Introduction to Algebra

General
• sin(A ± B) = sin A cos B ± cos A sin B.
• cos(A ± B) = cos A cos B ∓ sin A sin B.

Complex Numbers
• Modulus/conjugate properties for equality proofs:
 
◦ z1 + z2 = z 1 + z 2 and z1 z2 = z 1 z 2 and zz12 = zz 12
◦ z + z = 2 Re(z) and | Re(z)| ≤ |z| for ∆ inequality
 
◦ zz = z 2  and |z1 · z2 | = |z1 | |z2 | etc.
• Triangle inequality:
 
Recall zz = z 2  and z + z = 2 Re(z).

|z1 + z2 |2 = (z1 + z2 ) (z1 + z2 )

= (z1 + z2 ) (z1 + z2 )
= z1 z1 + z1 z2 + z1 z2 + z2 z2
= |z1 |2 + 2 Re (z1 z2 ) + |z2 |2
Recall that Re(z) ≤ | Re(z)| and | Re(z)| ≤ |z|.
|z1 |2 + 2 Re (z1 z2 ) + |z2 |2 ≤ |z1 |2 + 2 |Re (z1 z2 )| + |z2 |2
≤ |z1 |2 + 2 |z1 z2 | + |z2 |2
= |z1 |2 + 2 |z1 | |z2 | + |z2 |2
= (|z1 | + |z2 |)2
Therefore |z1 + z2 |2 ≤ (|z1 | + |z2 |)2
so |z1 + z2 | ≤ |z1 | + |z2 |
• Multiplying complex numbers: z1 z2 = r1 r2 (cos (θ1 + θ2 ) + i sin (θ1 + θ2 ))
• De Moivre’s Theorem: (cos(θ) + i sin(θ))n = cos(nθ) + i sin(nθ)
◦ cos(nθ) = Re ((c + is)n )
◦ sin(nθ) = Im ((c + is)n )
• To show solutions are inside unit circle show |z| ≤ 1 holds for P (z) = 0. If outside
then assume |z| ≤ 1 and P (z) 6= 0.

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 • Roots of unity:
1. Convert to z = reiθ
1 1 iθ
2. Find (reiθ ) n = r n e n
2kπ
3. Multiply by n-th root of unity, e n for k = 0, 1, 2...(n − 1)

Matrices
• Solving linear systems with Gaussian elimination
1. Create augmented matrix.
2. Use row-operations to put into row-echelon form.
3. Write out equations.
4. Assign arbitrary (s,t,u,v...) values to non-leading variables.
5. Back-substitute and solve.
• Invert n×n matrix (PRACTISE)
1. Create augmented matrix with In on RHS.
2. Use row-operations to put into row-echelon form.
3. Use row-operations to turn LHS into identity matrix.
4. Read off RHS as inverse.
• If given (m × n)(n × p) the resulting matrix will be size m × p. Notice the adjacent
dimensions n must match.
 
cos(θ) − sin(θ)
• 2D roation matrix Rθ =
sin(θ) cos(θ)
• (AB)−1 = B −1 A−1 and (AB)t = B t At
• A has an inverse if and only if det(A) 6= 0
• If a column or a row of an n × n matrix A is identical then det(A) = 0
• See Sarrus’ rule for determinant of 3×3.
• det(A) = a11 C11 + a12 C12 + a13 C13 + · · · + a1n C1n where C is the cofactor (+-+-
etc.) matrix.
• If a matrix is 4 × 4 or larger then must use diagonal product to find determinant
(upper right triangle).
• If a row/column is a multiple of another or is all zeros, det()=0.
• det(AB) = det(A) det(B)
• A−1 = 1
det(A) adj(A) where adj(A) = C T (Cramer’s Rule uses this to solve Ax = b)
• Orthogonal matrices are square and have rows and columns which are also orthog-
onal unit vectors (orthonormal), and satisfy AAt = In = At A.

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Vectors
• Vector equation of a line: x = x0 + tv for some point on the line x0 = (a, b).
• Vector equation of a plane: x = x0 + t1 v1 + t2 v2 for a plane on point x0 parallel
to v1 and v2 .
• Point-normal equation of a plane: n · x = n · x0 .
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• A unit vector is of the form u = |v| v

• Dot product is u · v = |u||v| cos(θ) where u · v = u1 v1 + u2 v2 + · · · + un vn .

◦ (u + v) · w = u · w + v · w
◦ v · v = |v|2
• If u · v = 0 then the vectors are orthogonal.
• Distance between two vectors is |u − v|.
     
u1 v1 u2 v3 − u3 v2
• Cross product: if u =  u2  , v =  v2  then u × v =  u3 v1 − u1 v3 
u3 v3 u1 v2 − u2 v1
|(p−x0 )×v|
• Distance between point and a line: |v|
|n·(p−x0 )|
• Distance between point and a plane: |n|

• Cross product identities:

◦ Can be calculated with determinant of 3×3 matrix
◦ |u × v| = |u||v| sin(θ)
◦ u × v = −v × u
◦ u × (v + w) = (u × v) + (u × w)
◦ |u × v|2 = |u|2 |v|2 − (u · v)2
◦ u · (v × w) = v · (w × u) = w · (u × v) aka volume of parallelepiped.
◦ u × (v × w) = v(u · w) − w(u · v)
u·a
• Orthogonal projection of u on a: proja (u) = ( |a|2 )a

Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors

• For Ax = λx, λ is an eigenvalue and x is an eigenvector.
• λ is an eigenvalue of A if and only if det (A − λIn ) = PA (λ) = 0.