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BUILDING BULLETIN 93
Acoustic Design of
Schools
London : TSO
J
DfES Project Team
Richard Daniels Building Services Engineer, School Buildings & Design Unit
Alex Freemantle Architect, Formerly of School Buildings & Design Unit
Mukund Patel Head of School Buildings & Design Unit
Acknowledgements
DfES would like to thank the following:
Editors:
Bridget Shield London South Bank University
Carl Hopkins BRE Acoustics, Building Research Establishment Ltd (BRE)
Principal authors:
Carl Hopkins
& Robin Hall BRE Acoustics, Building Research Establishment Ltd (BRE)
Adrian James Adrian James Acoustics Ltd
Raf Orlowski
& Sam Wise Arup Acoustics
David Canning City University, London
ISBN 0112711057
Contents
Page
Introduction 1
Page
Sectiion 3: linsulation from external noise 27
3.1 Roofs 27
3.1.1 Rain noise
3.2 External waIls 28
3.3 Ventilation 28
3.3.1 Ventilators
3.4 External windows 30
3.5 External doors 31
Page
4.8 Assembly halls, auditoria and lecture theatres 55
4.8.1 Room geometry
4.8.2 Sound reinforcement
4.9 Open-plan teaching and learning areas 58
4.10 Practical spaces 59
4.10.1 Design and Technology spaces
4.10.2 Art rooms
4.10.3 Floor finishes in practical spaces
4.11 Drama rooms 60
4.12 Multi-purpose halls 61
4.13 Other large spaces 62
4.14 Dining areas 62
References 62
'I
Contents
Page
6.8.3 Personal soundfield systems
6.8.4 Infra red technology
6.8.5 Induction loop systems
6.8.6 Audio-visual equipment
6.8.7 Other assistive devices
6.9 Special teaching accommodation 87
6.10 Beyond the classroom 89
References 89
Appendices 159
Bibliography 203
The constructional standards for acoustics • Many activities, such as music and
for new school buildings, as given in design technology lessons, can be noisy
Section 1 of this document, are required and will cause problems if there is
to be achieved under the Building inadequate sound insulation between
Regulations. This represents a significant areas for these activities and those
tightening of the regulation of acoustic requiring quieter conditions.
design in schools, to reflect a general Poor acoustic conditions in the
recognition, supported by research, that classroom increase the strain on teachers'
teaching and learning are acoustically voices as most teachers find it difficult to
demanding activities. In particular, there cope with high noise levels. This often
is a consensus that low ambient noise leads to voice problems due to prolonged
levels are required, particularly in view of use of the voice and the need to shout to
the requirements of the Special keep control. Recent surveys in the UK
Educational Needs and Disability Act and elsewhere show that teachers form a
20011 for integration of children with disproportionate percentage of voice clinic 1. Now incorporated as
special needs in mainstream schools. Section IV of the Disability
patients. Discrimination Actt11
Unfortunately, a large number of Historically, there have been a number
classrooms in the UK currently suffer of factors preventing good acoustic design
from poor acoustics. The most serious and this Building Bulletin addresses these
acoustic problems are due to noise issues.
transfer between rooms and/or excessive • Before 2003, Part E of the Building
reverberation in rooms. There are many Regulations did not appl' to schools. It
reasons for the poor acoustics, for example: now includes schools within its scope.
• The acoustics of the stock of old • Although the constructional standards
\Tictorian schools are often unsuitable for for schools previously quoted Building
modern teaching methods. Bulletin 87[2] as the standard for
• Modern constructions do not always acoustics in schools, many designers were
provide adequate sound insulation and unaware of the requirements of BB87 and
may need special treatment. the standards were rarely enforced. These
• Open-plan, or semi open-plan layouts, standards have been updated to reflect
designed to accommodate a number of current research and the relevant
different activities, are areas where requirements of the Disability
background noise and sound intrusion Discrimination Act, and are included in
often cause problems. the compliance section, Section 1, of this
• The acoustics of multi-purpose rooms, bulletin.
such as halls, have to be suitable for a • The pressure on finances has meant in
variety of activities, for example music the past that acoustics came low on the
(which requires a long reverberation list of design priorities. The acoustic
time) and speech (which requires shorter design will now have a higher priority as it
reverberation times). will be subject to building control
1
Introduction
approval procedures.
• There has been little guidance available
in the past on how to achieve the right
balance of acoustics in the complex and
dynamic environment of a school.
Architects and designers have had a
difficult time finding relevant information
to help them choose the correct target
values of appropriate parameters.
Overall, Building Bulletin 93
recommends a structured approach to
acoustic design at each stage of the
planning and design process, as shown in
the table below
A structured approach to acoustic design at each stage of the planning and design process
Detailed design • Determine appropriate noise levels and reverberation times for the various
activities and room types
U Consider the special educational needs of the pupils
U Consider the design of music, drama and other specialist spaces separately from that of
normal classrooms as the design criteria are very different
• Provide the necessary façade sound insulation whilst providing adequate ventilation,
particularly in the case of spaces such as classrooms and science laboratories which require
high ventilation rates
• Architectural/acoustic zoning: plan the disposition of 'quiet and 'noisy spaces, separating
them wherever possible by distance, external areas or neutral 'buffer' spaces such as
storerooms or corridors
U Consider sound insulation separately from other aspects of room acoustics using walls, floors
and partitions to provide adequate sound insulation
U Design the acoustics of the rooms by considering their volume and shape, and the
acoustic properties of their surfaces
U Specify the acoustic performance of doors, windows and ventilation openings
U Specify any amplification systems
Building Control approval U Submit plans, including specific details of the acoustic design, for approval by
Building Control Body
2
Introduction
3
Introduction
2. Part E of the Building Regulations quotes the definition of school given in Section 4 of the
1996 Education Act. In the case of sixth form colleges Section 4 of the 1996 Act should be read
in conjunction with Section 2 of the same Act, in particular subsections (2), (2A) and (4) which
deal with the definition of secondary education.
If a sixth form college is established as a school under the 1998 School Standards and
Framework Act then it will be classed as a school under Section 4 of the 1996 Education Act and
Part E of the Building Regulations on acoustics will apply. Only one sixth form college has been
established in this way up until now.
Therefore, most sixth form colleges are institutions in the Further Education sector and not
schools, and Part E of the Building Regulations will not apply.
In the case of a new sixth form college it will be necessary to contact the LEA to enquire if the
sixth form college has been established as a school or as an Institute of Further Education.
4
Introduction
5
Introduction
References
[1] Disability Discrimination Act (1995) Part IV
www.hmso.gov.uk
(2] Building Bulletin 87, Guidelines for
Environmental Design in Schools
(Revision of Design Note 17),
The Stationery Office, 1997.
ISBN 011 271013 1. (Now superseded by
2003 version of BB87, which excludes
acoustics, and is available on
www.teachernet.gov.uk/energy)
[3] Approved Document E, Resistance to the
passage of sound. Stationery Office, 2003.
ISBN 011 7536423.
www.odpm.gov.uk
[4] Statutory Instruments: 1999: 2. The
Education (School Premises) Regulations 1999:
Education, England & Wales. London: The
Stationery Office. ISBN 0110803310.
www.Iegislation.hmso.gov.uk/si/sil 999/19990
002.htm
[5] Approved Document M, Access and
facilities for disabled people, in support of the
Building Regulations, The Stationery Office, 1999
ISBN 0 11 753469. To be replaced shortly by
Approved Document M, Access to and use of
buildings.
www.odpm.gov.uk
[6] BS 8300: 2001 Design of buildings and
their approaches to meet the needs of disabled
people, Code of Practice.
[7] PPG 24, Planning Policy Guidance: Planning
and Noise, Department of the Environment, The
Stationery Office, September 1994. To be
replaced by revised Planning Policy documents.
6
Specification of acoustic performance ©
=
Section 1 of Building Bulletin 93 sets the performance standards for the
acoustics of new buildings, and describes the normal means of demonstrating
compliance with The Building Regulations.
Contents
1.1 Performance standards 9
1.1.1 Indoor ambient noise levels in unoccupied spaces 9
1.1.2 Airborne sound insulation between spaces 12
1.1.3 Airborne sound insulation between circulation spaces and
other spaces used by students 12
1.1.4 Impact sound insulation of floors 13
1.1.5 Reverberation in teaching and study spaces 14
1.1.6 Sound absorption in corridors, entrance halls and stairwells 15
1.1.7 Speech intelligibility in open-plan spaces 16
1.2 Demonstrating compliance to the Building Control Body 17
1.2.1 Alternative performance standards 17
1.3 Demonstrating compliance to the client 18
1.3.1 Timetabling of acoustic testing 18
1.3.2 Remedial treatments 18
1.3.3 Indoor ambient noise levels in unoccupied spaces 18
1.3.4 Airborne sound insulation between spaces 18
1.3.5 Airborne sound insulation between circulation spaces and
other spaces used by students 18
1.3.6 Impact sound insulation 18
1.3.7 Reverberation in teaching and study spaces 18
1.3.8 Sound absorption in corridors, entrance halls and stairwells 19
1.3.9 Speech intelligibility in open-plan spaces 19
References 19
7
Specification of acoustic performance
8
Specification of acoustic performance
Type of room Room classification for the purpose of Upper limit for the
airborne sound insulation in Table 1.2 indoor ambient
noise level
ActMty noise Noise tolerance
LAeq,3Omin (dB)
(Source_room) (Receiving_roomL
Nursery school playrooms 1-ugh Low 351
Nursery school quiet rooms Low Low 351
Primary school: classrooms, class bases, general
teaching areas, small group rooms Average Low 351
.
Secondary school: classrooms, general teaching areas,
seminar rooms, tutorial rooms, language laboratories Average Low 351
Open-plan2
Teaching areas Average Medium 40
Resource areas Average Medium 40
Music
Music classroom Very high Low 351
Small practice/group room Very high Low 351
Ensemble room Very high Very low 301
Performance/recital room Very high Very low 301
Recording studio3 Very high Very low 301
Control room for recording High Low 351
Lecture rooms
Small (fewer than 50 people) Average Low 351
Large (more than 50 people) Average Very low 301
Classrooms designed specifically for use by hearing
impaired students (including speech therapy rooms) Average Very low 301
Study room (individual study, withdrawal, remedial
work, teacher preparation) Low Low 351
Libraries
Quiet study areas Low Low 351
Resource areas Average Medium 40
Science laboratories Average Medium 40
Drama studios High Very low 301
Design and Technology
• Resistant materials, CADCAM areas High High 40
• Electronics/control, textiles, food,
graphics, design/resource areas Average Medium 40
Art rooms Average Medium 40
Assembly halls4, multi-purpose halls4 (drama, PE,
audioMsual presentations, assembly, occasional music) High Low 351
Audio-visual, video conference rooms Average Low 351
Atria, circulation spaces used by students Average Medium 45
Indoor sports hall High Medium 40
Dance studio High Medium 40
Gymnasium High Medium 40
Swimming pool High High 50
Interviewing/counselling rooms, medical rooms Low Low 351
Dining rooms High High 45
Ancillary spaces Kitchens High High 50
Offlces, staff rooms Average Medium 40
Corridors, stairwells* Average - High High 45
Coats and changing areas High High 45
Toilets Average High 50
Part E of Schedule 1 to the Building Regulations 2000 (as amended by Table 1.1: Performance standards
SI 2002/2871) applies to teaching and learning spaces and is not intended to cover for indoor ambient noise levels — upper
limits for the indoor ambient noise
administration and ancillary spaces (see under Scope in the Introduction). For these
areas the performance standards are for guidance only. level, LAeq,3omin
9
Specification of acoustic performance
Table 1.2: Performance Activity noise in source room (see Table 1.1)
standards for airborne
sound insulation between Low Average High Very high
spaces — minimum
weighted BB93
standardized level High 30 35 45 55
difference, 0nT (Tmf,max),W
1 Medium 35 40 50 55
.E .
Low 40 45 55 55
. Q) a,
Very low 45 50 55 60
this noise is considered in the design of LAeq,3omin, likely to occur during normal
lightweight roofs and roof lights as it can teaching hours. The levels due to external
significantly increase the indoor ambient sources will depend on weather
noise level (see the design guidance in conditions (eg wind direction) and local
Section 3.1.1). It is intended that a activities. High noise levels due to
performance standard for rain noise will exceptional events may be disregarded.
be introduced in a future edition of The indoor ambient noise levels in
BB93. To satis& this edition of BB93 it Table 1.1 apply to finished but
should be demonstrated to the Building unoccupied and unflirnished spaces.
Control Body that the roof has been Tonal and intermittent noises are
designed to minimise rain noise (see generally more disruptive than other
Section 1.2). types of noise at the same level. Noise
Table 1.1 contains the required upper from plant, machinery and equipment in
limits for the indoor ambient noise levels noise—sensitive rooms should therefore be
for each type of unoccupied space. The constant in nature and should not contain
noise levels in Table 1.1 are specified in any significant tonal or intermittent
terms of LAeq,3omin. This is an average characteristics. Noise from building
noise level over 30 minutes, as explained services which is discontinuous, tonal, or
in Appendix 1. The specified levels refer impulsive (ie noise which can be
to the highest equivalent continuous A- distracting) should be reduced to a level at
weighted sound pressure level, least 5 dB below the specified maximum.
10
Specification of acoustic performance
In rooms with very low noise tolerance, Tis the reverberation time in the
including music rooms, studios and receiving room (s)
rooms used for formal music and drama Tmfmax is the reference reverberation
performance, an' audible intermittent time equal to the upper limit of the
noise source of this type is likely to cause reverberation time, Tmf, given in Table
problems and specialist advice should be 1.5 for the type of receiving room. This
sought. reference reverberation time shall be used
for all frequency bands.
1.1.2 Airborne sound insulation The BB93 standardized level
between spaces difference, DnT( Tmfmax),W is measured
The objective is to attenuate airborne in accordance with BS EN ISO 140-
sound transmitted between spaces 4:1998[hI in octave or one-third octave
through walls and floors. bands, the results are weighted and
Table 1.2 contains the required expressed as a single-number quantity,
minimum airborne sound insulation DnT ( Tf max)," in accordance with BS
values between rooms. These values are EN ISO i171:1997[21.
defined by the activity noise in the source The prediction and measurement of
room and the noise tolerance in the Dn T ( Tmfmax),W between two rooms
receiving room. The activity noise and must be carried out in both directions as
noise tolerance for each type of room are its value depends upon the volume of the
given in Table 1.1. The airborne sound receiving room, see the example below.
insulation is quoted in terms of the
weighted BB93 standardized level 1.1.3 Airborne sound insulation
difference, DnT( Tmfmjc),W) between two between circulation spaces and other
rooms. spaces used by students
The BB93 standardized level The objective is to attenuate airborne
difference, DnT(Tmfmax) is the level sound transmitted between circulation
difference, in decibels, corresponding to a spaces (eg corridors, stairwells) and other
BB93 reference value of the reverberation spaces used by students.
time in the receiving room: Table 1.3 contains the required
minimum airborne sound insulation for
T dB the separating wall construction, ant'
'. mf,max,=D-i-1Olg Tmfnax
D-1IT
doorset in the wall and any ventilators in
where the wall. The airborne sound insulation
D is the level difference (dB) for walls and doorsets is quoted in terms
Example to determine the performance standards for airborne sound insulation between a music classroom and a
secondary school general teaching area.
From the music classroom (source room) to the general teaching area (receiving room):
Table 1.1 shows that music classrooms have 'very high' activity levels and that general teaching areas have 'low'
tolerance. Table 1.2 shows that at least 55 dB 0nT(O.8s},w is required.
