ALL ABOUT

HOLIDAY
TESTING
C
orrosion is a natural phenomenon that can result in significant financial losses in various
industries and sectors worldwide. According to the 2016 The International Measures
of Prevention, Application and Economics of Corrosion Technology (IMPACT) study con-
ducted by NACE (formerly known as the National Association of Corrosion Engineers), corro-
sion is estimated to have a global cost of USD 2.5 trillion dollars. This is roughly equivalent to
3.4 percent of the global Gross Domestic Product (GDP). In addition to the impact on the econ-
omy, the failure of structures due to corrosion can be sudden with catastrophic end results.

ELECTROCHEMICAL CORROSION
AND COATINGS
Electrochemical corrosion is a natural reaction in which a refined metal, under certain con-
ditions, slowly converts back to its more chemically stable state. For this reaction to occur,
three elements must be present: a metal substrate (an anode), oxygen (a cathode), and mois-
ture (an electrolyte). The resulting corrosion product, rust, as in the case with steel, is brittle
and easily flakes off. As the rust continues to flake off, the metal decreases in thickness, which
can lead to numerous structural problems.

Anticorrosive coatings have become one of the first defenses against corrosion due to their
effectiveness and relatively low cost when compared to other protection methods. Coatings,
both organic and inorganic, work by offering two main types of protection: barrier and galvan-
ic. Barrier protection is formed because the coating acts as an impervious layer between the

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metal substrate and moisture in the atmosphere, while galvanic protection ensures that the
coating corrodes preferentially to the metal, therefore sacrificing itself.

However, for coatings to be effective they must be properly applied and free of defects. Flaws
in a coating application can leave the substrate poorly protected, or in some cases, totally
exposed. These coating flaws are generally called holidays.

CAUSES OF HOLIDAYS
In coatings and paints, a holiday is the general term for a discontinuity in the coating applica-
tion. Holidays may come in the following forms:

Runs and Sags – Runs and sags are the downward movement of the coating
due to gravity. This type of defect typically appears shortly after the coating
application and before setting of the coating. When a coating runs, some ar-
eas of the substrate are left with a very thin layer of coating cover, thus ex-
posing the metal to air (the cathode) and moisture (the electrolyte), which
can result in corrosion. Runs and sags can be caused or made worse by:

• A low coating viscosity

• Overcoating

• Applying the coating too quickly

• Excessive use of thinner/reducer

• Improper coating technique

• Applying the coating to a hot surface

Sagging that occurs over a relatively long distance is usually called a cur-
tain.

Cissing – Cissing occurs when a freshly applied coating or paint recedes

from the surface. It is characterized by small craters in the coating or bare
unpainted areas. Cissing occurs when the applied paint or coating does not
properly adhere to the surface, causing the coating to “pull away.” This is
caused by applying the coating to surfaces that are contaminated by grease,
oil, silicones, polish, dirt, wax, etc.

Cissing can also occur when water-based coatings are applied over existing
glossy or semi-glossy coatings.

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Cratering – Cratering, or fish-eye, is the appearance of small (in the order
of millimeters) bowl-shaped recesses or bubbles on the surface of the coat-
ing. They are formed when air or solvent bubbles are released from the
surface during partial curing of the coating. The areas below these bubbles
and craters are a cause for concern since this means that the coating has
not flowed sufficiently and is not evenly distributed, therefore leaving areas
of the substrate thinly covered.

Some of the causes of cratering include:

• Applying the coating to surfaces contaminated with grease, oil, sili-

cones, wax, dirt, etc.

• Incorrect use of additives (e.g., reducers and hardeners)

• Absorption of foreign agents from contaminated air (e.g., silicone spray,

polishing agent, dust)

• Improper application practices

Pinholes – Pinholes, similar to cratering, are caused by the formation of

air or gas bubbles on the surface of the coating. However, unlike cratering,
these bubbles burst, causing holes that extend all the way down to the sub-
strate, leaving it fully exposed to the atmosphere.

