Received: 20 June 2018 Revised: 19 August 2018 Accepted: 21 September 2018

DOI: 10.1002/ptr.6212

REVIEW

Phytochemical information and pharmacological activities of

Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus): A literature‐based review
Muhammad Torequl Islam1,2

1
Department for Management of Science and
Technology Development, Ton Duc Thang This review aimed at summarizing phytochemical reports and biological activities of
University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam
Abelmoschus esculentus L. from the database sources. For this, an up‐to‐date search
2
Faculty of Pharmacy, Ton Duc Thang
University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam was made in the PubMed, Science Direct, MedLine, Scopus, and Google Scholar.
Correspondence The findings suggest that A. esculentus contains various nutrients and important phy-
Muhammad Torequl Islam, Department for
tochemicals. It possesses a number of important biological activities, including antiox-
Management of Science and Technology
Development & Faculty of Pharmacy, Ton Duc idant, anti‐inflammatory and immunomodulatory, antibacterial, anticancer,
Thang University, Ho Chi Minh City, Vietnam.
antidiabetic, organ protective, and neuropharmacological activities. Moreover, the
Email: muhammad.torequl.islam@tdtu.edu.vn
plant also has lipid‐lowering, trypsin inhibitory, hemagglutinating, antiadhesive, and
antifatigue activities. The fruit and seeds are well tolerated in humans and other ani-
mals. In conclusion, A. esculentus may be one of the best sources of pharmacologically
active lead compounds. More research is necessary on its toxicogenetic effects in
animals.

KEY W ORDS

Abelmoschus esculentus, biological activities, phytochemicals

1 | I N T RO D U CT I O N The capsule is 15‐20 cm long, pyramidal‐oblong, 5‐angled, hispid.

The Okra (Abelmoschus esculentus L.) is commonly known as Lady's Fin-
ger worldwide. Other names of Okra are as follows: dharos, kacang
bendi, qiu kui, okura, okro, quiabos, ochro, quiabo, okoro, gumbo,
quimgombo, bamieh, bamya, quingumbo, bamia, bendi, gombo, bhindi,
kopi arab, and lai long ma (Jain, Jain, Jain, & Jain, 2012). It belongs to
the family Malvaceae (Taxonomy: Box 1).
It is a tall shrubby annual, covered with rough hairs. The leaves are
polymorphous; the lower roundish‐angled, the upper palmately 3‐5‐
lobed, lobes oblong toothed, hairy on both surfaces; petioles up to
15 cm long. The flowers are large, axillary, yellow with crimson centre.
Different parts of the plant have been shown in Figure 1.
The plant is cultivated in tropical, subtropical, and warm temper-
ate regions around the world (National Research Council, 2006). It
was first found in former Abyssinia (present Ethiopia) and was later
distributed in the Caribbean, South America, North America, Africa,
India, and Eastern Mediterranean (http://www.oshims.com/
herbdirectory/o/okra, n.d).
Traditionally, the fruits are used as cooling, stomachic, astringent,
and aphrodisiac purposes and used in chronic dysentery, gonorrhea, uri-
nary discharges, strangury, and diarrhea. Tender pods decoction is
emollient, demulcent, and diuretic and used in spermatorrhea. The
whole plant is emollient and demulcent, whereas the seed can be used
in inhibition of cancer cell growth. It is also fungitoxic against
Helminthosporium oryzae (http://www.mpbd.info/plants/abelmoschus‐
esculentus.php, n.d).
To date, a number of research have been done on this edible
medicinal plants, aiming to investigate and isolate the important phy-
tochemicals present and biological activities of its extract, isolated
compounds, or their derivatives. This paper aims to sketch a revision
on the phytochemical screenings and pharmacological investigations
of this medicinal herb.