From the general teaching area (source room) to the music classroom (receiving room):
Table 1.1 shows that general teaching areas have 'average' activity levels and that music classrooms have 'low' tolerance.
Table 1.2 shows that at least 45 dB 0nTCl.Os),w is required.
In this example the requirement to control noise from the music classroom to the general teaching area is more stringent.
The construction should be designed to achieve at least 55 dB 0nT (O.8s),w from the music classroom (source room) to
the general teaching area (receiving room), and at least 45 dB 0nT (1 .Os),w from the general teaching area (source room)
to the music classroom (receiving room).
11
Specification of acoustic performance
12
Specification of acoustic performance
13
Specification of acoustic performance
14
Specification of acoustic performance
15
Specification of acoustic performance
plan until the performance standard for ventilators between circulation spaces and
speech intelligibility is met. other spaces used by students, and the
Computer prediction software capable appropriate minimum values from
of simulating an impulse response should Table 1.3
be used to create a three-dimensional • the estimated weighted BB93
geometric model of the space, comprising standardized impact sound pressure level,
surfaces with scattering coefficients and L'nT( Tmf,max),W, of floors above spaces
individually assigned absorption and the appropriate maximum values
coefficients for each frequency band. The from Table 1.4
model should allow for the location and • the estimated value of mid-frequency
orientation of single and multiple sources reverberation time Tmf in each space and
with user-defined sound power levels and the appropriate range of values from
directivitv. (See guidance on computer Table 1.5
prediction models on the DfES acoustics • the proposed absorption treatments in
website www.teachernet.gov.uk/acoustics.) corridors, entrance halls and stairwells
Assumptions to be made in the • for open-plan spaces, the estimated
assessment of speech intelligibility are: range of STI values for speech
• For students, when seated, the head communication from teacher to student,
height (for listening or speaking) is 0.8 m student to teacher and student to student.
for nursery schools, 1.0 m for primary The supporting information should
schools and 1.2 m for secondary schools. include:
• For students, when standing, the head • construction details and material
height (for listening or speaking) is 1.0 m specifications for the external building
for nursery schools, 1.2 m for primary envelope
schools and 1.65 m for secondary schools. • construction details and material
• For teachers, when seated, the head specifications for all wall and floor
height (for listening or speaking) is 1.2 m. constructions, including all flanking
• For teachers, when standing, the head details
height (for listening or speaking) is 1.65 m. • calculations of the sound insulation
• The background noise level is the overall DnT(Tmf,max),w and L'nT(Tmfmax),w
noise level due to all activities (including • calculations of reverberation times in
teaching and study) in the open-plan space. teaching and study spaces
• calculations of the absorption area to
1.2 Demonstrating compliance to be applied in corridors, entrance halls and
the Building Control Body stairwells
The preferred means of demonstrating • measurements and/or calculations
compliance to the Building Control Body demonstrating how rain noise has been
is to submit a set of plans, construction controlled
details, material specifications, and • sound insulation test reports
calculations, as appropriate for each area (laboratory and/or field)
of the school which is covered by • sound absorption test reports
Requirement E4 of the Building (laboratory)
Regulations. • activity plan and layout for open-plan
The plans should identify: spaces.
• the highest estimate for the indoor An example of a submission to a
ambient noise level, LAeq,3omin, in each Building Control Body, with explanatory
space and the appropriate upper limit notes, is contained in Appendix 10.
from Table 1.1
• the estimated weighted BB93 1.2.1 Alternative performance
standardized level difference, standards
DnT ( Tmf,max),w, between spaces and the In some circumstances alternative
appropriate minimum value from Table 1.2 performance standards may be
• the proposed values of for partition appropriate for specific areas within
walls and for doors, —
lOlgN for individual schools for particular
16
Specification of acoustic performance
17
Specification of acoustic performance
18
Specification of acoustic performance
19
Page blank
in original
Noise control
21
Noise control
least one area at which noise levels are typical school hours and include noisy
below 50 dB LAeq,3omin so that some events (eg road traffic at peak hours,
outdoor teaching is possible. worst case runway usage in the case of
Acoustic screening from fences, walls airports, etc). The measurements must
or buildings may be used to protect also take account of the weather
playgrounds from noise. At positions near conditions. For long-distance propagation
the screen, traffic noise can be reduced by of noise, the measured level is affected by
up to 10 dB(A). wind gradients, temperature gradients and
All external noise levels in this section turbulence. With wind, the noise level is
appI' to measurements made at generally increased downwind or reduced
approximately head height and at least 3 m upwind. (Note that temperature
from any reflecting surface other than the inversions can radically change noise
ground. propagation, but tend to occur only at
night-time, outside school hours.)
2.3 Noise survey A noise measurement survey must
Figure 2.1 shows typical external and include octave or one-third octave
internal sources of noise which can affect frequency band levels. This is because the
noise levels inside a school. attenuation of sound, for example by a
In order to satisF%' the limits for the sound insulating wall or noise barrier,
indoor ambient noise levels in Table 1.1, depends upon the frequency of sound. In
it is necessary to know the external noise general materials and barriers are less
level so that the building envelope can be effective at controlling low frequency
designed with the appropriate sound noise than mid and high frequency noise.
insulation. Although overall noise levels and
The external noise level should be performance standards can be quoted as
established by carrying out a noise overall A-weighted levels, calculations
measurement survev (Note that a brief must be carried out in octave or one-third
survey is advisable even if the site appears octave bands (see Appendix 1) and the
to be quiet, in case there are noisy events results converted into overall A-weighted
at certain times of the day.) The levels.
measurements should be taken during In addition to the noise measurement
Figure 2.1: Typical
sources of noise
I PLANTROOM NOISE
I% AIRCRAFT NOISE
AND VIBRA11ON
% I' I
I' I I
WEATHER %I%I %
&RAINNOISE ' ' DUCTBORNE NOISE < E FAN
1111 %t
NOISY
CORRIDORS
BREAK-OUT/BREAKN
OF DUCTBORNE TRAFFIC NOISE
NOISE AND VIBRATION
NOISE ThROUGH
DOORS & WALLS
H
PLAYGROUND
NOISE
11L ____
NOISE VIA DUCTBORNE NOISE
— OPEN MNDOWS
PLUMBING NOISE
Ii__Ji
I I
ft • •
22
Noise control
El
survey, consideration should be given to 2.5 Aircraft noise
predicting the potential increases in noise Where a school is to be located in an area
levels due to future developments (eg affected by aircraft noise, special measures
increases in traffic flows, new transport are necessary and an acoustic consultant
schemes, changes in flight paths). The should be appointed.
local highway authority should be able to
advise on whether significant changes in 2.6 Vibration
road traffic noise are expected in the Railways, plant and heavy vehicles close to
future. This is likely to be relevant for a school can lead to vibration within the
developments near new or recently school buildings. This vibration can re-
improved roads. Where road traffic noise radiate as audible noise, even when the
levels are likely to increase, it is reasonable vibration itself is not perceptible as
to base the sound insulation requirements shaking in the building. The propagation
on the best estimate of noise levels in 15 of vibration depends on ground
years time. Similar information is likely to conditions but in general when planning a
be available from railway operators, and new school building it is advisable for the
airports. The prediction[2'3I of future noise survey to include vibration
external noise levels should be carried out measurements when there is a railway
by an acoustic consultant. within 30 m of a building, or a road with
If the noise measurement survey shows significant HGV traffic within 20 m. In
that the ambient external noise levels on these cases airborne noise is also likely to Figure 2.2: Attenuation
the site are below 45 dB LAcq,3omin, and be a problem. by a noise barrier as a
prediction work shows that they will function of path difference
remain below 45 dB LAeq,3omin in the
future, no special measures are likely to be
necessary to protect the buildings or
playing fields from external noise.
/ -
Rail noise is a function of train type,
number, speed, rail type and propagation 30
path of the noise.
In general it is advisable to locate a 2000 Hz
25 -
school at least 100 m away from busy
roads and railways, but in towns and cities
this is often not possible. However, the
20 _______ ______ ______ — 1000 Hz
500Hz
250Hz
use of distance alone is a relatively
ineffective wa to reduce noise. Simple
15
.2
=
a,
_______ 125Hz
rules of thumb are that the noise level 10
from a busy road increases by 3 dB(A) for
a doubling of the traffic flow and
decreases by 3 dB(A) for a doubling of
distance from the road (over hard
ground).
0
I... 0.5
liii liii liii
1.0 1.5 2.0
Path difference, m
23
Noise control
POOR
Figure 2.3: Traffic noise
barriers No acoustical shielding
from landscaping
BETTER
Shielding from
embankment would be
improved by a fence
within the trees
BEST
Earth bund acts as
acoustic barrier, planting
acts as visual barrier
24
Noise control
25
Noise control
possible in order to minimise noise levels 2.14 Low frequency noise and
in these areas. The requirement is to hearing impaired pupils
provide sound absorption in accordance Many hearing impaired pupils make use
with Section 1.1.6. To satisfy this of low frequencies below 500 Hz to
requirement, corridors outside classrooms obtain information from speech.
typically need acoustically absorbent Therefore, for hearing impaired pupils to
ceilings and/or wall finishes. Carpets and be included in classes with pupils having
other soft floor finishes can also help to normal hearing, special care should be
reduce reverberation and the noise from taken to minimise low frequency indoor
footfalls. However, as discussed in Section ambient noise levels. Given the prevalence
2.11, the use of carpets may not be of infections leading to temporary hearing
appropriate in all schools. loss, it is advisable to minimise low
frequency indoor ambient noise levels in
2.13 Masking noise all classrooms, especially those used by
The audibility and intrusiveness of noise younger pupils.
from other areas (break-in noise) is a The indoor ambient noise levels in
function of both the level of the break-in Table 1.1 are given in terms of
noise and the noise level in the room LAeq,3omin which is an A-weighted noise
under consideration (the receiving room). level. This is a convenient and widely-
If the ambient noise level in the receiving used parameter but is not a good
room is unnecessarily low, break-in noise indicator of low frequency noise. To
will be more audible. Hence where rooms assess indoor noise there are other rating
are mechanically ventilated, the noise systems in use which address low
from the ventilation system can be used frequency noise but these are beyond the
to mask the noise from activities in scope of this document. In cases where
neighbouring rooms. In these cases low frequency noise is likely to be a
ventilation noise should be not more than problem, specialist advice from an
5 dB below the maximum ambient noise acoustics consultant should be sought.
levels listed in Table 1.1. For this wpe of Such cases include schools exposed to
masking to work it is important to ensure high levels of external noise (in excess of
that the ventilation noise follows a specific 60 dB LAeq,3omjn, see Section 2.2),
masking noise curve and has no tonal or where sound insulation may reduce high
intermittent characteristics. Specialist frequency noise while leaving
acoustic advice is required before using comparatively high levels of low
building services noise for masking. frequency noise.
Other possible sources of masking More information is given in CIBSE
noise are fan convectors, electric lighting Guide B5 Noise and Vibration Control
circuits, and constant levels of road traffic for HVAC.[4]
noise, for example from distant arterial
roads. However it should be noted that
the noise from some sources (eg fans and
other mechanical equipment) may cause References
annoyance to individuals, particularly [1] B Shield, J Dockrell, R Jeffery and
I Tachmatzidis. The effects of noise on the
hearing impaired people, in some attainments and cognitive performance of
circumstances. Also, some building primary school children. Department of Health,
services systems may only operate at 2002.
certain times of the 'ear. [2] Calculation of Road Traffic Noise (CRTN),
Department of Transport, The Stationery
Office, 1988.
[3] Calculation of Railway Noise (CRN),
(Supplement 1), Department of Transport,
The Stationery Office, 1995.
(4] CIBSE Guide B5, Noise and vibration
control for HVAC, CIBSE, 2002
ISBN 1 903287 2 51.
26
Sound insulation
27
Sound insulation
28
Sound insulation
29
Sound insulation
designed for the domestic sector and in difference for cavity widths between 6 mm
some cases the' do not have large enough and 16 mm. Wider cavity widths perform
openings for classrooms and other large significantly better.
rooms found in schools. The acoustic In existing buildings, secondary glazing
performance of any ventilator can be may be installed as an alternative to
assessed with laboratory sound insulation replacing existing single glazing with
test data measured according to BS EN double glazing. The effectiveness of
20140-10:1992[]. Because of the secondary glazing will be determined by
complexity of the assessment of the the thickness of the glass and the width of
acoustic performance of a ventilator, the air gap between the panes. Another
advice max' be needed from a specialist alternative may be to fit a completely new
acoustic consultant. To maintain adequate double-glazed window on the inside of
ventilation, it is essential that the effective the existing window opening, leaving the
area of the ventilator is considered as it original window intact. The use of sound
may be smaller than the free area absorbing reveal linings improves the
(see prEN 131411[8]). performance of double-glazed windows,
It is important, particularly in the case but the improvement is mainly in the
of sound-attenuated products, that a good middle to high frequency region, where it
seal is achieved between the penetration has little effect on road traffic and aircraft
through the wall or window and the noise spectra.
ventilator unit. Where through-the-wall To achieve their optimum
products are used, the aperture should be performance, it is essential that the
cut accurately and the gap around the glazing in windows makes an airtight seal
perimeter of the penetrating duct should with its surround, and that opening lights
be packed with sound insulating material have effective seals around the perimeter
prior to application of a continuous, of each frame. Neoprene compression
flexible, airtight seal on both sides. seals will provide a more airtight seal than
In some schools bespoke ventilator brush seals. The framing of the window
designs, such as that shown in Figure 3.3, should also be assembled to achieve an
are needed. For more examples of airtight construction.
ventilator solutions see Case Studies 7.8 It is equally important that an airtight
and 7.9. seal is achieved between the perimeter of
the window frame and the opening into
3.4 External windows which it is to be fixed. The opening
The airborne sound insulation of should be accurately made to receive the
windows can be assessed from laboratory window, and the perimeter packed with
measurements of the sound reduction sound insulating material prior to
index according to BS EN ISO 140- application of a continuous seal on both
3:1 995[5] When choosing suitable sides.
windows using measured data, care must For partially open single-glazed
be taken to differentiate between windows or double-glazed windows with
measured data for glazing and measured opposite opening panes, the laboratory
data for windows. The reason is that the measured airborne sound insulation is
overall sound insulation performance of a approximately 10-15 dB R, . This
window is affected by the window frame increases to 20-25 dB R, in the open
and the sealing as well as the glazing. position for a secondary glazing system
To achieve the required sound with partially open ventilation openings,
insulation with thin glass it is often with the openings staggered on plan or
necessary to use two panes separated by elevation, and with absorbent lining of
an air (or other gas) filled cavity. In the window reveals (see Figure 3.3). In
theory, the wider the gap between the situ, the degree of attenuation provided
panes, the greater the sound insulation. by an open window also depends on the
In practice, the width of the cavity in spectrum of the noise and the geometry
double glazing makes relatively little of the situation.