Pinholes are caused by:

• Applying the coating on contaminated surfaces (see cratering)

• Moisture in the spray-gun atomizer during application

• High-humidity, high-temperature environments

• Excessively high rate of evaporation

• Excessive atomization pressure during application

• Low atomization pressure combined with excessive material pressure.

Pinholes can be quite severe and require immediate remedial work. They
can persist even if the surface is covered with subsequent coatings because
the original pinholes can trap solvent vapor and give rise to the formation
of more bubbles.

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 Overcoating – Overcoating, as its name suggests, is the application of an
unnecessarily thick layer of paint or coating to the substrate surface. When
this happens, the top layer of the coating dries quickly, while the bottom
layer remains in the curing stage. As the coating below begins to dry, the
now hardened top layer of the coating shrinks and develops cracks as a
result.

Undercoating – In contrast to overcoating, undercoating occurs when the

applied coating is too thin. Since many surfaces tend to be uneven, under-
coating can leave peaks on the surface either uncovered or thinly covered.
This leads to the formation of rust spots, also commonly called rust rash.

Holidays, can be minuscule, and most times are very difficult to detect via visual inspection
methods. Therefore, it is essential that the proper holiday detection equipment be employed
to ensure that the coated metal substrate is fully protected before being put into operation.

WHAT IS HOLIDAY TESTING?

Basic Principles of Operation

Holiday testing involves inspecting various

structures for coating discontinuities by using
specialized detection equipment called holiday
detectors. There are two main types of holiday
detectors: low voltage and high voltage detec-
tors. Both of these work by using electricity to
locate coating discontinuities.

Most coatings are poor conductors of electric-

ity, and therefore act as insulators that resist
the flow of electrical current. Metal substrates,
on the other hand, are excellent conductors of
electricity. Using these principles, holiday de-
tectors are able to locate flaws in anticorrosive
coatings. Holiday detecting instruments consist of four main components: a power source, a
grounding wire, a probing electrode and an indicator. When the grounding wire and the prob-
ing electrodes (attached to the same power source) come into contact with each other, there
is a flow of current and a complete circuit is formed.

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When testing, the ground wire is clamped to a section of the substrate being examined and
the probing electrode is placed on various parts of the coated surface. Since coatings are poor
conductors of electricity, properly coated sections will act as an electrically resistive barrier
between the electrode and the ground wire. Should, however, the electrode come into contact
with a discontinuity in the coating, the electrical circuit between the electrode and the ground
wire would be complete, resulting in a flow of electricity that shows up on the indicator.

Holiday detectors do, however, have some limitations. Since they rely on the contrasting
non-conductive and conductive nature of coatings and substrates respectively, they are inef-
fective on conductive coatings such as zinc-rich primers.

LOW-VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTORS

Low-voltage holiday detection, also known as the wet sponge technique, is typically used for
testing insulated coatings with thicknesses less than 500 microns (20 mils) on conductive
substrates. Low-voltage holiday detectors are ideal for powder-based coatings and other ap-
plications where it is essential to avoid damage to the coating. This method is also only useful
for the detection of pinhole defects.

The end of the electrode is equipped with a damp sponge that is steadily swept over the coat-
ed surface while the ground wire is clamped to an uncoated section of the substrate (this can
be a nut or bolt). Pinholes act as capillary tubes that draw moisture down to the substrate

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via capillary action. As the damp sponge passes over a pinhole, the water is drawn from the
damp sponge down to the metal via capillary action to complete the low-voltage electrical
circuit. When this happens, an alarm is sounded on the indicator to notify the operator of the
presence of a pinhole.

HIGH-VOLTAGE HOLIDAY DETECTORS

High-voltage holiday detectors are used to detect holidays that do not extend all the way
down to the substrate, and are ideal for testing coatings that are greater than 500 microns (20
mils) thick. The basic components of the high-voltage and the low-voltage holiday detectors
are similar, however, the power supply for the high-voltage detectors are capable of output-
ting electricity on the order of thousands to tens of thousands of volts. In addition, as opposed
to a sponge, the electrodes of the high-voltage units are constructed from copper wires or
carbon-embedded rubber.

