stromeyer tion walls are bent.
As far as we know Lanchester and Company, of Konstanz. This
in England made, in 1917, the first research has given the first oppor-
experimental use of air-supported tunity to view this specialized field
tent skins to roof large areas. Lan- as a whole and answer many previ-
ously unresolved questions, .so that
Technical
chester, who died a few years ago
and never was able to execute a today we have a considerable vo-
single building, had, in his early cabulary of pneumatic types of Spherical Domes
sketches, solved the problem of con.struction. Collaborators in these
The spherical dome, too, is a
air-locks. We introduced rope- efforts were the architects Koch
minimum area. Under interior pres-
supporting elements, and evolved ( U S ) , Frederick Miles, professor of
sure and in non-weighted condi-
several important laws of shape architectural design, Univ of I l l i -
tion, i t shows the same stresses in
and f o r m . Later Stevens tried to nois, and Wehrhahn (Berlin). The
one direction at every point in the
promote the idea in the United engineer Trostel, lecturer at Tech-
skin. Every soap bubble is a spheri-
States. nical University of Berlin (Berlin)
cal dome—elastic rubber also
has been responsible f o r the math-
The significant breakthrough into arches to approximate dome shape
ematical theory.*
practical application was accom- (figure 2). Structural envelopes f o r
plished after the war in the United • A text on this subject will soon appear major scientific instruments often
in Germany published by Ullslein-Verlag, demand three-quarter domes which
States by Bird, who by now has Berlin.
require higher interior pressure
than half-domes (figure 3) in order
to stabilize them against wind
forces. Due to the larger radius
of curvature, shallow domes—com-
pared with half-domes over same
foundation and at same interior
pressure—have greater membrane
stres.ses. However, they generally
require a smaller interior pressure
.if Z > . >•
f o r stabilization. TTius, determina-
tion of the most advantageous arch-
ing height requires considerable
study. In the case of large span.s—
with their often-considerable mem-
brane stresses—essential forces can
be anchored through ropes or
ropenets. This, f o r instance, per-
1 Several small soap bubbles surround a larger
mits application of thin, transparent
one. Study of .soap bubbles for minimum areas is
plastic foils, (see illustration AIA
often most useful for design of pneumatically-
stretched structures** Journal A p r i l 1961 p 116)

Non-round Domes

Pneumatically-stressed domes
may be inflated over foundations
of various shapes. Particularly
striking is the shape (figure 4) con-
sisting of two connecting domes
with soft saddle-form passage, de-
veloped f o r a large exhibition
building in South America (figure
5).
Van-shaped Domes with Ropes
Ropes can be used to influence
and divide the surface of a dome.
They are able to transmit consid-
erable forces and thus reduce ten-
sion in intervening membranes.
2 Time exposure of rubber membrane over circular foundation during Different shapes are possible over
expansion from flat to half-dome. Lights on dome surface reveal travel similar ground-plans (figure 6 and
7). In the project f o r an amphi-
theatre roof a higher round dome
vaults the stage area, ropes keep
roof over audience-seating low.
giving a favorable acoustical f o r m .

Domes Over Square Foundations


Soap bubbles can even be
vaulted over square ground layouts
(figures 8 and 9), thus producing
minimal areas with equal stresses
at every surface point. A t the high-
est point, the soap skin resembles a
102 spherical section, nearer the corners
it is bent in saddle f o r m . As an
experiment, this f o r m was sta-
bilized and elevation lines opti-
cally applied. Skins pneumatically
stretched over triangular, square or
multi-cornered foundations may
achieve greater importance since
3 Exhibition complex built by Walter Bird. Four 90' domes the in-line placement of buildings
surround larger half-dome, 150' diameter. Public entrances is simplified. Frame-stretched skins
are revolving doors. Large equipment can be introduced w i t h rectilinear edges can also form
through air-lock. Air pressure in inter-connecting pneumatic such shapes. Figure 10 shows a
system kept constant by twelve blowers model f o r a pneumatically-stretched
The Devclopmcni Center for Lightweight Construction (Bcrlin- skin roofing f o r the cargo distribu-
Zehlendi)rf. Tiirksteinweg 5) were originalor.s of projects and illustrations tion center f o r a harbor.
noi otherwise credited.
Square and Rectangular Domes
with Ropes
I n the project f o r an assembly
hall (figure 11), a pneumatically-
stretched skin covers an interior
courtyard of a two-story office
building. I n order to keep the
vaulting height d o w n — l o r hc;iting
considerations—and to concentrate
the major forces at four points, it
is fixed by two ropes crossing each
other. When a rectangular founda-
tion is roofed with a pneumatically-
stretched skin, cross-ropes are
economical; but f o r improvement
of interior design, acoustics, light-
ing and ventilation, a different rope
direction may be indicated, as in
the project f o r a festival hull
(figure 12). 4 Model experiment with rubber membrane—marking lines
are applied—being inflated on dumbbell-shaped foundation
Cylinders
When cylindrical skins arc not
riveted at the ends, they transmit—
due to interior pressure in ring
direction—double the membrane
stresses they carry in longitudinal
direction. Examples are hoses,
steam boilers and containers. De-
pending on amount of interior
pressure, they exhibit more or less
high resistance to bending. In meas-
uring torsion resistance, it is pos-
sible to determine the shearing
module of the major material used.