30
Sound insulation
Softwood framing to
extend reveals
The spreadsheet of sound reduction seals can however be effective and tend to Figure 3.3: Sound
indices on the DfES acoustic website be more hard wearing than compression reducing secondary glazing
system
gives values of for various types of seals.
window, glazing thickness, and air gap. It is also important that an airtight seal
Indications are also given of the sound is achieved between the perimeter of the
reduction indices of open windows. door frame and the opening into which it
is to be fixed. The opening should be
3.5 External doors accurately made to receive the door frame
For external doors the airborne sound and any gaps around the perimeter packed
insulation is determined by the doorset, with insulating material prior to
which is the combination of door and application of a continuous, airtight seal
frame. The quality ofthe seal achieved on both sides.
around the perimeter of the door is A high level of airborne sound
crucial in achieving the potential insulation is difficult to provide using a
performance of the door itself. Effective single door; however, it can be achieved
seals should be provided at the threshold, by using a lobby with two sets of doors,
jambs and head of the door frame. As as often provided for energy efficiency, or
with windows, neoprene compression a specialist acoustic doorset.
seals are more effective than brush seals,
but their effectiveness will be strongly
influenced by workmanship on site. Brush
31
Sound insulation
32
Sound insulation
33
Sound insulation
60
55
50
45
m
40
a,
35
0
4-a
L) 30
U,
25
-D
0 20
U,
15
10
0
1 10 20 50 100 200 400
Mass per unit area, kg/rn2
34
Sound insulation
35
Sound insulation
36
Sound insulation
junction details. However, if flanking The solid line shows the theoretical
walls are not careflully designed the impact value based purely on the mass For
sound pressure level can increase by up to single leaf elements (eg walls, single
10 dB. To allow the designer to choose a glazing, doors, etc) the mass law states
suitable separating floor for the initial that doubling the mass of the element
design it is suggested that X is assumed to will give an increase of 5 to 6 dB in iç.
be 5 dB and an acoustic consultant is When constructions provide less sound
used to check the choice of separating insulation than predicted by the mass law
floor and ensure that the correct flanking it is usually because they are not airtight.
details are specified. In general, lightweight double-leaf
constructions such as double glazing,
c. Calculate the final estimate for the
cavity masonry or double-leaf
weighted normalised impact sound
that should be used to plasterboard partitions provide better
pressure level sound insulation than the mass law would
select the separating wall or floor from
indicate. At medium and high
laboratory test data.
frequencies, double- leaf constructions
= Ln,w,est — X dB
benefit from the separation of the two
leaves, with performance increasing with
3.12 Internal walls and partitions
the width of the air gap between the
leaves and the physical separation of the
3.12.1 General principles leaves. (Note that for double-leaf
Figure 3.5 shows typical values of the plasterboard constructions, timber
sound reduction index (Rfl,) for different Figure 3.8: Chart to
studwork is rarely used to achieve high
wall constructions. For comparison the estimate R for a
standards of sound insulation because
performance of other constructions composite wall consisting
lightweight metal studs provide better of two elements with
including doors, glazing and floors is mechanical isolation between the leaves.) different transmission
included. losses
15.C
The percentage of the total area of the wall occupied
14.C - by the element with the lower transmission loss, eg a
. II;
I I Area 5%I door, and the difference between the higher R and
II
13.:
the lower R, are used to calculate the correction in
12.C dB which is added to the lower R to give the R of
ii.c the whole wall.
10. For example: Assume a classroom to corridor wall
9.:Ii has an R of 45 dB and a door in the wall has an R
of3OdB. Iftheareaofthedooris0.85mx2.lm=
.9 8.C
7.0 —
iir
1— II ii
1.785 m2 and the area of the wall is 7 mx 2.7 m =
18.9 m2, then the percentage of the wall occupied by
the door is 1.785/18.9 x 100 = 9.4%
6.0 - 1
4.0
30
'H'
I;
ii Ii
=
I — 40%!
__ __
60%!
Therefore reading from the chart gives a correction of
about 9 dB to be added to the lower R, giving a
composite R of 39 dB.
2.0 -
II
If a higher performance door of say 35 dB had been
1.0
used, the composite R would be 35 + 7 = 42 dB.
II I
0.0
2 6 10 14 18 22 26 30
Transmission loss difference, dB
37
Sound insulation
At low frequencies the performance of The values in Figure 3.9 are necessarily
plasterboard partitions is limited by the approximate and will depend on the
mass and stiffness of the partition. precise constructions and materials used.
Masonry walls can provide better low Many blockwork and plasterboard
frequency sound insulation simply manufacturers provide data for specific
because of their mass. This is not obvious constructions.
from the R,, figures, as the R,, rating More sound reduction indices, both
system lends more importance to single value and octave band data, and
insulation at medium and high further references to specific
frequencies rather than low frequencies. manufacturers' data are in the sound
This is not normally a problem in general reduction indices spreadsheet included on
classroom applications where sound the DIES acoustics website.
insulation is mainl' required at speech
frequencies. However, it can be important 3.12.3 Flanking transmission
in music rooms and in other cases where In general, a weighted sound level
low frequency sound insulation is difference of up to 50 dB n1Tmfm),w
important. can be achieved between adjacent rooms
A combination of masonry and dry- by a single partition wall using one of the
lining can be very effective in providing constructions described above, provided
reasonable low frequency performance that there are no doors, windows or other
with good sound insulation at higher weaknesses in that partition wall, and that
frequencies. This combination is often flanking walls/floors with their junction
useflil when increasing the sound details are carefully designed. Flanking
insulation of existing masonry 'alls. transmission is critical in determining the
While partition walls may be provided actual performance and specialist advice
as a means of achieving sound reduction, should be sought from an acoustic
it should be remembered that sound consultant.
insulation is no better than that provided
by the weakest eleiiient. 3.12.4 High performance
Figure 3.8 can be used to assess the constructions — flanking transmission
overall effect of a composite construction High-performance plasterboard partitions
such as a partition with a window, door, or masonry walls with independent linings
hole or gap in it. The sound insulation of can provide airborne sound insulation as
the composite structure is obtained by high as 70 dB R in the laboratory.
relating the areas and sound insulation However, to achieve high performance in
values of the component parts using the practice (ie above 50 dB Dn7(Tmfm),w),
graph. flanking walls/floors with their junction
Partitions should be well sealed, as details must be carefully designed.
small gaps, holes, etc. significantly reduce Airborne sound insulation as high as 65 dB
sound insulation. (Note that this applies 1-nT(Tmf,max),w can be achieved on site
to porous materials, eg porous blockwork, using high performance plasterboard
which can transmit a significant amount partitions, or masonry walls with
of sound energy through the pores.) independent linings with lightweight
isolated floors and independent ceilings to
3.12.2 Sound insulation of common control flanking transmission. This will
constructions require specialist advice from an acoustic
Figure 3.9 shows the approximate consultant.
weighted sound reduction index R1, for For rooms which would otherwise
masonry and plasterboard constructions. need high-performance partitions it may
Using the procedures given in Section be possible to use circulation spaces,
3.10, it is possible to determine which stores and other less noise-sensitive rooms
constructions are capable of meeting the to act as buffer zones between rooms
requirements between different types of such that partitions with lower levels of
rooms. sound insulation can be used. Case Study
38
Sound insulation
50—55
pcjç 1
2xi2.5 mm plasterboard each side of a 150 mm
metal stud with glass fibre/mineral wool in
1
cavity (total width 198 mm)
I
100 mm block (high density 200 kg/rn2) with 12 mm plaster on
L L
one side and lxi 2.5 mm plasterboard on metal frame with a
______________ 50 mm cavity filled with glass fibre/mineral wool on other side
39
Sound insulation
Figure 3.10: Glazing — airborne sound insulation for some typical glazing
40
Sound insulation
41
Sound insulation
42
Sound insulation
-
40 "; ::;;.##.r
Heavy door with edge seal
good
—
r- i —
.—= = Light door with edge seal
lobby used to provide the necessary 3.13.4 Roller shutters Figure 3.12: Reduction
airborne sound insulation. Roller shutters are sometimes used to of sound insulation of a
wall incorporating different
separate kitchens from multi-purpose types of door
3.13.3 Folding walls and operable spaces used for dining. Because roller
partitions shutters typically only provide sound
Folding 'alIs and operable partitions are insulation of around 20 dB R,, it is
sometimes used to provide flexibility in common for noise from the kitchen to
teaching spaces or to divide open-plan disturb teaching activities. One solution
areas. A standard folding partition with
no acoustic seals or detailing may provide
a value as low as 25 dB R. However,
folding partitions are available that can
provide up to 55 dB R. The sound
insulation depends on effective acoustic
sealing and deteriorates if seals or tracks
are worn or damaged.
It is important that the specification of
folding partitions takes into account their
weight, ease of opening and maintenance.
Regular inspection and servicing will
extend the life of a partition and ensure
that it achieves the required sound (a)
insulation.
Folding partitions are useful in mans' Figure 3.13: Use of
applications but they should only be used lobbies and double doors
when necessary and not as a response to a ______________ (a) Lobbied doorway
_______________ (b) Double door
non-specific desire for flexibility in layout
of teaching areas.
(b)
43
Sound insulation
Figure 3.14: Existing timber floors — airborne and impact sound insulation for some typical floor/ceiling
44
Sound insulation
is to provide doors in front of the buildings. Both airborne noise and impact
shutters to improve the sound noise can be problematic with wooden
insulation. floors, and both problems need to be
considered vhen dealing with vertically
3.14 Floors and ceilings adjacent spaces. Adding carpets or other
Both airborne and impact noise can be soft coverings to wooden floors reduces
transmitted between vertically adjacent impact noise but has very little effect on
rooms through the separating floor and airborne noise transmission.
its associated flanking constructions. Impact noise can also be a problem
Vertical noise transmission between with concrete floors (although airborne
classrooms can be a problem in older noise may not be a problem); this can
multi-store buildings with wooden sometimes be solved by adding a carpet.
floors, such as traditional Victorian school Where the use of carpet is proposed
45
3] Sound insulation
çyxy
425
.
45—55 60—70 250—
500
Figure 3.15: Lightweight issues of cleaning, maintenance and o areas for dance or movement
concrete floors — airborne effects on air quality rna' need to be o loading/unloading areas (eg in
and impact sound
considered. kitchens and workshops)
insulation of some typical
constructions o machiner
3.14.1 Impact sound insulation Where possible, impact noise should be
Impact noise on floors may arise from: reduced at source through use of soft
o foot traffic, particularly in corridors at floor coverings or floating floors. Carpets
break times/lesson changeover are not an option in practical spaces but
o percussion rooms other soft floor coverings, such as acoustic
46
Sound insulation
'
Solid concrete floor consisting of reinforced 50—55 60—65 150—
concrete with or without shuttering concrete 200
beams with infill blocks and screed, hollow or .'
solid concrete planks with screed, of thickness
and density to give a total mass of at least 365
kg/rn2, with soft floor covering >5 mm thick
47
Sound insulation
vinyl floor or 'invl flooring laid on an performance, special flexible ceiling hangers.
acoustic mat, may be suitable. The major manufacturers of dry-lining
Planning and room layout can be used systems all provide their own systems for
to avoid impact noise sources on floors these options, and provide sound
above noise-sensitive rooms. Soft floor insulation data and specifications for a
coverings and floating floor constructions variety of configurations. The performance
and independent ceilings are the most for both airborne and impact sound
effective means of isolation, and resilient improves with the depth of the ceiling
floor finishes are also appropriate for void, with the mass of the ceiling and
some sources. with the deflection of the ceiling hangers
Typical airborne and impact noise under the mass of the ceiling. Adding a
performance are listed for a number of layer of lightweight acoustically absorbent
constructions in Figures 3.14, 3.15 and glass wool or mineral wool in the ceiling
3.16. Note that, unlike airborne sound void increases the sound insulation,
insulation, impact sound insulation is wpicallv by 2-3 dB, but there is no point
measured in terms of an absolute sound in adding more than specified.
level, so that a lower figure indicates a Performance on site is strongly
better standard of insulation. dependent on good workmanship to
avoid air gaps, so careful attention should
3.14.2 Voids above suspended be given to ensuring that joints are close-
ceilings butted, taped and filled and that all gaps
Where partitions run up to the underside are properly sealed. At the perimeter a
of lightweight suspended ceilings, the small gap should be left between the
airborne sound insulation will be limited plasterboard and the walls, and this
by flanking transmission across the ceiling should be sealed using non-setting mastic
void, which will often prevent the to allow a small amount of movement
minimum values for airborne sound without cracking.
insulation in Table 1.2 being achieved. Penetrations through the ceiling need
Therefore, partitions should either be to be properly detailed to maintain an
continued through the ceiling up to the airtight seal while allowing movement,
sofilt, or a plenum barrier should be used. and services should not be allowed to
provide a rigid link between the ceiling
3.14.3 Upgrading existing wooden and the floor above. This can be a
floors using suspended plasterboard particular problem with sprinkler pipes. A
ceilings problem with these constructions is that
Figure 3.14 shows the airborne and recessed light fittings, grilles and diffusers
impact noise performance of a standard significantly reduce the sound insulation so
wooden floor with various forms of any services should be surface-mounted.
suspended plasterboard ceiling. A plasterboard finish is acoustically
Option 2 is possibly the most widely reflective whereas in some rooms an
used system of increasing both impact acoustically absorbent ceiling is required,
and airborne sound insulation, with or to meet the specifications for room
without the original plaster ceiling. In acoustics and reverberation times. One
small rooms good results can be achieved solution to this, if there is sufficient
using timber studs fixed only to the walls, height, is to suspend a separate
but large timber sections are needed to lightweight sound absorbing ceiling under
span wider rooms. the sound insulating plasterboard ceiling.
In widcr span rooms it is generally more This can be a standard lightweight
convenient to suspend the plasterboard composite or perforated metal tile system.
from the floor joists above, fixing through These lightweight, acoustically absorbent,
the existing ceiling if this is retained, ceilings add very little to the sound
using a proprietary suspension and grid insulation but do provide acoustic
system (option 4). The grid can be hung absorption. Lights and services can be
from simple metal strips or, for higher recessed in the absorbent ceiling.
48
Sound insulation
The term 'acoustic ceiling' generally the increase in both airborne and impact
refers to lightweight acoustically sound insulation relies on the mechanical
absorbent ceiling tile systems, designed to isolation of the floor from the joists using
provide acoustic absorption. Note that resilient material.
these systems do not always increase the Figure 3.14 shows a number of typical
sound insulation as well. lightweight floating floor constructions
There are, however, some systems and indicative sound insulation figures.
which use relatively heavy ceiling tiles There are many proprietary systems using
'hich are designed to fit into ceiling grids a wide range of isolating materials and
to provide a reasonably airtight fit. These manufacturers should supply test data in
ma consist of dense plasterboard or accordance with ISO 140 measurements.
mineral fibre products, or perforated The isolating layer will typically consist
metal tiles with metal or plasterboard of rubber, neoprene, open-cell or closed-
backing plates. If properly installed and cell foams, mineral fibre or composite
maintained these can provide a useful materials. The isolating layer can be in the
increase in sound insulation as well as form of individual pads, strips or a
acoustic absorption. Manufacturers of continuous layer of material.
these systems can provide both airborne The sound insulation increases with the
and impact sound insulation figures, as deflection of the resilient layer (up to the
well as acoustic absorption coefficieflts. If limit of elasticity for the material), with
no measured sound insulation data are the mass of the floating layer and with the
provided, it is better to err on the side of depth of the cavity Adding a layer of
caution and assume that the tile will not lightweight acoustically absorbent glass
provide a significant increase in sound wool or mineral wool in the ceiling void
insulation. increases the sound insulation, typically by
The sound insulation performance 2-3 dB, but there is no point in adding
figures quoted in Figure 3.14 all assume more than specified. In each case the
that the floorboards are in good deflection of the material under the
condition and reasonably airtight, with permanent 'dead' load of the floating
thin carpet laid on top. If retaining the layer and the varying 'live' loads of
original floorboards it is good practice to occupants and furniture must be
fill in any gaps with glued wooden strips, considered. If the material is too resilient
caulking or mastic, or to lay hardboard on and the floating layer is insufficiently
top, to provide an airtight seal. If not heavy or rigid, the floor will deflect under
retaining the original boards, 18 mm the varying loads as people move about
tongue-and-grooved chipboard can be the room. For this reason it is
used to achieve the same effect, with all advantageous for the floating layer to be
joints and gaps properly sealed, especially as heavy and as stiff as practicable, in
at the perimeters. some cases using ply or fibre-bond board
(for mass) laid on top of the resilient
3.14.4 Upgrading existing wooden layer, with tongue-and-grooved chipboard
floors using platform and ribbed floors on top of this.