Similar to low-voltage detection methods, a specific voltage is applied to the probe that is
swept over the coated surface. The intensity of the voltage applied is dependent on the thick-
ness of the coating being tested. The thicker the coating, the higher the applied voltage needs
to be to penetrate the holiday. In essence, the voltage needs to be high enough to break down
the gap between the probe and the substrate. When the voltage is set to the appropriate lev-
el, the current flows through the substrate and back to the grounding cable to complete the
electrical circuit. However, it is important to note that setting the voltage too high can result in
physical damage to the coating. Also, excessively high voltages can cause the current to flow
through properly coated areas, causing the unit to give false alarms while creating new flaws
in the process. Blue sparks and electrical arcing are usually signs that the testing voltage is
set too high.

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 There are two types of high-voltage
holiday detection devices: continuous
DC and pulsed DC. With continuous DC
holiday detectors, the current transmit-
ted to the electrode is constant. This is
used to test insulated coatings on con-
ductive substrates with thicknesses of
up to 7.5 millimeters (300 mils). Pulsed
DC, on the other hand, delivers electric-
ity from the electrode in regular short
pulses, with the intensity of each pulse
having a higher voltage than an equiv-
alent continuous pulse DC device. The
brief pause between the pulses ensures that an excessive charge does not build up on the
surface of the substrate, which can lead to coating damage. Short pulses also allow for safe
testing on damp, dirty and slightly conductive coatings. Some high-voltage holiday testing
devices also come with a trailing earth voltage cable, which eliminates the need to constantly
clip and unclip the ground wire cable.

Working with high-voltage detectors also requires a greater amount of precaution and ad-
herence to safety regulations. For instance, using a high-voltage electrode in an electrically
isolated environment can cause the operator to become charged to the test voltage, which can
result in a build-up of static electricity. The resulting shock from the static electricity itself is
not dangerous; however it is enough to prompt a jerking reaction that can be hazardous when
working on heights or other high-risk areas.

Furthermore, since high-voltage holiday detection devices can generate sparks, they should
never be used in areas with a flammable or otherwise hazardous atmosphere.

UV PINHOLE TECHNIQUE
The UV pinhole technique differs from the low- and high-voltage holiday testing methods in
that no electrical current is involved. Using this method, either a fluorescent coating is ap-
plied to the surface as a basecoat, or a fluorescent pigment is added to the coating during the
manufacturing process. Once the coating is applied, a UV or blacklight is used to reveal any
pinholes in the coating. Inspectors must be equipped with the proper UV lighting instrument
and the test specimen must be in a dark room to scan for flaws. This makes UV testing less
popular than low- and high-voltage tests that can be conducted on-site.

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HOLIDAY TESTING OF
CONCRETE STRUCTURES
In addition to metallic substrates, holiday testing may be performed on conductive coatings
applied to concrete structures using either low-voltage or high-voltage holiday detectors. The
choice of holiday testing device is dependent on the coating thickness and the properties of
the concrete substrate, including moisture content, density of the concrete, and the location
of the steel reinforcement or wire mesh.

The procedure for testing reinforced concrete using low-voltage and high-voltage methods
is similar to the procedure used when testing metallic substrates. The holiday detector is
set up by attaching the ground wire to the reinforcing steel (ensuring that it is not coated).
The ground wire may also be attached to the bare concrete via a weight or attached to a nail
driven into the concrete. The test is then carried out as described previously using the appro-
priate voltage depending on the coating thickness.

If the concrete is not conductive, then it will not be possible to conduct holiday testing on
the concrete specimen. Also, construction and expansion joints in the concrete structure are
typically constructed from rubber and plastic and can result in electrical discontinuity in the
structure.