72 © 2018 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd. wileyonlinelibrary.com/journal/ptr Phytotherapy Research. 2019;33:72–80.
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FIGURE 1 Images of different parts of Abelmoschus esculentus ([a] aerial parts, [b] flower & unripe fruits, [c] seeds of unripe fruit, [d] ripe fruits,
[e] mature seeds, [f] roots) [Colour figure can be viewed at wileyonlinelibrary.com]
2 | SEARCH STRATEGEM
A search (from earlier [1986] to June 2018) was done in the follow-
ing databases: PubMed, Science Direct, MedLine, Scopus, and Goo-
gle Scholar with the keyword “Abelmoschus esculentus L.,” pairing
with “phytochemicals,” “biological activities/effects,” or “pharmaco-
logical activities/effects.” No language restrictions were imposed.
Articles were assessed for the information about the extracts or
fractions and isolated compounds of the plant or its parts, concen-
tration or dose (route of administration), test systems, results or pos-
sible mechanism of action, and final conclusion. Inclusion and
exclusion criteria of evidences found in databases have been given
below.
Inclusion criteria:
1 Studies carried out in vitro, ex vivo, or in vivo with or without
using experimental animals, including humans and their derived
tissue and cells;
2 Studies with A. esculentus's and its other parts' crude extracts, iso-
lated compounds, or their derivatives or preparations;
3 Studies with or without proposing activity mechanisms;
4 Studies with extracts without phytochemical analysis, but having
biological activities; and
5 Studies with extracts, with phytochemical analysis, but having no
report for biological activities.
Exclusion criteria:
1 Duplication of data and titles and/or abstracts not meeting the
inclusion criteria;
2 A. esculentus with other studies uncovering the current topic; and
3 Studies on other genus or species of the plant.
73
2.1 | Findings
Among the vast evidences, 35 published articles (PubMed = 15, Sci-
ence Direct = 6, and Google Scholar = 14) were found in the databases
that contain screening reports on the phytochemical and/or pharma-
cological activities of A. esculentus or its crude extracts/fractions or
isolated compounds. A flow diagram for the included data has been
shown in Figure 1, and the observed information in the included liter-
atures has been summarized below:
2.2 | Phytochemicals of A. esculentus
The Okra fibre contains 67.5% α‐cellulose, 15.4% hemicellulose, 7.1%
lignin, 3.4% pectic matter, 3.9% fatty and waxy matter, and 2.7%
aqueous extract (Jain et al., 2012). Petals yield 13 flavanoid glyco-
sides, gossypetin and hibiscetin glucosides. Fresh fruits are rich in
pectin and mucilage; they contain oxalic acid, protein, fat, minerals
(potassium, sodium, magnesium, sulphur, copper, manganese, and
iodine), carbohydrate, calcium, and phosphorus. The mucilage of fruits
contains flavonoids, d‐galactose, l‐rhamnose, and d‐dalacturonic acid.
Ripe seeds contain 10–22% edible oil. Essential oil isolated from the
pods and seeds contain aliphatic alcohols, cyclohexanol, p‐
tolualdehyde (in fruits), α‐terpenylacetate (in seeds), and citral; non-
volatile neutral part contains β‐sitosterol and its 3β‐galactoside (in
seeds) (http://www.mpbd.info/plants/abelmoschus‐esculentus.php).
Ethanolic and aqueous fruit extracts contain carbohydrate, gums
and mucilages, proteins, phytosterols, flavonoids, tannins, phenolic
compounds, and volatile oil (Saha, Jain, & Jain, 2011). Zhou et al.
(2013) have been introduced to two new pentacyclic triterpenes,
(3b,21b)‐19,21‐epoxylup‐20(29)‐en‐3‐yl acetate and (3b)‐9,18‐
dihydroxyolean‐12‐en‐3‐yl acetate from the okra. In another study,
Lin et al. (2014) isolated three new glycosides (Figure 2) from the
plant. The fruit also contains some important vitamins, these include
Vit A, B complex (B1, B2, B3, and B9), C, E, and K.
74
FIGURE 2 Flow diagram for the included data. (PM: PubMed, SD: Science Direct, GS: Google Scholar) [Colour figure can be viewed at
wileyonlinelibrary.com]