The systems discussed in Section 3.14.3 If there are likely to be very heavy local
all maintain the original wooden floor loads in the room (eg pianos) it may be
mounted directly on joists. This has the necessary to increase the stiffliess of the
advantage of maintaining the original resilient material, or, in the case of pads,
floor level at the expense of loss of ceiling to space the pads more closely together to
height below An alternative approach is support these loads.
to provide a floating floor system either Junctions with walls and at doors need
on top of the existing floorboards (a to be designed to maintain an effectively
platform floor) or to remove the existing airtight seal while allowing movement of
floorboards and build a new floor on the floating layer. Manufacturers generally
resilient material placed on top of the provide their own proprietary solutions
floor joists (a ribbed floor). In both cases for this, with or without skirtings.
49
Sound insulation
— EW
Figure 3.17: Possible
sound transmission paths
and their prevention
—n 11 Ai
it________________
/uptothesoffit
I
I
I
machinery
Ii \
connections U walls must be of
for plant andlt adequate weight
and all gaps sealed
airborne sound transmitbd through ceiling,
light fittings, and lightweight partitions and gaps
I
plantroom I J should be canoe dealt with by sealing gaps and incroasing mass
should have Li' exible
flexible
mountings,
I
adequate
floor mass
sound can be transmitted along the structure
floor U
Lightweight floating floors are quite sound insulation and impact sound
specialist constructions, and achieving the transmission data for a number of typical
correct deflection under varying live loads concrete floor constructions, with and
without overloading the resilient material without suspended ceilings and floating
can be difficult. Most materials suffer floors.
from long-term loss of elasticity or 'creep'
under permanent loads and this should be 3.15
Design and detailing of
taken into account in the design and building elements
selection of materials. The system Important points to remember when
manufacturer should normally be provided designing constructions to achieve
with all of the relevant information and adequate sound insulation are:
required to specif.' a system to meet all ofo Weak elements (eg doors and glazing,
the acoustic and structural requirements service penetrations, etc) will reduce the
over the expected lifetime of the floor. Ineffectiveness of the walls in which they are
difficult cases the advice of an acoustics located.
consultant and/or structural engineer o Impact sound will travel with little
should be sought. reduction through a continuous member
such as a steel beam or servicing pipe.
3.14.5 Concrete floors o Partitions between sensitive spaces
In general, concrete floors provide much should normally continue beyond the
greater low frequency airborne sound ceiling up to the structural soffit or roof
insulation than wooden floors by virtue of layer, to prevent noise passing over the
their greater mass. There are, however, top of the partition above the ceiling or
considerable variations in performance through a loft space.
between dense poured concrete floors and o Openings in walls caused by essential
comparatively lightweight precast concrete services passing through should be
plank floors. Impact sound transmission acoustically sealed. Pipework passing
can be a problem even in heavy concrete between noise sensitive spaces should be
floors because of the lack of damping in appropriately boxed-in (see Approved
concrete, and a soft or resilient floor Document E[']).
covering is generally required. This may Figure 3.17 shows how possible
simply be carpet on suitable underlay. transmission paths through the structure
Figures 3.15 and 3.16 show airborne of a building can be prevented.
50
Sound insulation
References
[1] Approved Document E - Resistance to the [9] BS EN 12354-3:2000 Building Acoustics-
passage of sound. The Stationery Office, Estimation of acoustic performance in buildings
2003, ISBN 01 753 642 3 from the performance of elements. Part 3.
www.safety.odpm.gov.uk Airborne sound insulation against outdoor
[2] Sound Control for Homes (BRE report 238, sound.
CIRIA report 127), 1993. Available from CRC [10] BS EN ISO 140-5: 1998 Measurement of
Ltd. 1993, BRE ISBN 0 85125 559 0, CIRIA sound insulation in buildings and of building
ISBN 0 86017 362 3, CIRIA ISBN 0305 408 X. elements. Part 5. Field measurements of
[3] J McLoughlin, 0 J Saunders and R D Ford. airborne sound insulation of façade elements
Noise generated by simulated rainfall on and facades.
profiled steel roof structures. Applied Acoustics [11] BS EN 12354—1: 2000 Building
42 239-255, 1994 Acoustics. Estimation of acoustic performance
[4] ISO 140-18 Acoustics - Measurement of in building from the performance of elements.
sound insulation in buildings and of building Part 1. Airborne sound insulation between
elements - Part 18: Laboratory measurement rooms.
of sound generated by rainfall on building [12] BS 476 Fire tests on building materials
elements (in preparation). and structures.
[5] BS EN ISO 140-3: 1995 Measurement of [13] BS EN ISO 140-6: 1998, Acoustics -
sound insulation in buildings and of building Measurement of sound insulation in buildings
elements. Part 3. Laboratory measurement of and of building elements. Part 6. Laboratory
airborne sound insulation of building elements. measurement of impact sound insulation of
[6] The Education (School Premises) floors.
Regulations 1999. (Statutory Instrument 1999 [14] BS EN 12354-2: 2000 Building Acoustics.
No 2, Education, England & Wales). The Estimation of acoustic performance in building
Stationery Offiice, 1999. ISBN 0 11 080331 0 from the performance of elements. Part 2.
www.hmso.gov.uk Impact sound insulation between rooms.
[7] BS EN 20140-10: 1992 Acoustics - [15] BS EN ISO 140-8: 1998 Acoustics.
Measurement of sound insulation in buildings Measurements of sound insulation in buildings
and of building elements. Part 10. Laboratory and of building elements. Part 8. Laboratory
measurement of airborne sound insulation of measurements of the reduction of transmitted
small building elements. impact noise by floor coverings on a
[8] BS 98/704582 DC. Ventilation for buildings. heavyweight standard floor.
Performance testing of components/products [16] BS EN ISO 717-2: 1997 Acoustics - Rating
for residential ventilation. Part 1. Externally and of sound insulation in buildings and of building
internally mounted air transfer devices. Draft elements. Part 2. Impact sound insulation.
for public comment (prEN 13141-1 Current
Euronorm under approval).
51
Page blank
in original
The design of rooms for speech
The design of rooms for speech is a critical aspect of the acoustic design of a
school. Rooms must be designed to facilitate clear communication of speech
between teachers and students, and between students.
53
The design of rooms for speech
54
The design of rooms for speech
El
N\ \ I / /"
(a) Surface finishes in classroom or lecture theatre: (b) Surface finishes in classroom or lecture theatre:
a. Rear wall - sound absorbing or diffusing a. Rear wall - sound absorbing or diffusing
b. Ceiling - sound reflective (eg plasterboard) b. Ceiling - sound reflective (eg plasterboard)
c. Floor- sound absorbing (eg carpet) c. Floor - sound absorbing (eg carpet)
d. Walls - sound reflective d. Walls - sound reflective
e. Ceiling - sound absorbing e. Top of walls - sound absorbing or diffusing
4.7 Classrooms There are instances where provision of Figure 4.2: Surface
For classrooms and other rooms for sound field amplification can improve finishes in classroom or
lecture theatre
speech, there are two approaches to speech intelligibility, see Section 6.
locating the acoustic absorption:
4.8 Assembly halls, auditoria and
1. To make the ceiling predominantly lecture theatres
absorbent. In most cases a standard Most school halls are used primarily for
acoustically absorbent suspended ceiling speech functions such as assemblies,
will provide all of the necessary meetings and drama, and use for music is
absorption. In the case of rooms with less frequent. The most common problem
exposed concrete soffits (providing in school halls is excessive reverberation
thermal mass to limit overheating in resulting in high noise levels and poor
summertime) acoustically absorbent
speech intelligibilitv
suspended baffles may be used. The ideal
case is often to have the central part of
the ceiling reflective with absorption at 4.8.1 Room geometry
The direct sound from speaker to listener
the edges, see Figure 4.2(a). must be as strong as possible at all
2. To leave the ceiling acoustically positions. Because this sound weakens
reflective (plaster, plasterboard, concrete, rapidly with distance according to the
etc) and to add acoustic absorption to the inverse square law (the intensity is
walls. In these cases it is advisable to reduced by a factor of four and the sound
locate most of the absorption at high level level falls by 6 dB when the speaker to
and some on the back wall facing the receiver distance is doubled), the average
teacher to prevent 'slap echo' off the back distance between speaker and listener
wall. This is particularly important if the should be kept as small as possible.
rear wall is concave or the distance from Furthermore, there should be no
the speaker to the rear wall is greater than obstructions along the direct sound path.
8.5 m, see Figure 4.2(b).
speaker Figure 4.3: Ideal seating
In large rooms, reflections from the plan
rear wall can be disturbing for a speaker if
they arrive later than 50 milliseconds after
the speech has been voiced. This can 1400
occur if the speaker to rear wall distance is
greater than 8.5 m. To avoid this problem,
the rear 'all should be made acoustically % audience
55
The design of rooms for speech
/ 111111 li,
(a) Adequate loudness is essential, direct sound must (b) Loudness of direct sound towards rear is
have a clear unobstructed path. increased with raked seating.
"I,,,,
I///,,,
1/if
(C) Loudness of direct sound can be increased by (d) Reflected sound enhances direct sound if time
putting the speaker on a platform. delay is less than 50 milliseconds.
b '' I,
1,
I/I/I C
1,
a 41111111111111111
I I 11111 I I I I
JIIIIIIIIIIlIIII 11111 11111
(e) For useful sound reflections, additional path (f) Rear wall can cause a disturbing echo for speakers
travelled by reflected sound must be less than 17 m: if over 8.5 m away. Rear wall should be absorbing
b÷c — a<17 m. or diffusing.
Figure 4.4: Effects of For large rooms such as school halls, see the speaker well, the' will not hear
room geometry on speech. additional factors need to be considered well either. It is frequently necessary in
in relation to the direct sound. First, the schools to have a flat floor in a school
seating plan should be arranged to fall hail. In these cases, speakers should be
within an angle of about 1400 subtended raised on a platform which is suflicientlv
at the position of the speaker, see Figure high to ensure that minimum clearance is
4.3. This is because speech is directional, obtained at the rear rows of the hall, see
and the power of the higher frequencies Figure 4.4(c).
on which intelligibility largely depends The direct sound from speaker to
falls off fairly rapidly outside this angle. listener can be enhanced by strong early
Secondly, sound is weakened as it passes reflections that arrive within 50
over seated people at grazing incidence. milliseconds, see Figure 4.4(d). These
Therefore, if possible, listeners should be early reflections increase the loudness of
seated on a rake where a clearance of the direct sound and therefore increase
around 100 mm is provided between the speech intelligibilirv The' are particularly
sightline from one row and the sighiline usefi.il at the furthest seats where the
from the next, see Figures 4.4(a) and loudness of the direct sound has been
4.4(b). It is known that if people can not reduced by distance. To provide
56
The design of rooms for speech
57
El The design of rooms for speech
central cluster
microphone
o
amplifier •1
I I
Figure 4.6: An 4.9 Open-plan teaching and and effort required to open and close
arrangement of
loudspeakers in a school learning areas them. While in theory it is possible to
hall In open-plan areas it is essential to achieve adequate sound insulation
provide good speech intelligibility and to between classrooms using high-
secure freedom from aural distraction by performance moveable walls, there are
more distant sound sources and by issues of cost, weight, complexity of
background noise. Section 1 contains installation and maintenance to consider.
perfoimance standards for speech Specialist advice from an independent
intelligibility in open-plan spaces. Some consultant should always be sought when
degree of acoustic privacy is also desirable. using such partitions to comply with the
This can be difficult to achieve in practice sound insulation requirements set out in
and there have been many instances of Section 1.
distraction and disturbance between class Research has shown that in many large
groups in open-plan areas. Case Studies open-plan 'flexible' areas certain activities
7.2, 7.3 and 7.10 describe surveys of the are severely restricted or have to be
acoustics of open-plan teaching areas in dropped because of noise interference.
primary and secondary schools. Indeed, it must be recognised that there
In open-plan areas, a carpeted floor is are but a small number of activities that
recommended together with a sound can share a degree of acoustic linkage and
absorbing ceiling. In addition, sound even then the timetable has to be
absorbing screens should be interposed designed to allow this.
between class groups. Screens should be Those plans which provide a generous
at least 1.7 m high and ideally should range of spaces in a variety of sizes can be
reach to within 0.5 m of the ceiling, see seen to give far more opportunities in
Figure 4.7. teaching than those with large open
A major improvement in the acoustic spaces and moveable screens, because in
privacy between spaces in open-plan areas the former it is possible to achieve good
can be realised by installing frill height sound insulation standards between
moveable walls which, if fitted with seals, spaces.
can provide a moderate degree of sound When designing open-plan areas it is
insulation between the divided spaces. In important to provide plenty of acoustically
general however it is found that such absorbent surfaces and to use screens to
screens are rarely used because of the time block direct sound paths.
58
The design of rooms for speech
El
4.10 Practical spaces
Spaces for teaching practical subjects have
particular requirements which need
careful design in order to comply with the
/
Screens should be as high as possible
acoustic requirements for teaching and and the ceiling must be absorbent
learning. This section addresses the needs
of Design and Technology spaces and Art
rooms. Music rooms are considered
- 1/
separately in Section 5. Although Science
involves a significant amount of practical
activity, the general approach described
for classrooms (Section 4.7) can be
applied to spaces for the teaching of SEC11ON
,I
If a screen is not high enough, direct sound paths or paths with only
Science. For further information on small angular changes are possible. If the angle is small, more low
Design and Technology spaces see and mid-frequency sound will diffract over the top of the screen.
Building Bulletin 81[1] and the DfES If the ceiling is not absorbent, sound can be reflected over the screen.
acoustics website.
59
The design of rooms for speech
60
The design of rooms for speech
61
The design of rooms for speech
Speech Music
Table 4.1: General Table 4.1 shows the general acoustic echoes can occur, significantly increasing
acoustic requirements for requirements for speech and music. (See the reverberation time and reducing
speech and music also Section 5.7.) speech intel1igibilitv A reasonable
Where regular performances of music distribution of acoustic absorption or
are expected, reverberation time is diffusion (such as provided by wallbars
sometimes changed using moveable areas against gymnasium walls) will eliminate
of absorption (typically curtains) without this effect.
changing the volume of the space.
Although this can successfully change the 4.14 Dining areas
reverberation time at medium and high Dining areas suffer from excessive activity
frequencies, it often has little effect at low noise. The high activity noise interferes
frequencies, resulting in an acoustic which with conversation leading to increasing
is less than ideal for either speech or noise levels. Therefore, sound absorption
music. is required in these areas to reduce the
(Note that the 'dry' acoustic required reverberant noise level. The most practical
for speech is also generally suitable for place to position sound absorption is on
amplified music.) the ceiling and the walls. Shapes in
Further information regarding the section or on plan that produce focusing,
design of multi-purpose auditoria is given such as barrel vaulted roof and circular
in Section 5. walls, should be avoided unless treated
with sound absorbent material.