Half-cylinders
American and European firms
have recently constructed a num-
ber of buildings in half-cylinder
form—warehouses (figure 13) and
shelters f o r winter structures and 5 Victor Liindy. A I A . designed large exhibition pavilion for AEC in shape
swimming pools (figure 14). Quite of two domes with saddle-formed passage. Executed by Walter Bird,
frequently these envelopes were engineered by Fred .Severud. 270' by 110'. membrane has double walls.
merely anchored to the ground Inside, another independent pneumatic dome houses the atomic reactor
with water hoses. The ring stresses
in the cylindrical portion are dou-
ble those of the stresses in the
quarter-sphere ends. The simplicity
of cutting cylindrical skins is an
important advantage.

Spindle and Other Rotation Forms


A soap skin can be stretched
between two rigid rings—lacking 103
interior pressure it takes the f o r m
of a catenoid; interior pressure
added, it becomes a cylinder, which
can be further swelled out to a
thickened stick f o r m (figure 15)
until it reaches spherical shape.
Differing rotation shapes are pos-
sible within strict limits of the laws
of f o r m . Noteworthy is the elipsoid
whose ring stresses grow harmoni-
cally—peak value is achieved at
largest diameter. I t is not possible 6 Test model of a pneumatically-stretched skin
to arrive at a rotation shape formed propped up by a net of five radial ropes
in the ca.se of slim elipsoids through
revolution of the small axis. The
result is the f o r m of a flattenetl
sphere with folds at the line of the
equator.

Cones
A conical shape can be formed
pneumatically. However, with
strong interior pressure it shows
no stresses at the cone's peak, and
no resistance to attacking forces.
The conical shape does achieve
stability when the peak is slightly
bellied. The conical skin serves as
weather protection f o r sensitive
bulk-pour-materials, such as grain,
cement, sulphur and many others
(figure 16).
7 A diUcicnt shape results—starting from same founda-
Pneumatic Skins with Inner
tion as (6)—when rope direction is altered
Drainage
Of particular importance for
practical application, pneumati-
cally-stretched skins with inner
drainage systems are the result of
research undertaken by the De-
velopment Center f o r Lightweight
Construction. By connecting mem-
branes to the foundation at numer-
ous points the total shape will be
8 View of a soap-bubble over square base kept low—a requisite f o r green-
houses (figure 17) with their special
heating needs. This decreases size
of free span widths. Due to rela-
tively small membrane stresses, it
is possible to employ thin plastic
foils or lattice foils. W i t h larger
spans, plastic foils are pressed
against a rope net by air pressure,
resulting in quite remarkable struc-
9 Photo (8) as seen from diagonal side of square
tural forms. In the case of large
area roofing with transparent foils,
inner spaces develop whose exist-
ence is hardly detectable with the
camera, although clearly percepti-
ble to the human eye. Here we
are dealing with a particularly deli-
cate type of lightweight con-
struction. In the project f o r an
exhibition and conference hall (fig-
ure 18), a flatter membrane struc-
ture envelops a large dome whose
f o r m is strongly affected by the
provision f o r interior drainage at
the edge. Since the membrane
104 stresses o f the dome are consid-
erably higher than those of the
lower areas with the inner drainage
system, differing membrane thick-
nesses were chosen.