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TYPICAL CODES AND STANDARDS
Since holiday testing involves the use of potentially high voltages that can cause injury and
potentially damage the coating and the substrate, a number of codes and standards are avail-
able that outlines the procedures for safely testing various coatings and substrate materials.
Listed below are some of the most common standards used for holiday testing:

»» ASTM D-4787: Standard Practice for Continuity Verification of Liquid or Sheet Linings
Applied to Concrete Substrates. This standard is intended for new linings that are ap-
plied to concrete substrates. The ASTM D-4787 describes the detection of holidays and
other discontinuities using either continuous or pulsed DC high-voltage detection de-
vices. For this standard to apply, coatings must be non-conductive while the concrete
substrate must possess electrical conductivity. Some of the discontinuities specifically
addressed in this standard are pinholes, internal voids, cracks and conductive inclu-
sions.

»» ASTM D-5162: Standard Practice for Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of Nonconductive

Protective Coating on Metallic Substrates. The ASTM D-5162 describes the electri-
cal testing procedures to determine coating film discontinuities in new nonconductive
coatings applied to electrically conductive (mainly metal) substrates. Low-voltage wet
sponge testing (Test Method A), and high-voltage spark testers (Test Method B) are
both addressed in this standard. Suggestions on avoiding damage to the coating as
well as personal safety are also presented.

»» ASTM G62: Standard Test Methods for Holiday Detection in Pipeline Coatings. This
standard covers the set of test methods and apparatus used in the detection of holi-
days in coatings specifically used in pipelines. The standard outlines two methods:
• Method A – This method is used to safely and quickly identify pinholes, voids or
metal particles that are protruding through the coating. Similar to low-voltage
testing, it will not detect thin spots in any section of the coating. Method A is ide-
al for thin-film coatings with thicknesses ranging from 0.025 mm to 0.254 mm (1
to 10 mils) using ordinary tap water and applied voltages of less than 100 volts
DC. Due to the relatively low voltages involved, this method is considered to be
nondestructive.
• Method B – This method can identify all the flaws and discontinuities in method
A; additionally, it can also be used to detect thin spots (such as runs or sags,
cissing, cratering, etc.) in pipeline coatings. Method B can be used on coatings
of any thickness and involves the use of voltages between 900 and 20,000 volts
DC. Because these voltages are relatively high and can potentially destroy the
coating at thin spots, this method is considered to be destructive.

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 »» NACE Standard RP0188-99: Discontinuity (Holiday) Testing of New Protective Coatings
on Conductive Substrates. This standard, developed by the National Association of
Corrosion Engineers, is an alternative to the ASTM standards. It outlines the proce-
dures for both low-voltage wet sponge testing and high-voltage spark testing of new
coatings on conductive substrates (metal or concrete). Also presented in this standard
are procedures to avoid coating damage and precautions meant to ensure the safety of
the operator and jobsite personnel.

REPAIRING HOLIDAYS
Repairing holidays usually involves surface preparation and reinstating the defective coating
in the specified area. Simply applying a layer of coating above the holiday will not solve the
issue and can often lead to creating additional problems.

The choice of solution is dependent on the nature of the defect and whether or not it extends
all the way to the substrate. If the defect is such that the coating is at maximum thickness, for
instance as in pinholes, then the area around the coating defect must be abraded and cleaned
down to the substrate level before the coating is applied once again.

For defects where the coating is under the maximum thickness, repair entails preparing the
surface by roughening (not necessarily to the substrate level), then applying another layer of
coating to ensure that the holiday is completely covered.

Almost all standards mandate that the repaired area be retested to ensure that the repair was
completed successfully.

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CONCLUSION
Holiday testing is commonly performed on components such as tank interiors, pipelines, stor-
age vessels and buried structures due to their importance and the corrosive nature of their
operating environment.

Holidays or coating discontinuities come in many forms depending on the properties of the
coating, the substrate material and the method of coating application. Regardless of the type
of defect, each one has the potential to result in significant financial losses and can even
endanger human life. It is therefore important that testing be carried out on the component
before it is put into operation.

The choice of holiday testing method (UV pinhole, or low-voltage or high-voltage) is deter-
mined based on the coating type, coating thickness, substrate material and other parameters
to ensure that the desired outcome is achieved.

It is also essential that operators adhere to the latest applicable codes and standards for the
given application to ensure that the tests being performed are appropriate, accurate and safe.

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