4.13 Other large spaces
Sports halls, gymnasia and especially
swimming pools have long reverberation
times through the nature of their
construction and surfaces necessary to
their function. This results in high noise
levels and poor speech intelligibility.
A variety of relatively rigid, robust and
hygienic, acoustically absorbent materials
are available and can be used. In general,
these materials are installed on ceilings References
and at high level on walls or as hanging [1) Building Bulletin 81, Design and Technology
Accommodation in Secondary schools, to be
baffles. If there are large areas of
published January 2004 (replacing 1986
acoustically hard parallel surfaces, flutter edition).
62
The design of rooms for music
5.1 Aspects of acoustic design Noise from hot water radiator systems
Building Bulletin 86 Music should be minimised by good design.
Accommodation in Secondary Schools[1] Equipment, particularly the valves and
gives detailed design advice on the range pumps, should be designed and selected
of types of music spaces found in schools. for quiet operation, with vibration
The performance standards of the most isolation where appropriate.
common music room types are listed in In noise-sensitive spaces, such as music
the tables in Section 1. performance spaces and recording spaces,
Some non-specialist classrooms may be hot water pipes should not come into
used for teaching music theory to large rigid contact with the building
groups, with only occasional live or construction. Resilient pipe brackets and
recorded music. In these rooms the flexible penetration details should be
majority of activity depends on good adopted to prevent clicking noises
speech intelligibility rather than an resulting from expansion and contraction.
enhanced acoustic for music and in these Lighting can cause disturbing buzzing
cases classrooms with the same acoustic and occasionally sharp cracks from
criteria as normal classrooms may be used. expansion or contraction of metal fittings.
A brief, outlining the client's acoustic In music rooms, 50 Hz fluorescent lights
requirements, should be obtained before should not be used because they are
starting the design of an' specialist music inherently prone to buzzing and mains
facility. The main problems are noise hum which is audible to some people.
transfer between spaces, unsuitable These effects do not occur with high
reverberation times, flutter echoes, frequency (HF) fittings, which should in
standing waves, and high noise levels. general be specified on energy efficiency
and cost saving grounds. HF fittings are
5.2 Ambient noise acceptable for most general music spaces.
The requirements for indoor ambient Where the quietest conditions are
noise levels in music rooms are set out in required, lighting should be restricted to
Table 1.1. To control noise from tungsten or similar lamps. In certain
mechanical ventilation, it is important to spaces such as a recording/control room,
select quiet fans or air handling units the sound caused by transformers used
which are connected to appropriately with low voltage spotlights can be
sized silencers (attenuators). Typical distracting.
primary attenuator lengths will be in the
range 2.4 to 3.0 m. Air velocities in the 5.3 Sound insulation
duct system should be kept low and Standards for sound insulation between
should not generally exceed 5 m/s in different types of room are given in Table
main ducts, 4.5 m/s in branch ducts and 1.2. To avoid excessive noise transfer
2.5 m/s at runouts. Terminal units between music rooms Table 1.2 specifies a
(grilles etc) should be selected for low minimum of 55 dB DnT(Tmf,max),w
noise output. between most music rooms. These are
63
The design of rooms for music
64
The design of rooms for music
65
The design of rooms for music
often located at high level on the walls. to 'image shifting' where early reflections
Because of the absorption of the can be so strong that the ear perceives the
audience, there can be large variations in sound as coming from the reflecting
RT depending on the presence or absence surface and not the sound source.
of an audience. To reduce this effect, This problem can be exacerbated if late
acoustically absorbent seats with reflections are particularly strong. This
upholstered backs can be used and in can occur 'hen sound is focused from
large halls the acoustic absorption of the large concave surfaces such as curved rear
seats has to be determined and specified walls, barrel vaults, domes, etc.
quite carefully. An acceptable alternative Furthermore, focusing results in an
in smaller halls can be the use of uneven distribution of sound throughout
retractable curtains to reduce the RT the room. Consequently, large concave
during rehearsals 'hen no audience is surfaces are not generally recommended
present. in music spaces.
In auditoria and music rooms, surfaces In small rooms, such as group rooms
around and above the stage or and music practice rooms, geometry
performing area are normally reflective to affects the distribution of standing waves
provide feedback to the performers. or room modes throughout the sound
Floors on stage should be reflective spectrum, particularly at low frequencies.
although carpet in an auditorium may be Where the distance between two parallel
permissible. walls coincides with or is a multiple of a
particular wavelength of sound, a
5.4.3 Room geometry standing wave can be set up and the
It is important to consider both room balance of sound will be affected, see
shape and proportion. In large rooms Figure 5.3. Certain notes will be
such as halls and recital rooms, the amplified more than the rest leading to an
geometry of the room surfaces will unbalanced tonal sound, sometimes called
determine the sequence of sound colouration. Bathrooms with tiled walls
reflections arriving at the listener from a are a good example of rooms with
given sound source. Earls' reflections, that prominent room modes. Although such
is those arriving within approximatel' 80 rooms can enhance certain notes of a
milliseconds of the direct sound, will be singer's voice, they will not produce a
integrated by the listener's hearing system balanced sound and will tend to sound
and will generally enhance the original boom The effect is exaggerated if
sound for music (50 milliseconds is the distances are the same in more than one
corresponding figure for speech, see dimension. Thus rooms which are square,
Section 4). hexagonal or octagonal in plan should be
Prominent reflections with a longer avoided. The same effect occurs if the
delay (late reflections) may be perceived room width is the same as the room
as disturbing echoes. This is often height, or is a simple multiple of it.
encountered where the rear wall in a hall Ideally, the distribution and strength of
Figure 5.3: Standing has a large flat area of glass or masonr room modes should be reasonably
waves in different modes
0 — No sound pressure Strong individual reflections can also lead uniform. Perhaps the best way to control
1.0 — Maximum sound
pressure
Ti — T
:
0 60.8
I
04'p4
0.0.2 I -1-
I
— .I_ —I- ._
66
The design of rooms for music
5.4.4 Diffusion
In addition to the correct RT, the room
should be free from echoes, flutter
echoes, and standing waves and the sound
should be uniformly distributed
throughout the room, both in the
performance and listening areas. To
achieve this without introducing too
much absorption, it may be necessary to
introduce diffusing hard surfaces to
diffuse, or scatter, the sound. These are
normally angled or convex curved
50 mm to 500mm (larger depth extends
surfaces but bookshelves, balcony fronts diffusion to tower frequencies)
or other shapes can also provide diffusion,
see Figure 5.4. Acoustic diffusion is a
complex subject, and if calculation of
difliision is likely to be required a are modelled to promote sound diffusion. Figure 5.4: Surfaces
specialist should be consulted. On the side wall this takes the form of which provide specular and
diffuse reflections
shelving to store percussion instruments,
5.5 Types of room etc. On the back wall, framed pinboards
(with non-absorptive covering) are set at
5.5.1 Music classrooms an angle, breaking up an otherwise plain
Figure 5.5 shows a 65 m2 music classroom surface.
for a range of class-based activities o Full length heavy drapes along the back
involving a number of different wall can be drawn across to vary the
instruments. The room proportion avoids acoustics of the space.
an exact square. The height is assumed to o The observation window into the
be between 2.7 m and 3.5 m, creating a adjacent control room is detailed to
reasonable volume for the activities (see ensure a high level of sound insulation
Section 5.4.3). The main points to note between the two spaces (see Figure 5.6
about the acoustic treatment of the space and the discussion of control rooms
are described below below).
o To minimise the possibility of flutter o The door into the room is of solid core
echoes or standing waves occurring construction with a small vision panel.
between opposing parallel walls, surfaces The door and frame details, Figures 5.7
67
The design of rooms for music
68
The design of rooms for music
13x44 mm architrave
914 mm wide
structural opening
I— I
Solid core timber door
assembly
'1 Elevation showing how the
Head & jamb with single
or double seals performance of a door assembly
depends on a number of features
of the construction, not just on the
Viewing mass of the door leaf
panel
Generous rebate
to frame, with
heavy duty hinges
E
a
q
('4 F Handle —
but no
Continuous grounds and
keyhole fill to frame and opening
E
a
q
I retractable type)
69
The design of rooms for music
VERTICAL SECTION
PLAN
Figure 5.8: Vertical and 5.5.3 Practice rooms / group rooms o A full length drape can be pulled
horizontal sections through
Figure 5.10 shows a typical 8 m2 group across the window to increase surface
a door installation. Taken
room which will accommodate both absorption and reduce loudness.
from BBC Engineering
Guide to Acoustic Practice,
instrumental lessons and composition o The window is fairly small and
2nd Edition 1990. These groups and which can be used for positioned in the centre of the wall to
drawings are reproduced individual practice. Points to note are as control the amount of external noise
here with the kind follows. reaching the space and avoid sound
permission and o One wall is at an angle of 7° to
co-operation of the BBC travelling between adjacent group
avoid flutter echoes (a particular issue in rooms.
small rooms) and prominent standing o Floor and ceiling finishes are as for the
waves. Window and door reveals provide larger rooms.
useful diffusion to other walls.
70
The design of rooms for music
sheMng provides
surface modelling
to help diffuse
sound
small window to
thin pile carpet on
minimise disturbance the floor
from external noise
71
The design of rooms for music
72
The design of rooms for music
control rooni window. Two panes of based on experience of only a few systems
heavy plate glass (of different thicknesses and alternatives should at least be
to avoid the same resonances) are considered. Advice from an independent
separated by an air gap of about designer or consultant familiar with the
100-200 mm. Such a large gap may not full range of available equipment should
always be possible but 50 mm should be be sought.
considered a minimum. Each pane of
glass is mounted into a separate frame to 5.6 Acoustic design of large halls
avoid a direct sound path. The glass is for music performance
mounted in a neoprene gasket to isolate it Large halls designed primarily for music
from the wooden frame. Acoustically are rare in schools, where the main use of
absorbent material, such as mineral wool any large hall is likely to be for assemblies
or melamine foam, is incorporated into and other speech-related uses. Assembly
the reveal to absorb any energy that halls, theatres and multi-purpose halls are
enters the air gap. discussed in Section 4. If a purpose-built
concert hall is required a specialist
5.5.6 Recording studios acoustics designer should always be
A recording studio as such rarely exists in consulted early in the project, but this
a school. The control room for recording section sets out some general principles
may have an observation window onto an which can be considered at the concept
ordinary ensemble room or stage.
professional/recital room. A professional
type recording studio would require a 5.6.1 Shape and size
lower indoor ambient noise level than Key acoustic requirements are sufficient
that given in Table 1.1, and specialist volume to provide adequate reverberation
advice should be sought. and a shape that will provide a uniform
sound field with strong reflections off the
5.5.7 Audio equipment side walls. A rule of thumb is that the
The design and selection of recording volume of a concert hail should be at least
equipment and audio systems is a fast- 8 m3 per member of audience, which is
evolving subject and guidance on specific typically twice that for a theatre or
technologies would be rapidly out of cinema. In most cases this will lead to a
date. Although members of staff within a rectangular floor plan with a relatively
school will have their own preferences for high ceiling. Other shapes, such as the
specific items of equipment, these may be elongated hexagon or asymmetrical
73
The design of rooms for music
74
The design of rooms for music
that seating must be very absorptive and of theatre or other speech use. Unless the
probably not a preferred type for school volume can be reduced substantially, this
use. A seat which is moderately approach requires large amounts of
upholstered on the seat and back is likely absorbent material to be deployed, which
to be a good compromise. Where tip-up in turn can reduce loudness to the extent
seats are provided they should be at which a speech reinforcement system is
upholstered underneath as well as on the needed. Nearly all auditoria adopting this
seat; otherwise acoustic conditions will be approach depend on high-quality speech
very different during rehearsal and reinforcement systems, which are difficult
performance. Most auditorium seating to design in a reverberant hall.
manufacturers supply acoustic test data.
Where there is no fixed seating, large 2. To design a small volume (not more
areas of acoustic drapes or other operable than 6 m3 per seat) with acoustics suitable
acoustic absorption can be used to reduce for a theatre, with additional reverberant
reverberation in rehearsal conditions when volumes accessed by openable flaps or
the seats are removed. moveable ceilings. As the volume needs to
be increased by up to 80%, with
5.7 Design of large auditoria for reasonably even distribution of absorption,
this is often impracticable. In the few cases
music and speech
Table 5.1 lists the general acoustic
where this approach has been tried, the
characteristics that are required for a results have been poor because it is
multi-purpose auditorium. difficult to provide openings large enough
There are four commonly considered to be transparent to the long wavelengths
of low frequency sound.
approaches to designing these spaces:
1. To design a concert hall with a large 3. To design to a compromise volume and
volume (10 rn3 per seat), and to reduce RT, often with curtains or other moveable
the volume of the auditorium when acoustic material to provide some variation
needed for speech. This approach is in RT. The result tends to be an
recommended when the overwhelming auditorium which is acceptable for a range
requirement is for a good musical of uses, but not particularly good for an' Table 5.1: Acoustic
acoustic, with a relatively small proportion of them - especiall' music. Very large areas characteristics for a multi-
purpose auditorium
Low ambient noise levels Low noise levels from plant, ventilation, lighting and stage machinery are
required. Noise from outside the auditorium should ideally be imperceptible.
Even distribution of sound The acoustic should not change significantly from one seat to another.
Loudness or acoustic efficiency The sound level reaching the listener should be as high as possible without
compromising other requirements.
Good direct sound The sightlines to the source should not be impeded and distances should be
as short as possible.
Good early reflections Reflecting surfaces around and close to the stage, and reflections off the
side walls and off the ceiling are required.
Feedback to performers Some sound from the stage should be reflected back to the source. This
gives confidence to the performers and helps with musical ensemble.
75
The design of rooms for music
76
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with ©
special hearing requirements =
When considering classroom acoustics, children with a permanent hearing
impairment have traditionally been treated as a special group, separate from
the mainstream school population. However recent surveys of the school
population show that about 75% of deaf children are educated in
mainstream schools.
77
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
a hearing requirements
78
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
hearing requirements o
79
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
hearing requirements
Personal radio aids Reduce the effect of the distance between Do not address the needs of group work
speaker and listener directly
Portable and convenient Can require a high level of sophistication to
Particularly useful in situations where there is gain maximum benefit
a poor signal to noise ratio at the position of Benefits can be lost if the child's personal
the listener hearing aid microphones are used in noisy
environments
Classroom soundfield Reduce the effect of the distance between Do not address the needs of group work
systems the speaker and listener directly
Inclusive technology Poor classroom acoustics (eg high
Benefit to the teacher and the class reverberation times or poor sound separation
Can ensure good signal to noise levels are between neighbouring teaching areas) can
maintained throughout the classroom limit the benefit of this technology
Auditory trainers and hard- Provide excellent signal to noise levels Users are restricted in movement when using
wired systems Provide a high level of sound insulation the device
Can be arranged to allow group work Can be heavy and uncomfortable to use
Not an inclusive technology
Induction loop systems Discreet and cheap Unpredictable acoustic response for the
Most hearing aids have a telecoil facility hearing aid user
Spill over of signal into other rooms
Do not deal with the needs of group work
Susceptible to electromagnetic interference
User normally isolated from environmental
sounds
Table 6.2: Advantages 6.7 Individual technology o reducing the impact of unhelpful
and disadvantages of There are two main types of aid that can reverberation
different technologies for be used to assist children's hearing on an o effectively maintaining a constant
aiding hearing and listening
in the classroom
individual basis: radio aids that can be distance between the speaker and the
coupled to a child's hearing aids, and listener.
auditors' trainers that are used with All radio aids have two main
headphones. components: a transmitter and a receiver.