itnildings with Interior Walls


P n e u m a t i c a l l y - s t r e t c h e d struc-
tures may be partitioned at will
with walls which are also mem-
branes. For instance, when several
10 Project for the distribution center of a harbor—aluminum-vapor- soap bubbles meet, interior skins
trcated stretched membrane, still translucent, over a square base are formed. The effect of inner
walls is similar to that of interior
drainage. Forces are transmittcil
along inner walls by lines into the
roof skin which are cut o f f there
and f o r m hollows in the roof. De-
spite inner anchorage—with inner
walls—drainage to the outside can
be accomplished. It is not necessary
that inner walls extend all the way
to the foundation. They can be sup-
ported by ropes so that they are
connected with the ground only at
very few points (figures 19 and 20).
Due to the influence of inner walls,
almost infinite shapes of pneumatic
structures are made possible.

With and Without Interior Pre.s.sure


In the building forms shown so
far, interior spaces were subjected I I Project for assembly hall of industrial plant, vaulted by skin braced by
two crossing ropes
to over-pressure, thus stretching the
skin. In order to enter the interior,
air-locks are required. The simplest
air-lock is the revolving door. Dou-
ble doors and membrane-fashioned
air pockets are also used. Since in-
terior pressure is generally small,
no particular difiiculties have arisen
in f o r m i n g these locks. These build-
ings are generally kept under a
persistent internal pressure of 15-
35 m m water column (3-7 psf)
which is hardly noticeable even to
sensitive individuals who enter
these structures. Blowers provide 12 Pneumatically-stretched skin over long, rectangular founda-
constant air pressure, using very tion braced by transverse ropes. Model for festival-hall shows
little energy. As a precautionary influence of ropes
measure emergency-power-equipped
blowers are set up, although it is
well-known that even in the case
of considerable leaks, a long time
elapses before an envelope actually
collapses, since enormous volumes
have to be displaced. Through in-
troduction of wind pressure, stabi-
lization of domes is effected even
with low velocity. Due to gravity
differences of warm and cold air.
larger domes remain standing in
winter even without mechanicalK-
produced air pressure.
There are. however, a number of
different kinds of structures whose
interior spaces do not require
13 Interior of warehouse (US Rubber 14 B/>i/a/>-buiIt envelope over swimming-
higher pressure f o r support. Here
C o ) : a half-cylinder with quarter-sphere pool permits winter use. Cylinder skin
we are dealing with inflated double
ends and water-hose ring ba.se is of transparent plastic foil
skins, cushion-form .shapes, which
permit structural enveloping of
spaces. Such cushion-type struc-
tures, of course, have the advantage
of the unobstructed, free-entry i n -
terior, but the disadvantage of
large surfaces. Generally, however,
higher interior pressure does be-
come necessary.

Cushions with Border Ropes


When two originally flat, square
membranes are hermetically sealed
and inflated, a typical "cushion" 15 Closed soap-bubble between two rigid rings
16 Project for pneumatic-
ally-stretched conical skin as
weather protection in shal-
low coastal waters

17 Pneumatically-stretched
skin with inner drainages on
hexagonal principle. Opti-
cally-applied lines mark
cuttings

18 Project by architects
Addis, Kniflen and Childs,
Yale University, for large
exhibition and assembly hall
in Chicago

19. 20 Project for roofing


large area whose interior
walls are connected to the
ground at many points. In-
terior walls are propped
close to roof skin with ropes
results characterized by folds and lay directly in the path of a cata-
great thickness. This shape is simi- strophic hurricane in I960. While
lar to a ball with four added and Iho surrounding and partly attached
ioined cones. When such a cushion buildings were seriously damaged,
is stretched it becomes flatter and the roof survived the blast un-
thus more suitable as a construction harmed.
component f o r roofs and walls. I n 21 (Above) Five-cornered Hal
the case of the triangular roof, a Cushions with Laminates double membrance with center
double membrane is bordered by Flat cushions can be produced opening, border ropes. 22 (Be-
ropes which are anchored in fixed low) In collaboration with Bird
through lamination. Such laminates
abutments. A still (latter cusbit)n and engineer Paul Weidlinger.
can be produced by direct connec- Carl Koch, A I A and Margict
f o r m is achieved by contraction at tions of both membranes, by use of Ross roofed large open-air
the center (figure 2 1 ) . Here the single ropes, or membrane walls. theater with nylon cushion
double membrane is not only bor- The Wingfoot Corporation has
dered at the edge, but also at the manufactured a sandwich-type
edge of the center hole. building component which features
a pair o f airtight fabric mem-
C ushions Between Arches branes connected by woven-in
and Circles threads of the same length. A i r
Double membranes may al.so be pressure added, the panels are
stretched between arches and almost rigid. Buckminster Fuller
circles. These are pressure-strcs.sed. has joined these into dome struc-
and must be strutted accordingly. tures (figure 2 3 ) .
Some strutting may be done
through the membrane itself. Big- Composite Structures
scale execution of a cushion-type Panel and skin components of
structure (largest to date) can be the same unit may be structurally
found in the roof of the open-air combined. For example, when
theatre in Boston: a rope-cdgcd pneumatically-stretched ball skins
cushion almost 200 feet in diameter are put tightly side by side, these
is anchored to a heavyweight pres- may f o r m areas of hexagonal or
sure ring (figure 2 2 ) . This structure square plan with intermediary
23 In collaboration with Berger Brothers. Buckminster Fuller has built .sandwich construction geodesic domes. In-
dividual members are pressure-stressed double membranes with numerous connections