2.3 | Pharmacological activities of A. esculentus
2.3.1 | Antioxidant activity
The fruit extract is evident to show 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl
(DPPH) scavenging and ferric reducing capacity (Ansari, Houlihan,
Hussain, & Pieroni, 2005), whereas the phenolic compounds
(procycanidin B1 and B2) of seeds and pulp were found to scavenge
DPPH and 2,2′‐azino‐bis(3‐ethylbenzothiazoline‐6‐sulphonic acid)
(ABTS) radicals (Khomsug, Thongjaroenbuangam, Pakdeenarong,
Suttajit, & Chantiratikul, 2010). 5,7,3′,4′‐tetrahydroxy‐4″‐O‐methyl
flavonol −3‐O‐β‐D‐ glucopyranoside and 5,7,3′,4′‐tetrahydroxy flavo-
nol −3‐O‐[β‐D‐glucopyranosyl‐(1 → 6)]‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside
(Figure 3) from the Okra fruit was also evident to scavenge DPPH rad-
ical and ferric reducing capacity (Liao, Liu, et al., 2012). Moreover,
methanol extracts of the flower, fruit, leaf, and seeds were also evi-
dent to show antioxidant capacity in the same test systems (Liao,
Dong, et al., 2012).
In a study, the peel and seed powder of the plant at 100 and
200 mg/kg (p.o., up to 28 days) in streptozotocin (STZ)‐induced dia-
betic rats increased liver, kidney and pancreas superoxide dismutase
(SOD), catalase, glutathione peroxidase (GPx), reduced glutathione
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levels, and decreased thiobarbituric acid substances levels (Sabitha,
Ramachandran, et al., 2012). Aqueous and methanolic seed extracts
(250–10,000 μg/ml) was also evident to show antioxidant capacity
(DPPH, ferric reducing, and b‐carotene‐linoleic acid assay; Doreddula
et al., 2014), whereas different fractions of the plant showed antioxi-
dant ability by lowering malondialdehyde level and increasing SOD
and GPx levels (Xia et al., 2015).
2.3.2 | Anti‐inflammatory and immunomodulatory
effects
Lectin of okra at 0.01, 0.1, and 1 mg/kg (i.v.) exerted an inflammatory
effect in mice (n = 6–10; Soares et al., 2012). In a recent study, the
ethanol extract of okra (500, 250 or 100 mg/kg [p.o.]) was found to
reduce inflammatory response (scores) in ethanol‐induced acute gas-
tric mucosal injury Wistar rats (n = 7; Ortaç et al., 2018).
Hydrolysed okra extract and its polysaccharides (25–100 μg/mL)
in rat bone marrow hematopoietic cells increased in mean hemoglobin
content class II and CD80/86 expression levels, whereas reduced in
endocytosis activity (Sheu & Lai, 2012). In this study, an increase in
the secretion of interleukin (IL)‐12 and interferon‐gamma, whereas a
FIGURE 3 Three glycosides isolated and
detected from the plant by Lin et al. (2014)
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decrease in IL‐10 production was also seen. Crude polysaccharides of
the herb (25–100 mg/kg) significantly increased cell proliferation,
nitric oxide production, inducible nitric oxide synthase expression,
and tumor necrosis factor‐α, IFN‐γ, and IL‐10 secretion in
RAW264.7 cells (Chen et al., 2016).
2.3.3 | Antibacterial activity
Lyophilized and fresh water extracts of the pods were found to act
against Rhodococcus erythropolis, Rhodococcus opacus, Mycobacterium
sp., Mycobacterium aurum, Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli,
Xanthobacter Py2, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa (minimum inhibitory
concentration: 12.5–80% v/v) (de Carvalho, Cruz, da Fonseca, &
Xavier‐Filho, 2011). Lipid fraction, palmitic, and stearic acids were sup-
posed for the responsible activity. In a recent study, gold nanoparticles
synthesised by using pulp extract (10–500 μL) were also found to
show the significant antibacterial effect against Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus
cereus, Escherichia coli, Micrococcus luteus, and Pseudomonas aeruginosa
(Mollick et al., 2014).
2.3.4 | Gastroprotective effect
Carbohydrate‐containing fractions from fruits strongly inhibited
Helicobacter pylori (Lengsfeld, Titgemeyer, Faller, & Hensel, 2004).
Lectin of the herb (0.01, 0.1, 1.0, 10, or 50 mg/kg [i.v.]) in ethanol‐
induced acute gastric mucosal injured mice was also exerted a