The person who is speaking (usually the
6.7.1 Radio aids teacher) wears the transmitter. A
Radio aids (also known as radio hearing microphone picks up their voice. Typically
aids or personal FM systems) are widely the microphone is omnidirectional and is
used by children with hearing impairments attached to the lapel of the speaker,
in schools. The' help overcome causes of however there are head worn
difficulty in a classroom situation by: microphones available that help ensure a
o providing a good signal to noise ratio consistent transmitted signal to the child.
80
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
hearing requirements o
81
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
a hearing requirements
large, stand-alone piece of equipment, an There is, however, a trend to use the
auditory trainer can be designed without inclusive technology termed 'sound field
the restrictions of size that exist with amplification' to ensure that the signal
typical behind-the-ear hearing aids, and a level of the speech is delivered to all parts
good quality high level sound output with of the classroom at an appropriate level
extended low and high frequency range above the background noise. This
can be achieved. technology is of benefit for all with
Within the mainstream educational listening difficulties in the classroom, not
environment, auditory trainers are most just the hearing aid user, and has particular
likely to be used for short periods of benefits for classroom management and
individual work and speech therapy the voice of the class teacher.
sessions. However, it is also possible to It is important to note that whole class
link several auditors' trainers together for technology is not a substitute for
group work. In some schools for deaf remedying poor classroom acoustics.
children this equipment is permanently However, it can be particularly valuable in
installed within a classroom. The teacher's maintaining good signal to noise levels
voice is picked up by a microphone and and improving classroom management.
the output is available at every desk. Each Soundfield amplification systems are also
child wears headphones that are configured used in conjunction with personal radio
to meet their individual amplification aids. In situations where a deaf child is
requirements. The children may also wear part of a mainstream class, advice should
microphones to enable everyone in the be sought from members of a relevant
class to participate in discussions. professional group (educational
audiologist, clinical audiologist or teacher
6.8 Whole class technology of the deaf) as to the most appropriate
Figure 6.1: A simple The use of a personal system is sometimes technolog's
schematic drawing of a essential for a hearing aid user to be able
soundfield system in a
typical classroom
to succeed in a particular environment. 6.8.1 Whole classroom soundfield
systems
Soundfield systems provide distributed
sound throughout a classroom. They use
Teacher radio microphone I
I
a wireless link between the microphone
system
Headworn
I I and amplifier which will operate on Vl-I F,
I I
microphone I I UHF radio or infra red frequencies.
I I
Soundfield systems have been shown to
I Radio
microphone I I
transmitter
I be beneficial for hearing children and
I
children with a mild or temporary hearing
Antenna 1 Antenna 2 :—
Optional second loss. They will not by themselves usually
i receiver
provide sufficient improvement in signal-
I Radio micr to-noise ratio for a child with a significant
receiver
hearing loss, when a personal radio aid is
also usually necessar
A soundfield system is perhaps more
Optional widely known as a sound reinforcement
system; the term 'soundfield' system
Loudspeakers
connected originated from the field of Audiology
. .
as required and continues to be associated with
classroom sound reinforcement systems.
Notes: The technology has matured since it was
1. Main system shown in blue.
2. Optional handheld transmitter can share receiver with teacher first introduced into classrooms in the late
transmitter. Transmitters must be switched on and off as required.
3. Alternative second receiver allows simultaneous use of teacher
1970s in the USA, and has evolved to
and student transmitters.
4. Personal FM transmitter(s) for use by pupils with serious hearing
take into account new technologies and
impairment can be connected to output of system.
5. CD, cassette and/or video player can optionally play through
teaching management styles. Its benefits
the system. have been variously described as:
82
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
hearing requirements
1 Speakers mounted one quarter of wall length from Layouts 1 and 4 using wall mounted loudspeakers are
corners, mounted flush with wall, at 2 m height, directed recommended where ceiling mounted units are not
to point on floor at angle of about 600. practical. For layout 1 speakers should be mounted at
2 Speakers mounted at centre of room, 600 mm apart in least 1 m from the side wall. Location of wall mounted
square orientation, directed to the room corners. speakers at least 2 m above the floor, and at least 600
3 Speakers mounted flush with ceiling, facing directly at mm below the ceiling is recommended. Brackets should
floor, in centres of 4 quadrants of the ceiling. keep the loudspeakers very close to the wall to minimise
4 Speakers mounted in room corners, directed to centre self-interference effects.
of room.
o academic improvements for all class components of a soundfield system. A Figure 6.2: A plan of a
members possible detailed specification is included classroom showing four
in Appendix 8. alternative speaker layouts.
o more on task behaviour
The speakers are drawn
o greater attentiveness Where a soundfield system has not horn-shaped to show the
o improved understanding of instructions been designed specifically for the directionality of the speaker
o less repetition required from the teacher classroom it should be used for a trial output, although many
o improved measures of speech recognition period before being selected from the modern speakers are flat
o reduced voice strain and vocal fatigue range available. The manufacturers and
for the teacher. suppliers should all provide installation
information including commissioning of
6.8.2 System overview installations and operating instructions,
Figure 6.1 shows a simplified block plus ongoing support. Large rooms or
diagram of a typical soundfield system. rooms that are unusually shaped will
Each element shown can be a separate usually need specialist advice. Teachers
unit, or some of these can be combined must receive adequate training in using
into an integrated unit. The current trend the systems.
is for manufacturers to create more
integrated products, designed especially 6.8.3 Personal soundfield systems
for classroom soundfield use. Typical A child who cannot physically wear a
arrangements of loudspeakers are shown conventional hearing aid, who has a
in Figure 6.2. unilateral hearing loss, or has Central
Table 6.3 describes the various Auditory Processing Disorder or
83
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
hearing requirements
Loudspeaker The purpose should be to provide high quality Often the location of loudspeakers is
Wall mounted, ceiling distributed sound reinforcement throughout the determined by the necessity to fit in with the
mounted and flat panel whole classroom and over the whole speech current use of the classroom, when not
speakers are used in frequency range. Selection of appropriate installed as part of the original building work.
schools. speakers should therefore address this
requirement.
Microphone and This should be a high quality system which In order to retain good dynamic range a
transmitter retains both the frequency and dynamic compander system is typically required (see
Using infra red, UHF or properties of speech. It is important that all Figure 6.3). A head worn microphone can
VHF carrier frequencies teaching styles can be accommodated so a improve the consistency of the transmitted
and high quality choice of microphones should be available, signal and help to prevent feedback that is
headworn or lapel It is important that the transmitter can operate present in systems that do not have feedback
microphones. Radio without interference from other systems or control technology. However teachers often
system information is from public services, like a choice of microphone and will use
available at headworn, lapel or wrap around microphones
www.radio.gov.uk depending on activity and personal
preference. Battery life of at least one school
day is essential for a transmitter if it is to be
acceptable for school use.
Receiver Will provide a complementary system to the A compander technology and diversity system
Matched to the transmitter, avoiding interference or frequency is particularly suitable for classroom use,
transmitter dropout. ensuring good dynamic range and avoiding
frequency dropout respectively.
Some teaching situations require twin channel
inputs, so that a pass around radio
microphone can be used.
Where infra red systems are being used
separate additional receivers might be
necessary to avoid 'blind spots'.
Amplifier The amplifier should be correctly matched to Some schools might require an additional
the loudspeaker system. It should offer a wide output facility for use by deaf children with
flat frequency response which can be adjusted personal FM systems.
if necessary. It should allow for additional The amplifier is usually combined with the
inputs from multimedia within the classroom, receiver unit.
such as TV, computer and radio and outputs to
radio systems.
84
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
hearing requirements o
Advantages Disadvantages
[jhnoloY
Infra red Physically limited to enclosed room Occasionally needs extra IR receivers in
Frequency range Allows equipment to be shared between rooms a room
2.3—2.5 MHz Wideband transmission
Can be used with personal hearing aids using a neck
loop (an induction loop worn round the neck)
Radio VHF narrowband Reserved frequency bands for use in schools Poor signal quality when compared to
173.35—177.15 MHz Many frequency bands available wideband
Equipment compatible across manufacturers
Radio UHF wideband Can allow a higher quality signal than narrow band Not available for personal FM equipment
790—865 MHz equipment
Many frequency bands available, although a site licence
might be required
Microphone Radio
pre-amplifier Compressor FM transmitter link FM receiver
k' Power
amplifier
©
Overload point of microphone & pre-amplifier Overload point of receiver output
85
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
hearing requirements
L1EEE
Calculating the load impedance
ms : :} the area in which the system is to be used.
The loop generates an electromagnetic
field which is picked up by the telecoil in
the hearing aid. The hearing aid user will
hear the sound while they are within the
For loudspeakers wired in series — add up the individual impedances R, = R1 + R2+ + RN
looped area.
—adduptheindividualpower P =P1+P2+ Induction loop systems have many
For loudspeakers wired in parallel — add up reciprocals of the individual impedance applications, from large-scale installations
1 _IR,1÷
RR, 1 RN
in theatres and cinemas to small, domestic
—add upthe individual power P =P1 + P2 + +PN
products used to listen to the television.
In above example R1 + R2= 8 + 8 = 16 for each series pair = R1,2 R3
In the UK the' are now rarely used in a
classroom setting. Alternatives such as
Wiring the pairs in parallel gives .L_R+ i-= jig. + = . = ÷ = L. radio aids offer improved and more
Therefore R = 8 consistent sound quality and are less
susceptible to interference. Induction
High impedance, 70 V or 100 V amplifiers and loudspeakers loop systems can also be difficult to use in
Di®thallDll2
multiple applications, as the signal from
one area can overspill into another.
In schools, induction ioop or infra red
1±fl1Ri100V,5W hearing aid systems should be considered
+ in large assembly rooms or halls. This is
R2
- IOOV,5W primarily for visitors to the school rather
All loudspeakers wired in parallel
+ IOOV20W than for deaf pupils themselves, who
—
1 V,5W would normally have their own assistive
+ listening equipment. They should also be
R4
- 100V,5W considered .in performance spaces,
meeting rooms and at reception area
Calculating the load impedance desks. In such situations the output from
Impedance is taken care of automatically by the 100 V transformer in the system. an existing PA system is often connected
Total power is the sum of all devices connected.
directly to the loop amplifier.
Pay phones in schools should have
86
Design of acoustic criteria for pupils with hearing impairments and
special hearing requirements
87
Acoustic design and equipment for pupils with special
hearing requirements
Organisations
Glossary
Term Explanation
Natural-oral approach An approach to the education of children with hearing impairments that
seeks to promote the acquisition of spoken language using residual
hearing.
Residual hearing A term used to describe the hearing abilities that remain in the case of a
hearing impairment.
Hearing aid A battery powered device worn by an individual, either behind the ear or in
the ear. A hearing aid will be selected and programmed to provide the
maximum audibility of the speech signal consistent with an individual's
residual hearing.
Cochlear implant A special kind of hearing aid where the inner ear is directly stimulated
electrically via an implanted electrode.
Central Auditory Processing Difficulty A broad term used to describe listening difficulties, which are not due to
the outer, middle or inner ear.
Radio aid An assistive listening device, designed to provide an FM radio link between
a transmitter (usually on the speaker) and the listener (coupled directly to
the hearing aids).
88
Design of acoustic criteria for pupils with hearing impairments and
special hearing requirements
89
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in original
Case studies ©
=
This section contains ten case studies which illustrate some of the principles of
the acoustic design of schools described in previous sections, and give
examples of solutions to problems of poor acoustics in schools.
Page
Case Study 7.1 — Remedial work to a multi-purpose hall in a county primary school 93
Case Study 7.2 — An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three open-plan
primary schools 97
Case Study 7.3 — Remedial work to an open-plan teaching area in a primary school 107
Case Study 7.6 — A junior school with resource provision for deaf children 123
Case Study 7.7 — An all-age special school for hearing impaired children 129
91
Page blank
in original
Case Study 7.1: Remedial work to a multi-purpose hail
in a county primary school
The school is situated at a considerable battens and felt. The shallow pitched
distance from the main road running ceiling is formed from tongue and groove
through a large village in a quiet timber boards (119 mm by 19 mm),
residential area. In the early 1990s, it was overlain with 150 mm thermally
extended by adding seven new classbases insulating mineral wool batts. The roof
and a new multi-purpose hail. Activities in void increases from a height of 200 mm
the hall include assemblies, singing, at the eaves to 2 m at the ridge.
concerts and physical education. The hall Large external windows with opening
is of particular interest because it required lights are located in the north-east and
remedial measures not long after complet- south east walls with a row of smaller high
ion to alleviate acoustic problems that level opening lights located in the external
were being experienced by teaching staff. wall to the south-west, above the
The new hail is adjacent to playing circulation corridor. The circulation
fields and background noise levels around corridor connects the hall to the main
the school are Therefore there is building at ground floor level via glazed
little disturbance to occupants of the hall doors in a glazed screen. The corridor
from external noise. also provides a useful acoustic buffer
The hall is built of conventional between the hall and the nearby
masonry cavity walls comprising 100 mm classrooms and offices. External windows
facing brick outerleaf, 50 mm cavity, and and doors are all thermally double-glazed.
140 mm blockwork inner leaf with a Internal doors and the glazed screen are
plaster finish. A plan and section of the of 6 mm glass.
hall are shown in Figure 7.1.1. Wall bars and similar apparatus are
The roof has a hipped form and is supported off the two long walls. The
constructed of steel trusses with 100 mm floor is of sprung timber strip to
by 50 mm softwood rafters at 600 mm accommodate physical education, dancing, Figure 7.1.1: Plan and
centres. It is covered with slates on etc. The hall is naturally ventilated. section of the new hail
showing extent of remedial
treatment
93
Case Study: Remedial work to a multi-purpose hall
in a county primary school
The new hall suffered from: below and the resulting multiple
o poor speech intelligibility, particularly reflections were detected as a longer
with small groups of 30 or less reverberation time (RT) near the
o distortion or colouration of speech centreline. This effect caused sounds to
o unusually high background noise appear louder than normal and coloured
noise levels, eg from the shuffling of or distorted.
children's feet. To rectifr these faults, it was proposed
Teachers found that they could that the ceiling should be made
improve speech intelligibility slightly if acoustically absorbent. This would reduce
they slowed down their normal rate of the RT to a level suitable for primary
speech or addressed groups of pupils from school uses and reduce the focusing
a sidewall rather than near the centreline. effect.