24 Large flexible containers


for liquids can be built to-
day by placement on flat-
tened surface

25 (Right) Project for a


grain silo in which contain-
ers are hung from guyed
steel pipe beams

walls. Components of pneumatical- peak, pressure is lowest or n i l . In of flexible membranes will gain
ly-stretched skins can be prefabri- a condition of weightlessness, as considerable importance (figure
cated and assembled—as brickwork when falling in a vacuum, a liquid 24). A liquid container suspended
is—into flat surfaces or vaults. By drop has the shape of a ball. A at one point is shaped similarly to
arranging rows of hoses, cylinder liquid drop, such as mercury, rest- a drop about to fall. These prac-
shells can result, as in the South ing on a flat surface, is deformed tical shapes could be suspended
American exhibition structure by by its own weight. Small drops f r o m rods to f o r m , f o r instance,
Lundy. arc ball-shaped, while larger ones cement or grain silos (figure 2 5 ) .
I0« are oblate. When the time comes The material to be contained is
Containers for Liquids that very strong, highly chemi- blown in and later removed through
Another special field in this area cal-resistant membranes can be the supported middle steel pipe.
is pneumatic construction o f con- produced—possibly consisting of When the silos are not filled, the
tainers f o r liquids. These differ several layers of plastic fiber fabric skin is tightly drawn to the middle
essentially f r o m those stressed with intermediary layers of plastics, beam through a series of automatic
through gas pressure in that pres- metal foil layers and perhaps wire spring actions. The structure be-
sure is highest at lowest point of supports, and all this possesses a comes really effective only when
structure—due to weight of liquid tensile strength of high order, f u l l . The fill height is visible f r o m
—and thus at the highest point, or then mammoth container structures the outside, unless additional pros-
26 Model of a "sail shell" built by the architects Stoecker. Salomon and Scott in 1958 at Washington University,
St. Louis. Such "sail shells" act favorably even with positive forces