gastroprotective effect through the activation of alpha‐2 adrenergic
and opioid receptors (Ribeiro et al., 2016). Furthermore, in a recent
study, the ethanol extract of the plant (500, 250, or 100 mg/kg) was
also shown a gastroprotective effect by a significant decrease in
edema, hemorrhage, inflammation scores, and apoptosis, whereas an
increase in serum β‐carotene and retinol levels in ethanol‐induced
acute gastric mucosal injury Wistar rats (Ortaç et al., 2018).
2.3.5 | Anticancer effect
Dried seeds of the plant (6.6 pg/mL) effectively decreased tumor
necrosis factor‐α expression in 3 T3‐L1 adipocytes (Okada, Okada, &
Sagesaka, 2010). Lectin of the plant at 0.0125, 0.025, 0.05, and
0.1 mg/mL in human breast cancer (MCF7) and skin fibroblast (CCD‐
1059 sk) cells, increased in expression of the Bax/Bcl‐2 ratio,
proapoptotic caspase‐3, caspase‐9, and p21 genes (Monte et al.,
2014). Moreover, gold nanoparticles synthesised by using the pulp
extract significantly elevated intracellular reactive oxygen species
(ROS) and diminished the mitochondrial membrane potential, and
caused apoptotic cell death of Jurkat cells (Mollick et al., 2014).
2.3.6 | Antidiabetic effect
Mucilages, (Tomoda, Shimizu, Gonda, & Kanari, 1989) as well as
ethanolic and aqueous fruit extract (150 and 300 mg/kg [p.o.]), were
evident to produce a hypoglycemic effect in alloxan induced diabetes
mice (n = 6; Saha et al., 2011). On the other hand, water‐soluble frac-
tion of the fruits, coadministered with metformin in Long Evans rats
also improved glycemic control (Khatun, Rahman, Biswas, & Islam,
2011). Peel and seed powder of the plant (100 and 200 mg/kg [p.o.])
significantly increased in hemoglubin, total protein, whereas a
decrease in glycated hemoglobin, and serum glutamic‐pyruvic
75
transaminase levels, suggesting antidiabetic activity in STZ‐induced
diabetic rats up to 28 days (Sabitha, Ramachandran, Naveen, &
Panneerselvam, 2011). An excellent review has been done on the anti-
diabetic effects on the nutritional properties of A. esculentus by Amin
(2011), where it has been suggested that this medicinal herb may be
a potential source of medicaments for both types of diabetes (e.g.,
insulin‐dependent diabetes mellitus and noninsulin‐dependent diabe-
tes mellitus).
Aqueous extract of peel and seed exhibited α‐glucosidase and α‐
amylase inhibitory effects (in vitro) (Sabitha, Panneerselvam, &
Ramachandran, 2012). Zeng et al. (2015) reported that quercetin‐3‐
O‐sophoroside (i), 5,7,3′,4′‐tetrahydroxy flavonol‐3‐O‐[β‐d‐
rhamnopyranosil‐(1 → 2)]‐β‐d‐glucopyranoside and isoquercitrin
(Figure 2), isolated from the plant, is responsible to show α‐amylase
inhibitory activity. Furthermore, oligomeric proanthocyanidins in
unripe okra seeds were also evident to show α‐amylase and α‐glucosi-
dase inhibitory activity (Lu, Demleitner, Song, Rychlik, & Huang, 2016).
In a study, the monosaccharide (rhamnogalacturonan I backbone with
type‐II arabinogalactan side‐chains substituted partly at O‐4 of Rhap)
was also reported for its antihyperglycemic activity (Zhang, Xiang,
Zheng, Yan, & Min, 2018).
2.3.7 | Lipid‐lowering effect
Dichloromethane and methanol fruit and whole plant extracts (30 g of
dry extract/kg [p.o.]) also reduced cholesterol and triglyceride levels in
tyloxapol‐induced hyperlipidemia mice (n = 7; Ngoc, Ngoc, Van, &
Phung, 2008), whereas the peel and seed powder of the plant were
evident to show an antihyperlipidemic activity in STZ‐induced diabetic
rats (Sabitha et al., 2011).
2.3.8 | Neuropharmacological effects
Extract and its components quercetin and rutin at 15, 30, 40, and
60 mg/kg (p.o.) in dexamethasone‐treated mice (n = 5) exerted a sig-
nificant neuroprotective effect (Tongjaroenbuangam et al., 2011). Lec-
tin from the plant at 0.01, 0.1, and 1 mg/kg (i.v.) was also evident to
show an antinociceptive effect in mice (Soares et al., 2012). Moreover,
the aqueous and methanolic seed extracts (200 mg/kg [p.o.]) attenu-
ated scopolamine‐induced cognitive impairment and exerted an anti-