In fact, speech from around the centreline Although it provided a solution in this
of the hall appeared louder than normal case, it is not normally advisable for
and sounded coloured or distorted. ceilings to be sound absorbing in rooms
An acoustical assessment showed that where good speech intelligibility is a
speech was most distorted when both requirement. If the size, shape and
speaker and listener were near the geometry of the space are right in the first
centreline. Flutter echoes and enhanced place, then the ceiling should be reflective
reverberation were clearly evident and to sound. The reason for the success of
disturbing. When speaker and listener the ceiling treatment in this case was the
were both near a side wall the conditions overriding need to make a substantial
'ere less severe although still poor. reduction in RT and the fact that the
The acoustical faults correlated well floor has a timber finish, which provides a
with the teachers' complaints. The useful reflection path in the absence of a
majority of complaints stemmed from comparable reflection from the ceiling.
excessive reverberation, attributable to the The school wanted to retain the timber
predominantly hard surfaces in the hall. ceiling. Therefore the timber boards were
Both floor and ceiling were hard and taken down and a series of 20 mm by 200
acoustically reflective. Excessive mm slots were cut into them (see Figure
reverberation caused consecutive syllables 7.1.2) to give an open area of
in speech to run into one another, approximately 25%. A mineral fibre
reducing intelligibilitv acoustic quilt, 25 mm thick, was laid
This problem was compounded by the directly over the slots in the ceiling void.
shape of the ceiling. It has a shallow pitch The quilt was fiiced with an acoustically
with hipped ends, similar to an inverted transparent black scrim on the hall side
concave dish. Sound focused by the hard for aesthetic reasons. The existing layer of
reflective ceiling onto the hard floor thermal insulation was replaced over the
acoustic quilt. Figure 7.1.1 indicates the
area of the ceiling that was treated. The
Figure 7.1.2: Detail of acoustic treatment to the timber ceiling is
timber slats used to line considered to be in keeping with the
the hall ceiling
appearance of the hail (see photograph,
Figure 7.1.3).
In addition to the ceiling treatment,
30 20 acoustically diffusing panels were
recommended for the walls to distribute
C
C sound evenly around the ball and prevent
flutter echoes. An example of a diffusing
panel is shown in Figure 7.1.4. However,
these panels were omitted due to lack of
__._ funds. As a result of this omission and the
presence of an acoustically absorbent
dimensions in millimetres
ceiling, there is a tendency for sound to
94
Case Study: Remedial work to a multi-purpose hall
in a county primary school
reverberate around the hail in a horizontal 'ere made; one with the source and
plane, particularly when occupancy is high receiver on the centreline of the hail and
and the floor is obscured. Under certain the other with the receiver positioned 2 m
conditions, this manifests itself as from a side wall. Measurements were
distracting flutter echoes between the made while the space was unoccupied.
hard parallel side walls. One teacher Curtains were pulled back to their normal
reported this effect as a disturbing bunched positions either side of internal
'ringing' noise whilst rehearsing music and external doors and windows. This
and dance with a small group of children arrangement "as considered to produce
at the south west side of the hall.
Following remedial acoustic treatment
to the ceiling, the response from the Figure 7.1.4: Example of
teachers to the modified acoustics of the acoustically diffusing panel
95
Case Study: Remedial work to a multi-purpose hail
in a county primary school
4
3.8
I II II —
3.6 I— II II ______________________________________________________________________
H
3.4 ________________
II 10 _____P_________________
0_]L_p ____
3.2 I I ol LI.0
I 0 lLmeasured..o, i3entrelinebefore-treatntent
I 0 1fl
______
3 bföië4reatment
I
2.8
, 2.6
2.4
0 2.2
•iw 2
.0 18
a,
1.6
1.4 I Range of mid-frequency
1.2 reverberation time, Tmf,fOr
1 ________________________________________________________ ______ primary school hail from
_________ I Table 1.5
0.8 __________________
0.6 I II I II
ii II
I I spatially averaged RT1 [
0.4
Ii
I afterabUstictreatment
0.2 II 1 II
0 L ft II II
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
Octave band centre frequency, Hz
Figure 7.1.5: Measured the most reverberant condition likely to acoustic absorption will need to be
reverberation time in the be encountered during every day small accommodated in the ceiling. Ideally,
new hall before and after
implementation of acoustic
group activities. absorbent and reflective surfaces should
measures Before remedial work, the measured be more or less evenly distributed on
Tmf Was 2.8 seconds on the centreline but both walls and ceiling. This case study,
fell to 2.5 seconds along the side of the where modification of the existing ceiling
hail. Figure 7.1.5 shows the measured RT was complicated and costl', highlights the
curves as a function of frequency. The importance of considering the acoustic
Tmf after treatment is within the range requirements at the design stage.
specified in Table 1.5 for a primary school
hall, which should be between 0.8 and
1.2 seconds.
Concerts and musical activities take
place in less reverberant conditions than
before, with substantial reductions in
colourations and distortions. These
conditions have been found to be
satisfactory. The introduction of acoustic
absorption into the ceiling of the new hall
has been successful in providing acoustic
conditions 'hich are suited to primary
school uses.
It is clear from this study that the
acoustics of a hall are of fundamental
importance in the effective functioning of
this key space in a primary school. In
mans' halls, hard wall and floor finishes
will be necessary and the required
96
Case Study 7.2: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three
open-plan primary schools
97
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three
open-plan primary schools
(a)
Figure 7.2.1:
School 1 layout
(a) Whole school
(b) Green team test area
(b)
98
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three
open-plan primary schools
The STI measurement results are shown heard clearly in classroom Yl. This was a
in Table 7.2.3. result of her feeling the need to admonish
The results of sound insulation a pupil for holding a conversation from
measurements between classrooms are the open corridor with one of her class
shown in Table 7.2.4. members.
The behaviour of the teachers and
Discussion pupils did not appear to be unusual and
This school was selected for investigation the strong impression 'as given that the
primarily because it had been reported day of the investigation was a typical
that the school's open-plan design worked school da
well. The head gave the impression that The measurements of the Speech
he strongly fivoured the open-plan layout Transmission Index (ST I) showed that
and stated that lie had been closely speech intelligibility was reduced
involved with the design process of the considerably during an interactive science
new school. However, other members of lesson in classroom Yl. This was due to
staff were less enthusiastic. the increased sound level (LAeq,loflijn)
A team leader in the school stated that during the lesson.
the open-plan design suited the teaching The mid-frequency reverberation time
practices in the school although it had in each of the classrooms 'as 0.4 seconds,
taken some time to get used to at first. which is acceptable for classrooms for
Other teachers were forthright in their hearing impaired pupils. Because of this,
disapproval of the school's design and the in the absence of children and teachers,
restrictions that it imposed. the measured STI rating varied benveen
Of the teachers whose opinions were good and excellent in unoccupied
canvassed, the majority stated that the' classroom G3. However, when masking
felt the open-plan design led to problems noise was generated in room G2, the STI
associated with disturbance. Timetabling rating was reduced to poor and fair in
was organised so that the activities in positions 3, 4 and 5. This suggests that,
adjacent teaching areas produced similar 'hen the teacher is speaking to the class
levels of noise in order to avoid from the usual position, pupils sitting
disturbance to pupils involved in quiet closest to room G2 are likely to
activities. experience more difficulty understanding
According to the teachers consulted, the teacher's words than other pupils in
usually the arrangement was acceptable the classroom due to noise emanating
but problems could be caused if a teacher from room G2. The measurement of STI
unfamiliar to the pupils was taking a class showed that noise generated in Gi had
in an adjacent area. In such circumstances no significant measurable effect on speech
the usual strict enforcement of discipline intelligibility in room G3. This is likely to
on the children could be subverted be due to the stagger between the
leading to disturbance in adjacent areas. entrances to rooms Gi and G2 on
The measured levels in the unoccupied opposite sides of the corridor.
Yellow team practical area and classroom It should be noted that STI is an
Yl were greater than those specified in objective measurement of speech
Section 1. In the practical area, it can be intelligibility, and cannot quantiFy
assumed that the measured level was disturbance to pupils. Disturbance may
affected by sound from adjacent occupied depend, for example, on whether pupils
classrooms. For example, it was noted perceive sound generated in adjacent areas
that during measurements in the to be interesting or threatening.
unoccupied practical area one of the
teachers constantly reminded the children
to work quietly by uttering the command
"Shh" at regular intervals. At a different
time, a teacher in classroom Y4 raised her
voice sufficiently for her words to be
99
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three
open-plan primary schools
Figure 7.2.2: School 2 7.2.2 School 2 1.2 m high. Some common resource
layout
(pupils aged 3 -7 years) areas, eg the library and the
The school layout is shown in Figure science/technology area, are located in
7.2.2. Classrooms 1 to 3 are for reception the corridor space. It is possible to see
classes and no measurements were over the low wall into the corridor and
conducted in this area, where some directly from one classroom to another in
remedial work had been carried out. the vicinity of these walls. Although the
Originally, the nursery wall onto the height of the walls between classrooms
corridor was only 2.4 m high with a gap increases towards the external wall of a
above. However, the disturbance to classroom, at no point is there a
classrooms 1, 2 and 3 from the high noise continuous barrier from the floor to the
levels resulting from normal nursery ceiling between the classrooms. The gap
activities necessitated the closing off of above the partition wall provides a clear
the nursery area using full height acoustic sound path, see Figure 7.2.3, and could
panels above the existing nursery wall. with forethought have been easily closed
The walls separating the classrooms off. However, it is doubtful if this would
from the corridor area are approximately have made a big difference to the sound
transmission given the low walls onto the
corridor.
Figure 7.2.3: Partition
wall between classrooms. Measurement results
Note the large gap above
Measurements were conducted in rooms
the glazed head of the
4 to 9.
partition.
Because the classrooms were identical
in appearance, the mid-frequency
reverberation time was measured only in
unoccupied classroom 8, and was
0.5 seconds.
STI was measured in classroom 8.
100
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three
open-plan primary schools
101
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three
open-plan primary schools
not adjacent, see Figure 7.2.2) is better screened from classroom 9 than
significantly lower than the 45 dB position 3 where there was an almost
between adjacent classrooms required in uninterrupted path between the two
Table 1.2 of Section 1. rooms owing to the lower dividing
Comparison of STI values in a partition at this point. The measurements
classroom with and without masking show that speech intelligibility in position
noise generated in an adjacent classroom 3 is reduced by masking noise generated
demonstrates that there is a significant in room 9. The masking noise had less
reduction in speech intelligibility due to effect on STI in position 4 than in
the masking noise position 3. However, position 4 had the
The data in Table 7.2.5 show that the lowest STI value of the four measurement
STI values and, consequently, speech positions. This is largely due to the
intelligibility were reduced in the two artificial mouth being directed into the
positions used for the measurements classroom perpendicularly from the wall.
when masking noise was generated in the Directing the artificial mouth towards
Figure 7.2.4: School 3
adjacent classroom and when the level of position 4 would have increased the STI
layout showing recently
added extensions the noise was increased. Position 4 was value at this position. Thus, unless the
Recently added
Curtains to screen
classroom openings
Key:
Artificial mouth used
for speech
intelligibility test
102
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three
open-plan primary schools
Discussion
The head in this school was strongly in Table 7.2.10: Sound
Room LAeq,3min (dB) levels in unoccupied
favour of the open-plan design of the classrooms
school for the following reasons: 5 35.4
• she felt that the staff worked better as 4 32.8
a team 3 31.8
• she felt that the children worked
103
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three
open-plan primary schools
104
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in three
open-plan primary schools
shared their head's enthusiasm for the schools in terms of their acoustic
design but others felt that problems environment. None of the schools met
caused by the transmission of sound the requirements for sound insulation
between rooms were significant. between classrooms contained in Building
The measurement of STI in the schools Bulletin 93. Although reverberation in
demonstrated that speech intelligibility is classrooms was well controlled (apart
reduced by noise generated in adjacent from in the extension in School 3),
rooms. In all the open-plan schools, high ambient sound levels during teaching
ambient noise level was the most periods were too high for the measured
significant cause of low speech STI values to indicate good speech
intelligibility. intelligibility. As a consequence of the
From the few opinions canvassed in the levels in the classrooms, both teachers and
schools it would appear that there are pupils would need to speak more loudly
benefits to adopting an open-plan design. in order to be clearly understood.
These appear to be that the design is In many open-plan teaching spaces it
favourable for team working, that it is difficult to achieve clear communication
engenders a feeling of inclusion in the of speech between teacher and students.
school and that it allows for a visually For this reason, careful consideration
attractive environment. However, placing should be given as to whether to include
cupboards in spaces between rooms in open-plan teaching spaces in a school. If
order to increase isolation between them open-plan areas are required then
ma' detract from the original open-plan rigorous acoustic design is necessary to
design. satisFy the performance standards in
From the results of this survey, it is Section 1.
difficult to justify the use of open-plan
105
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in original
Case Study 7.3: Remedial work to an open-plan teaching area
in a primary school
107
Case Study: Remedial work to an open-plan teaching area
in a primary school
108
Case Study: Remedial work to an open-plan teaching area
in a primary school
coefficient of the ceiling tiles is not installation of the acoustic ceiling and
known, but an absorption coefficient of partitions, noise levels ranged from 64
0.9 over the speech fl-equencv range is dB(A) to 69 dB(A), a reduction of 2 to 3
normally needed to maximise the benefit dB(A) which appears to be a small but
ofan acoustic ceiling. As well as controlling significant subjective decrease.
noise within the classbase, the ceiling
treatment helps to reduce the propagation Reverberation time
of sound from one classbase to another. The reverberation time was measured in
The teachers reported an immediate classbases 4 and 5. After remedial
improvement in aural conditions with the treatment, the unoccupied mid-frequency
installation of the partitions. The' found value was 0.4 seconds with a rise to
that they were now only disturbed by the 0.7 seconds at 125 Hz. The mid-frequency
classbase immediately adjacent to them. reverberation time, which will undoubtedly
By strategic location of items of tall have dropped with the installation of the
furniture they were able to slightly reduce acoustically absorbent ceiling, is now
this remaining source of disturbance. generally below 0.6 seconds, as required
The acoustic ceiling, installed a few for primary school classrooms in Table 1.5.
months later, 'as perceived by teachers to
produce a small but significant reduction Sound insulation
in the noise levels during class activities. The sound insulation was measured
between classbases 5 and 6. A value for
Acoustic measurements Dn0.6s),w of 48 dB was obtained which
The noise levels during class and the meets the requirements between standard
reverberation times of the spaces were classrooms specified in Section 1.
measured. Measurements were also made
to evaluate how well sound propagates Sound propagation
from one classbase to another. The Before the partitioning of the room,
majority of measurements were made simple tests showed that speech could
after the remedial treatment had been easily be understood between extreme
implemented although noise levels during ends of the open-plan area even when
class were also measured before treatment. there was no line of sight. Whilst the
partitioning provided by extending the
Activity noise group room gives good sound separation
The noise levels were measured in the between two pairs of teaching bases, the
four classbases, before and after the acoustic ceiling and physical obstructions,
remedial treatment, during typical table such as tall bookshelves, are the only
activities. Approximately 25 pupils were means of achieving a degree of acoustic
present with 1 or 2 teachers in each separation between the other adjacent
classbase. The octave band frequency bases.
spectrum for all measurements was To measure the sound propagation
consistent in shape and a typical sound with distance across an adjacent pair of
level spectrum for classroom table activity classbases, a broadband sound source was
before treatment is given in Table 7.3.1. used to simulate the radiation of sound
For typical table activities, the from a nominal teaching position and
background noise levels prior to the sound level measurements were made
acoustic modifications ranged from 67 across the classbase and into the adjacent
dB(A) to 71 dB(A). Following the classbase. Figure 7.3.3 illustrates the three
109
Case Study: Remedial work to an open-plan teaching area
in a primary school
propagation paths that were investigated: B' comparing the two figures, it is
• froni base 4 to base 5 with line of evident that the reduction in sound level
sight with distance between bases 4 and 5 is
• from base 4 to base 5 via an indirect very modest compared with the large
path reduction between bases 5 and 6 (ie
• from base 5 to base 6 via the across the partition). This is clearly
partitioning formed by extending the reflected by the subjective impressions of
group room. teachers who are disturbed by noise from
Figure 7.3.3: Sound The results for the three paths are an adjacent classbase on the same side of
propagation paths shown in Figures 7.3.4 (a) and (b). the partition but are not disturbed by
investigated classbases beyond the partition.