sure e.\ists which upholds the f o r m advantage of mass prefabrication, further by enveloping the rod with
even without liquids. particularly in the case of long and a cushion construction. Easy-to-
low dams consisting o f single and bend pressure rods can be made
A number of projects have been joined segments. In the case o f bend-resistant with the help of
studied f o r dams consisting o f larger single structures—e.xcept f o r pneumatic chambers. One funda-
small-mesh ropes fitted with heavy- the foundation, o f course—the mental principle of tensile-stressed
weight fabric on the principle of actual construction can be done in construction also applies to pneu-
membranes stretched through liquid a special shop with the greatest of matic construction wherein tensile
pressure. When such dams incline care. As history teaches, with and bending forces should be con-
towards the water, the water pres- larger projects (at least at first) we centrated as much as possible—
sure acts in an upward force will still build rigid structures, contrary to pressure forces particu-
stretching the membrane in both which, however, will act as liquid larly suited f o r the bearing of large
diix'ciions. Since anchorage is quite containers and at filled capacity area forces. The animal and human
easy at great depth—even with very will just be tensile-stressed and thus body, f o r example, is a combination
bad site conditions—and such a in no way be endangered through of bend-resistant and compression-
structure is only under tensile buckling. resistant skeleton parts with tensile
stresses and cannot buckle, econo- members such as tendons and skins,
mies in such an arrangement can stabilized by the tissue or blood
Pneumatically-Stretched Skin.s
hardly be surpassed and. due to the pressure.
Combined with Other Forms
I 10 elimination o f buckling danger, of Construction
they are very safe. Sensitivity to Sails
w i l l f u l destruction, such as bomb- There are infinite possibilities f o r Sails of ships and boats—due to
ing attacks, is great. However, beam combining pneumatic construction pressure difl'erences—often are
dam walls are still more vulnerable. with other forms o f construction. heavily stressed membranes, which,
Cost estimates showed a fifty per- Stability of pneumatic cylinders, f o r given correct f o r m , may be o f
cent saving over comparable instance, is increased through guy great aerodynamic efficacy. As
projects even w h e n — f o r safety wires. Should a guyed tower con- construction, sails are only effec-
reasons—tv^o independent mem- sist of separate chambers, auto- tive i f they have proper wind orien-
brane structures were erected side matic erection can be achieved tation. Since structures generally
by side, so that one will automati- through separate inflation. A pneu- cannot be turned with the wind,
cally close i f the other starts to leak. matically-stretched skin may be we may have the impression at first
In areas o f difficult access—for used as a support f o r a spatially that sails are o f no importance to
which numerous smaller structures buckled, pre-stretched membrane. the building field. One can observe,
are planned today—the membrane In the case o f bend-resistant rods, however, that originally flat, loosely
dam building method has the bending resistance can be increased suspcndcil tent roofs inflate under
27 Model of structure originally erected with pneumatically-stretched skin with inner supports, braced with poly-
esters, now acting as load-bearing shell structure

wind to high domes in balloon sail were investigated which show Pneumatic Structures as
fashion. When you investigate greater promise o f successful brac- Auxiliary Building Components
which of the shell-supporting sur- ing through spraying of plastics on The erection of shell domes is
face forms have proven most resist- stretched skins. As an example, it often quite complicated. F o r the
ant against wind forces—as in is possible to spray and brace the rigging of geodesic domes Buck-
buildings in tropical areas with inside of a pneumatic structure— minster Fuller has employed pneu-
strong winds—you will find that which will later also f o r m the ex- matically-stretched balloons, in
only pure sail forms can take eco- terior surface of the building—with order to lift domes gently at the
nomically great wind suction forces, polyesters, or insulate it with spe- center. In this way successive at-
such as those found in flat domes. cial foam layers, independently of tachment of more rings at the
I t is extremely interesting to note weather conditions outside. During periphery is made possible. W i t h
that such "sail shells" generally act summer and calm weather, large great simplicity, Doernach used a
quite favorably even with positive thermoplastic panels can be inflated balloon to bend a sandwich panel
forces such as .snow loads. The sail to f o r m load-bearing shell struc- —consisting of aluminum surface
f o r m under wind pressure can be tures by blowing i n hot air under foils—into a load-bearing shell
studied in wind tunnels under snow increased pressure, or by inflation structure.
loads best with a scale model ex- of plastic-layered skins within the
periment. The resulting shell struc- setting time of cold-hardening
tures exhibit forms of great struc- resins, or rather through addition of The Future
tural clarity (figure 26). a plastic catalyst to dry-harden in
inflated condition. O f some impor-
111
We are only beginning to work
tance is the inflation of soft metal with pneumatic structures today.
Braced Pneumatic Structures foils, such as aluminum or copper One should not u.se them as novel-
In the 1930s, Wallace Neff^, foils, into load-bearing shell struc- ties but wherever they can be an
FAiA. Started to spray rubber tures, which at small spans will essential help in the solution of
balloons with concrete. The balloon remain standing without further particular building task. They are
served as a f o r m f o r non-deflecting support. W i t h larger spans, how- tricky and one can avoid mistakes
load-bearing shell structures. This ever, additional bracing is required, and failures only with great caution
structural method, however, only which often is accomplished merely in design, fabrication and erection.
very rarely manages to keep rubber by coating w i t h sprayable light- The pneumatic structure, however,
deflection small enough—during weight-insulation skins. Almost all by virtue of its numerous possibili-
the time it takes f o r the spray con- pneumatic type structures can be ties f o r application considerably
crete to harden—to avoid forma- braced—particularly those with widens the field of building. I t has
tion of cracks and joints. Following points of inner drainage (figure great economic advantages over all
this research, however, methods 27). other types of structures.
112

1\^

Technical Physics Institute. Munich (see p. 114)

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