stress, and nootropic effect in elevated plus maze and forced
swimming test in mice (n = 6) for 7 days (Doreddula et al., 2014).
2.3.9 | Other activities
Some in vitro studies suggest that four compounds isolated from the
seeds at 2 mg exerted a trypsin inhibitory effect in bovine chymotryp-
sin (Ogata, Imamura, Hirayama, & Makisumi, 1986), whereas mucilages
of the plant showed an anticomplementary effect (Tomoda et al.,
1989). Okra lectin in mice showed a hemagglutinating activity (Soares
et al., 2012). Aqueous fresh fruit extract (0.2 to 2 mg/mL) in H. pylori
(FITC‐labled H. pylori J99, 2 clinical isolates, AGS cells, and fluores-
cence‐activated cell sorting) exerted an antiadhesive effect through
inhibiting the adhesive binding of membrane proteins BabA, SabA,
and HpA to its specific ligands (Messing et al., 2014).
Moreover, the polysaccharide fractions of A. esculentus at 50, 100,
and 200 (p.o.) mg/kg were found to show an antifatigue activity by
76
decreasing in serum urea nitrogen and blood lactic acid, and increasing
in hepatic glycogen and muscle glycogen; as well as by retarding the
accumulation of creatine kinase and lactate dehydrogenase in serum,
and enhancing succinate dehydrogenase, adenosine triphosphate,
and adenosine triphosphatase levels in male Kunming mice (n = 30)
(Gao et al., 2018). Postulated mechanism of action in the literatures
of some biological activities has been shown in Table 1.
2.3.10 | Toxicological reports
Reports on the toxic effects of A. esculentus is inadequate. A study
conducted with aqueous and methanolic seed extracts of the fruit
demonstrated that it produced no signs of toxicity or death up to a
dose of 2000 mg/kg (p.o.) in Swiss mice (n = 6) for 7 days (Doreddula
et al., 2014).
3 | DISCUSSION
From the ancient plants are the eminent source of nutrients and
organic metabolites for the health and remedies (Mazzei, De Marco,
Gallo, & Tagarelli, 2018). A. esculentus has been used as a popular veg-
etable in many countries of the world. It may be due to it is rich in vita-
mins, minerals, and other essential components of a balanced diet
(Masuko, 2018). According to the nutritional composition and phyto-
chemical reports A. esculentus contains a number of antioxidant vita-
mins (e.g., vitamins A, C, and E). Moreover, it also contains essential
oil and phenoic compounds (Doreddula et al., 2014; Khomsug et al.,
2010; Zhou et al., 2013) and antioxidant glycosides (Liao, Liu, & Yuan,
2012; Zeng et al., 2015) in its various parts.
There are reports that demonstrate that these types of com-
pounds are strong antioxidants and can protect animal organs (Islam,
Streck, et al., 2016). Therefore, the free radicals and ROS scavenging,
and ferric reducing capacity (Ansari et al., 2005; Doreddula et al.,
2014; Khomsug et al., 2010; Liao, Liu, & Yuan, 2012) along with the
increase in physiological antioxidants (e.g., SOD, CAT, GPx, glutathi-
one) (Sabitha, Ramachandran, Naveen, & Panneerselvam, 2012; Xia
et al., 2015) may be due to the presence of the antioxidant vitamins
and phytochonstituents.
Short‐term and low level inflammatory reactions are essential for
various cellular activities. This also acts as a first‐line defense in our
body (Islam et al., 2016). However, oxidative stress and pathogenic
invasion may cause inflammation in our body (Jin, Liu, Zhang, Nanda,
& Li, 2013). Lectin and polysaccharides of A. esculentus have been
found to exert anti‐inflammatory and immunomodulatory effects in
animals and their derived cells (Chen et al., 2016; Ortaç et al., 2018;
Sheu & Lai, 2012; Soares et al., 2012), whereas lipid fraction, palmitic,
and stearic acids of the plant are evident to act against a number of
pathogenic bacteria (de Carvalho et al., 2011; Mollick et al., 2014).
H. pylori is one of the major causative pathogens of infection and
inflammation in our gastrointestinal tract (GIT; Lengsfeld et al., 2004).
Mucosal injury and edema, hemorrhage, and inflammation in the stom-
ach are also evident to occur in the GIT (Ortaç et al., 2018; Ribeiro
et al., 2016). Therefore, the organic extracts (Ortaç et al., 2018) and
the carbohydrates, especially lectin (Ribeiro et al., 2016) mediated
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gastro‐protection in animals, GIT may link with the antioxidant, anti‐
inflammation and antibacterial capacity of the plant.
Although, antioxidants are cytoprotective in nature, but at the
high concentration/dose, they may act as pro‐oxidants (Islam, 2016).
For example, vitamin C (Islam, 2018) and essential oils or their poly-
phenolic components (Islam, 2016) at high concentration/dose can
exert antioxidative stress in our body. Thus, the anticancer effects of
the plant's part (Okada et al., 2010) or its derived components (Mollick
et al., 2014; Monte et al., 2014) may be due to the presence of strong
antioxidants.
Diabetes is on the rise worldwide. The causes of it are numerous
(Langenberg & Lotta, 2018). Oxidative stress and inflammation are
also two common consequences of diabetes (Ripon, Mahmood,
Chowdhury, & Islam, 2016). The inhibitory effects on various enzymes
that are related to carbohydrate metabolism, such as amylase and gly-
cosidase (Lu et al., 2016; Sabitha, Panneerselvam, & Ramachandran,
2012; Zeng et al., 2015) along with the antioxidant capacity of this this
plant, may relate to its antidiabetic property. There are reports
addressing an increasing number of Type 2 diabetes patients with con-
comitant obesity and hyperlipidemia syndromes (Yu et al., 2018).
Therefore, the lipid‐lowering capacity of the plant (Ngoc et al., 2008;
Sabitha et al., 2011) may also be a positive indication for the manage-
ment of these types of diseases.
To date, more than 600 neurological problems associated with
nervous system have been identified (Islam, 2017). In this context,
neurological diseases and disorders are one of the most common con-
sequences concerning the human pathology in the world. There is a
growing tendency to use herbal psychoactive drugs as a new trend
among users. These herbal products, mainly coming from Asia and
South America where this material has traditionally been used since
ancient times, recently increased their popularity (Graziano et al.,
2017). Currently used painkiller agents have various side effects. The
use of herbal medicines may be an alternative way, as these types of
products can protect nerve cells from varieties of neurotoxic sub-
stances (Tan et al., 2009). Chronic or acute exposure of scopolamine
is able to induce neurological disorders, involving cognitive dysfunc-
tion in experimental animals. It may be due to its capacity to alter neu-
rological functions and immunoreactivity levels in the hippocampal
subregions (Lee et al., 2018). In this review, A. esculentus was found
to exert an antinociceptive effect (Soares et al., 2012) and alter the
scopolamine‐induced symptoms in experimental animals (Doreddula
et al., 2014). Furthermore, A. esculentus is also evident to exert a neu-
roprotective effect in Swiss mice (Tongjaroenbuangam et al., 2011),
suggesting a potential target of neuroactive principles in this herb.
Cancer is a complex disease, characterized by the uncontrolled
and unscheduled production of immature cells in our body with abnor-
mal and/or always harmful biochemical activities. Among the antican-
cer treatments, using chemotherapeutic agents from various origins is
one of the best modalities. The use of natural products, especially
those from plant origin in this context, is a good target (Vo, Jang, &
Jeong, 2018). To date, a number of lectins have been identified and
introduced to their promising anticancer effects (Hong, Park, & Lyu,
2014; Yau, Dan, Ng, & Ng, 2015; de Oliveira Figueiroa et al., 2017).
Although scientific reports on okra's anticancer activity is very poor,
but literature citation report suggests that lectins of okra activated
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TABLE 1 Biological activities of Abelmoschus esculentus and their possible mechanism of actions observed in literatures

Extract(s) or compounds (Concentration/Dose [route of

Activities administration)] and test system[s]) Mechanism(s) References

Antibacterial Lyophilized and fresh water extracts of the pods against ‐ (Inhibition area mm : 30–357; MIC range: de Carvalho et al.,
2

Rhodococcus erythropolis, Rhodococcus opacus, 12.5–80% v/v) 2011

Mycobacterium sp., Mycobacterium aurum,
Staphylococcus aureus, Escherichia coli, Xanthobacter Py2,
Pseudomonas aeruginosa
Gold nanoparticles (average particle size of ◻14 nm) ‐ (Zone of inhibition: 15–35 mm) Mollick et al., 2014
synthesized by using pulp extract at 10–500 μL against
Bacillus subtilis, Bacillus cereus, E. coli, Micrococcus luteus
and P. aeruginosa
Trypsin inhibition Four trypsin inhibitors from seeds at 2 mg in bovine ↓trypsin activity Ogata et al., 1986
chymotrypsin (in vitro)
Lipid lowering Dichloromethan and methanol, and from fruit by ↓cholesterol and triglyceride levels Ngoc et al., 2008
dichloromethane and methanol extract of whole plant at
30 g of dry extract/kg (p.o.) in tyloxapol‐induced
hyperlipidemia mice (n = 7)
Hypoglycemic/ Peel and seed powder at 100 and 200 mg/kg (p.o.) in STZ‐ ↑Hb, TP; ↓HbA1c, SGPT levels Sabitha et al., 2011
antidiabetic induced diabetic rats up to 28 days
Aqueous extract of peel and seed (in vitro) ↓α ‐glucosidase and α –amylase activity Sabitha,
Panneerselvam, &
Ramachandran,
2012
Quercetin‐3‐O‐sophoroside (i), 5,7,3′,4′‐tetrahydroxy ↓α‐amylase activity Zeng et al., 2015
flavonol‐3‐O‐[β‐d‐rhamnopyranosil‐(1 → 2)]‐β‐d‐
glucopyranoside and isoquercitrin (in vitro)
Oligomeric proanthocyanidins in unripe okra seeds (in vitro) ↓α‐amylase and α‐glucosidase activity Lu et al., 2016
Anti‐cancer Dried plant seeds at 6.6 pg/mL in 3 T3‐L1 adipocytes ↓ TNF‐α levels Okada et al., 2010
Gold nanoparticles synthesized by using pulp extract at ↑ROS; ↓mitochondrial membrane potential; Mollick et al., 2014
10–500 μL against Jurkat cells → apoptosis
Lectin at 0.0125, 0.025, 0.05 and 0.1 mg/mL in MCF7 and ↑expression of Bax/Bcl‐2 ratio, pro‐ Monte et al., 2014
CCD‐1059 sk cells apoptotic caspase‐3, caspase‐9, and p21
genes → apoptosis
Antiadhesive Aqueous fresh fruit extract at 0.2 to 2 mg/mL in ↓adhesive binding of membrane proteins Messing et al., 2014
Helicobacter pylori BabA, SabA, and HpA to its specific
ligands
Antioxidative and Fruit extract in DPPH and ferric reducing test ↓DPPH radicals; ↑ferric reduction Ansari et al., 2005
protectiion Procycanidin B1 and B2 of seeds and pulp in DPPH, ABTS ↓DPPH radicals; ↑ferric reduction, total Khomsug et al., 2010
scavenging, and total phenolic content determination phenolic content
5,7,3′,4′‐tetrahydroxy‐4”‐O‐methyl flavonol −3‐O‐β‐D‐ ↓DPPH radicals; ↑ferric reduction Liao, Liu, & Yuan,
glucopyranoside and 5,7,3′,4′‐tetrahydroxy flavonol −3‐ 2012
O‐[β‐D‐glucopyranosyl‐(1 → 6)]‐β‐D‐glucopyranoside
from the fruit in DPPH radical‐scavenging and ferric
reducing tests
Methanol extracts of the flower, fruit, leaf, and seed in ↓DPPH radicals; ↑ferric reduction Liao, Dong, et al.,
DPPH radical‐scavenging and ferric reducing tests 2012
Peel and seed powder at 100 and 200 mg/kg (p.o., up to ↑SOD, CAT, GPx, GSH levels; ↓TBARS levels Sabitha,
28 days) in STZ‐induced diabetic rats Ramachandran,
et al., 2012
Different fractions in DPPH scavenging, ferric reducing ↓MDA level; ↑SOD, GPx levels Xia et al., 2015
antioxidant power and reducing power test, and weight‐
loaded swimming test
Anti‐inflammatory Lectin of the plant at 0.01, 0.1 and 1 mg/kg (i.v.) in mice ↓inflammation in animals Soares et al., 2012
and (n = 6–10)
immunemodulation Ethanol extract of okra at 500, 250 or 100 mg/kg (p.o.) in ↓inflammatory response (scores) Ortaç et al., 2018
ethanol‐induced acute gastric mucosal injury Wistar rats
(n = 7)
Hydrolysed okra extract and its polysaccharides at 25– ↑MHC class II and CD80/86 expression Sheu & Lai, 2012
100 μg/mL in BMHCs levels, IL‐12 and IFN‐γ production;
↑endocytosis activity, IL‐10 production
Crude polysaccharide at 25–100 mg/kg in RAW264.7 cells ↑cell proliferation, NO production, iNOS Chen et al., 2016
expression, TNF‐α, IFN‐γ, and IL‐10
secretion
Antifatigue Polysaccharide fractions at 50, 100 and 200 (p.o.) mg/kg in ↓SUN, BLA, CK, LDH; ↑HG, MG, SDH, ATP, Gao et al., 2018
male Kunming mice (n = 30) ATPase
Gastroprotection Carbohydrate‐containing fractions from fruits in H. pylori ↓growth of H. pylori Lengsfeld et al.,
2004
Lectin at 0.01, 0.1, 1.0, 10 or 50 mg/kg (i.v.) in ethanol‐ ↑alpha‐2 adrenergic and opioid receptors Ribeiro et al., 2016
induced acute gastric mucosal injury mice activation
Ortaç et al., 2018

(Continues)
78 ISLAM

TABLE 1 (Continued)

Extract(s) or compounds (Concentration/Dose [route of

Activities administration)] and test system[s]) Mechanism(s) References
Ethanol extract at 500, 250 or 100 mg/kg (p.o.) okra in ↓edema, hemorrhage, inflammation scores,
ethanol‐induced acute gastric mucosal injury Wistar rats and apoptosis; ↑serum β‐carotene and
(n = 7) retinol levels.

Neuropharmacological Extract and its components quercetin and rutin at 15, 30, ↓dexamethasone‐induced neurotoxic Tongjaroenbuangam
40 and 60 mg/kg (p.o.) in dexamethasone‐treated mice effects in animals et al., 2011
(n = 5)
Plant lectin at 0.01, 0.1 and 1 mg/kg (i.v.) in Swiss mice ↓acetic acid induced writhing in animals Soares et al., 2012
Aqueous and methanolic seed extracts at 200 mg/kg (p.o.) ↓scopolamine‐induced cognitive Doreddula et al.,
for seven days in Swiss mice (n = 6) impairment, stress; ↑cognitive function 2014
Anti‐diabetic effect Mucilages, ethanolic and aqueous fruit extract at 150 and ↑hypoglycemic effect Tomoda et al., 1989;
300 mg/kg (p.o.) in alloxan‐induced diabetes mice (n = 6) Saha et al., 2011
Peel and seed powder of the plant at 100 and 200 mg/kg ↑Hb, TP; ↓HbA1c, SGPT Sabitha et al., 2011
(p.o.) up to 28 days in STZ‐induced diabetic rats

Note. ATP: adenosine triphosphate; ATPase: adenosine triphosphatase; BLA: blood lactic acid; BMHC: bone marrow hematopoietic cells; CAT: catalase;
CCD: cleidocranial dysostosis; CK: creatine kinase; DPPH: 1,1‐diphenyl‐2‐picrylhydrazyl; GPx: glutathione peroxidase; GSH: reduced glutathione; HbA1c:
glycated hemoglobin; HG: hepatic glycogen; iNOS: inducible nitric oxide synthase; IL: interleukin; LDH: lactate dehydrogenase; MDA: malondialdehyde;
MG: muscle glycogen; MHC: major histocompatibility complex; NO: necrosis; SDH: succinate dehydrogenase; SGPT: serum glutamic‐pyruvic transaminase;
SOD: superoxide dismutase; STZ: streptozotocin; SUN: serum urea nitrogen; TNF: tumor necrosis factor; TP: total protein.

various caspase cascades in MCF7 and CCD‐1059 sk cells (Monte Conference on Biomedical Engineering and Technology, IPCBEE vol.11
et al., 2014). Moreover, gold nanoparticles synthesized from pulp (2011) © (p. 2011). Singapore: IACSIT Press.

extract of the plant induced ROS and caused changes of mitochondrial
membrane potential and apoptotic cell death in Jurkat cells (Mollick
et al., 2014), suggesting okra may be a potential source of anticancer
lead compounds.
Furthermore, the organ (e.g., kidney, liver, pancreas, and brain)
protective (Doreddula et al., 2014; Sabitha, Ramachandran, et al.,
2012; Tongjaroenbuangam et al., 2011) and antifatigue (Gao et al.,
2018) capacity of the A. esculentus may be due to its cytoprotective
capacity. The nontoxic nature of the herb may also relate its protec-
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prominent source of nutrients and important phytochemicals (e.g., fla-
vonoids, lectins, and glycosides). The plant and its parts, as well as
their derived components, possess various important biological
effects, including antioxidant, anti‐inflammatory, antibacterial, and
anticancer activities. The reports on its toxicological effects suggest
that the plant, especially its fruit and seeds, are nontoxic, which may
be one of the important issues for considering it as a valuable vegeta-
ble for human consumption. More research is necessary on this edible
medicinal plant in the context of drug discovery and development.
CONF LICT S OF INTE R ES T
The author declares that there is no conflicts of interest.
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How to cite this article: Islam MT. Phytochemical information
and pharmacological activities of Okra (Abelmoschus
esculentus): A literature‐based review. Phytotherapy Research.
2019;33:72–80. https://doi.org/10.1002/ptr.6212