The erection of a physical barrier across
the middle of the open-plan teaching area
was clearly effective in improving
conditions. It is important to note the
constructional simplicity of this barrier
and its acoustical effectiveness in reducing
sound transmission. This was achieved by
using two partitions with a large air cavity
in between (the extended group room). A
single partition would have needed to be
substantially heavier with more elaborate
acoustical detailing.
The new partition did not solve all the
problems of sound transmission since
classbases 4 and 5, and classbases 6 and 7
are still open to each other and some
mutual disturbance is still occurring. This
has been reduced b partial barriers but
can not be effectively eliminated without
a complete barrier.
The acoustic ceiling treatment is
beneficial in reducing noise levels but did
not result in a dramatic effect since the
classbases were already carpeted and
furnished.
Conclusions
The effect of mutual disturbance in open-
plan teaching areas is dearly illustrated in
this case study and relatively simple
remedial measures have been shown to
work moderately 'ell.
Before embarking on the design of an
open-plan teaching area, serious
consideration should be given as to
whether the advantages of the open-plan
arrangement outweigh the serious
inherent acoustic disadvantages.
KEY
Source positions
Receiver positions
110
Case Study: Remedial work to an open-plan teaching area
in a primary school
80
a, 60
a, \_Ja•usu UUU U.. .•
4 Slightly greater reduction
0. between classbases for an
-D 40
=
0
U)
Base 5
20
100
buffer zone
between
spaces
80
V
60 _&&ieuctionacross.the
jIiè?JirlitiöëithWiU
a,
U,
(0
a,
0.
0
=
=
I of the buffer zone
I-
(group room)
0
U)
20
Base 5 Base 6
(b) with full height double
partition
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Distance from teaching position, m
111
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in original
Case Study 7.4: Conversion of a design and technology space
to music accommodation A
(b) aco2t,
D&T
(METALWORK)
WORKSHOP 2
2
— —3 4 5
113
Case Study: Conversion of a design and technology space
to music accommodation
school playing field. The extent of glazing existing area, it was possible to provide a
was excessive and considered undesirable music room of 65 m2, three group rooms
from a security point of view on a side and a store, see Figure 7.4.1(b).
with potential for intrusion. - Performances to an audience or large-
• The school playground, a potential scale rehearsals take place in the school
source of noise, is adjacent to the south- hall. The largest group room (or
east vall. ensemble room) is converted from the
• A second design and technology existing store and can be accessed
workshop is adjacent to the space separately, if necessary, to avoid disturbing
(although an entrance lobby and store classes. The dimensions of this space are
provide a butler between the teaching not ideal as proportions are long and
spaces). narrow but compromise has been
o The building is free-standing and accepted and the wall treatment is
circulation is external which results in an designed to optimise room responses. An
excessive number of entrances. entrance lobby houses coats and bags and
0 The reverberation time of the space provides additional sound insulation
was too long for a music room. between the main space and the adjacent
D&T room.
The adaptation The sound insulation of the music
Structural alterations were kept to a room was a prioritv The key aspects of
minimum in order to constrain costs and the acoustic treatment are shown in
Figure 7.4.2: Plan
maximise available funds for acoustic Figure 7.4.2, and described below
showing acoustic
treatments treatments and finishes. Within the
Construction
In order to improve security, glazing
to the north-west wall was removed and
Angled panels and sheMng the opening was infilled up to two-thirds
provide surface modelling of its height with rendered
Full length
blockwork. Medium density block (1500
drapes kg/m3) was used to give appropriate
sound insulation. The top third of each
panel was thermally and acoustically
double-glazed with bottom-hung
Angled panels
and shelving openable fanlights.
provide surface Angled panels of medium density
modelling to particle board were fixed to studding
help diffuse on the inside face of the north-west
Full length sound
wall of the main space. These help to
drapes can
be used prevent standing waves between parallel
to vary side walls and can provide much needed
acoustic Observation display space. The panels are without
absorbency windows detailed
for good sound
fabric covering since this would
Acoustic insulation compromise the high frequency response.
double glazing Panels are omitted where there are shelves
to increase as these have an equivalent acoustic effect.
sound insulation
Angled panels are also used in the group
from playground
rooms.
Secondary acoustic glazing was added
Lobby increases
sound to the windows to the south-east
insulation Wall at an angle (playground) side, as two sliding panels.
between music to avoid flutter This allows access for maintenance and to
and 0 & I echoes and open casements or fanlights. Solar
——
2
standing waves
3 4 5m
reflective film was added to the outside of
the existing fenestration to reduce solar
114
Case Study: Conversion of a design and technology space
to music accommodation A
Mid-frequency vatue
in unconverted space Figure 7.4.3: Graph
showing effects of drapes
prior to adaptation
2.0 Position of on reverberation times in
- Percentage
classroom, ensemble room
drapes of wall area
and group room
1.8- covered
CLASSROOM
1.6- bunched 10%
In rear wall 27%
Co rear and side 53%
E 1.4-
0 ENSEMBLE ROOM
Co 1.2- — bunched 5%
0a, one wall 14%
Co
Co 1.0-
>, GROUP ROOM
C.)
Co
0•
Co
0.8- ____- bunched
one wall
5%
28%
0.6- —<-- -
0.4-
Key
0.2 - Classroom x
Ensemble room x
0 Group room x
10 20 30 40 50
Percentage of wall
covered by drapes
115
Case Study: Conversion of a design and technology space
to music accommodation
116
Case Study 7.5: A purpose built music suite
Music classroom
The geometry of the large music room is
good, vith a rectangular plan shape and a
fairly steeply pitched ceiling, see Figure
7.5.2. The light fittings and recessed roof
lights provide some useful modelling to
break up and diffuse the sound.
Two large encased purlins, projecting
down from the plane of the ceiling cause
a minor localised problem. Small sound
— — —
o i 2 3 4 Sm
117
Case Study: A purpose built music suite
the sound field. For effective diffusion, and adequate for teaching.
projections of 0.3 rn to 0.5 m are No provision has been made for
necessar However, such projections varying the acoustics, eg by use of heavy
should be distributed over the whole curtains. This would be desirable but not
ceiling area; a single large projection can essential.
lead to a prominent and potentially The measured mid-frequency
disturbing reflection, as in this case. reverberation time (RT), with 25 children
Surface finishes are generally hard and and 4 adults present, was 1.0 seconds
reflective except for the floor which is with a rise to 1.5 seconds at 125 Hz. The
covered with a short pile carpet. In detail, full RT curve as a function of frequency is
the walls are of plastered blockwork with shown in Figure 7.5.3.
an emulsion paint finish and the ceiling is This RT is within the range for
of plasterboard with a plaster skim finish. ensemble rooms specified in Table 1.5 of
This combination of hard and soft finishes Section 1.
ensures that the reverberation is
sufficiently long for music performance
E'IT1
El_______ _________________
music room LII
1.4
___
El_____________ _________
1.2
El_______________ ________
i _________________ _______
U,
El_________________ ____
c 0.8
IPTI
>
0.6
0.4
E
El
El
II
IL
lII II
ft
II
II
ii
II
II
11
1
10
I-..
LI
El II II II II 1
I
El JL
0.2 El
0 EL
II
II
II
1 II
II
II
ii
H
II
JI1
ID
-1
118
Case Study: A purpose built music suite
119
Case Study: A purpose built music suite
120
Case Study: A purpose built music suite
121
Page blank
in original
Case Study 7.6: A junior school with resource provision for deaf children
MAIN ENTRANCE
PLAYGROUND AREA
First Floor
149
123
Case Study: A junior school with resource provision for deaf children
typical classroom within the school (Class contributions. Figure 7.6.3 shows the
4 on the plan). layout of the room and the positions of
Figure 7.6.2 shows the children all the children during circle time. The
facing each other during circle time. The teacher is wearing a radio transmitter that
hearing impaired child has been placed transmits her voice directly to the child's
next to the teacher to ensure that she can hearing aids and to a classroom soundfield
Figure 7.6.3: Class 4
hear the teacher well and see all amplification system. This will ensure that
layout
the teacher does not have to raise her
voice and distort her speech unhelpfull
All children benefit and as a consequence
are better able to participate.
Corridor
Acoustic and behavioural measures
A number of acoustic and behavioural
measures have been obtained in order to
present an account of the acoustic
environment of the classroom. These
measures include:
Staff room 6.8 m o listening inventories for education
(LIFE UK, see Section 6.5)
o sound level during school day
(1 minute average dB(A))
o short term sound level measurements
(2 minute runs at 6 time intervals)
o room acoustic measures.
m high LIFE UK is a protocol for evaluating
listening abilities of children. Application
- loudspeaker of the protocol indicates that the class are
® -teacher able to hear the teacher and each other
0-child well most of the time, see Figure 7.6.4.
0 - hearing impaired child The hearing impaired child has a similar
profile with the exception of several
124
Case Study: A junior school with resource .provision for deaf children
Listening when overhead Listening to peer —k— LIFE UK scores for Class 4
projector is switched on answer a question
—o— LIFE UK scores for
hearing impaired child
1 - always easy to hear
2 - mostly easy to hear
3 - sometimes difficult to hear
4 - mostly difficult to hear
5 - always difficult to hear
critical areas, primarily the child indicates the corridor. The child indicates that she Figure 7.6.4: LIFE UK
that she needs to be able to see the is making satisfactory use of the personal scores for Class 4
teacher's face in order to understand what radio system and classroom amplification
is being said. This is consistent with the system to overcome many of the potential
benefits offered by lip-reading in less than obstacles to hearing effectively.
ideal listening conditions. This can be Figure 7.6.5 shows a chart obtained
addressed through the teacher modifying using a noise logging dosimeter placed at
her teaching style. Other areas where the the front of the classroom and out of the
hearing inipaired child finds greater reach of the children. The chart presents
difficulty include listening to her peers the one minute history of the sound level
answer questions; listening when there is obtained between 11.30 am and 15.28 pm
another adult talking; and listening when during a pical school day. 'A' represents
there is intrusive noise, for example from the class quietly engaged in group work.
A B . C D E
Time
125
Case Study: A junior school with resource provision for deaf children
70
60
m
-c
a,
>
a,
a,
U,
C',
a, 50
0
Cl)
30
40
125 200 315 500 800 1250 2000 3250 5000
Third-octave band centre frequency, Hz
— . — . —. Teacher speaking and instructing kids for think and write', children quiet.
Analyser positioned back left.
Teacher quiet and children working on task with quiet babble.
Analyser positioned back left.
As above but with children becoming progressively louder as the task progresses.
Analyser positioned back right.
Teacher speaking and children quiet. Halfway through recording teacher
stops talking and children start to work with light babble.
Analyser positioned back right.
- Some teacher talk close to microphone, mostly childrens light babble.
Analyser positioned front left.
As above but with recording interrupted by the lunch bell.
Analyser positioned in mid-front right.
- - - -. Children get ready to leave. The class is noisy.
Analyser positioned in the middle of the class.
Figure 7.6.6: Frequency 'B' is the lunch break. During the period controlled circle time discussion. A
spectra for various marked 'C' the class are again engaged in classroom soundfield system is used by
classroom activities
quiet group work; the end of period 'C' the class teacher and a personal radio FM
coincides with a break. During the period system is used by the one hearing
marked 'D' the sound level gradually rises impaired child who uses a hearing aid.
while the children take part in a carefully Period 'E' represents the end of the school
126
Case Study: A junior school with resource provision for deaf children
127
Case Study: A junior school with resource provision for deaf children
problems and no complaints of acoustic in the playground, but is only used for
problems in this room, which would be teaching purposes outside playtime. The
considered to be very well designed largest space faces away from the
acoustically. playground. The windows are not double-
glazed and there is no air conditioning,
Teaching resource base however the setting is very quiet and the
The RPD is separated from the main rooms are large.
school by a short covered walkwa) There
are two rooms and the entrance lobby Strengths of the school
outside the rooms is large enough to A review of the school shows that there
provide a space for small group work. The has been considerable investment in
larger room shown in Figures 7.6.9 and ensuring that the school is one that
7.6.10 is used for teaching larger groups. reduces acoustical barriers to learning for
The whole building has extensive sound hearing and hearing impaired children
Figure 7.6.9: Teaching treatment, ensuring that the environment alike. The key features are:
resource base has little reverberation. The building is set o carpeting to reduce noise in corridors
and classroom noise caused by movement
o attaching rubber ends to chairs and
tables to reduce movement noise
o maximising lighting, and where
appropriate using blinds, so that children
iiiIfl1flIthilI/I and teachers are visible but not
silhouetted against the light, thereby
ensuring that lip-reading is effective
o using personal radio systems for the
hearing impaired children to limit the
effects of distance from the teacher
o using a soundfield system, which
provides benefit to the hearing impaired
child directly by increasing the strength
and naturalness of the speech signal, and
indirectly by modifying classroom
behaviour in a positive manner
o making use of expertise in the in-
service training of staff throughout the
Figure 7.6.10: Teaching school
resource base room layout
o providing an acoustically well-specified
area for supporting those special needs
Sink of hearing impaired children that cannot
be met within the mainstream classroom.
129
Case Study: An all-age special school for hearing impaired children
130
Case Study: An all-age special school for hearing impaired children
131
Case Study: An all-age special school for hearing impaired children
132
Case Study: An all-age special school for hearing impaired children
133
Case Study: An all-age special school for hearing impaired children
complained about the sound transmission disturbed by noise from the speech
between horizontally adjacent rooms. The therapy room and whilst in the
sound insulation appears to be of a lower unoccupied room the headmaster's voice
standard than they had expected in a new was audible but not intelligible. This level
purpose-built unit. These subjective of privacy means that although the
comments are borne out by the results of headmaster's conversations would remain
the objective sound insulation confidential, intrusive noise ma' disturb
measurements. The D7-0.45),. of 34 dB the concentration of both the headmaster
measured between classrooms 4 and 5 is and of users of the speech therapy room.
lower than that required for classrooms in A higher standard of studwork wall
mainstream schools. Where background construction between rooms may have
noise levels are low, hearing impaired been considered to be impracticable in
pupils cannot discriminate between the special school design. An alternative
intrusive noise and speech as easily as solution would have been to locate non-
pupils with full hearing, and a higher sensitive acoustic buffer zones, such as
standard of sound insulation is needed. A storage areas, between the headmaster's
minimum DnO.4s),w value of 50 dB is office and other rooms.
required, see Table 1.2. A value of 48 dB Dflo.4s),w was
Measurements showed that the sound measured from one of the ground floor
insulation performance of the partition classrooms for hearing impaired pupils to
did not rise at high frequencies as would the mainstream classroom directh' above
normall' be expected. This confirms the it on the first floor. This is an appropriate
existence of small gaps which were found standard of sound insulation for the
at the partition heads. Notvi'ithstanding mainstream classroom and no complaints
this, the mid-frequency level difference have been made by the teaching staff.
across the partition is poor (between 30 Visual inspection of the doorsets
dB and 35 dB). This indicates that the confirmed that they were of suitable
studwork partition selected was not of a quality and likely to meet the 30 dB R.
sufficiently high performance. A partition sound insulation specification for doorsets
with staggered studs, increased in Table 1.3.
plasterboard thicknesses and mineral wool Reverberation times in the classrooms
in the cavity would provide a higher are well controlled due to the provision of
standard of sound insulation. The overall acoustic absorption on the floors and
sound insulation performance between ceilings. The mid-frequency RT of
adjacent classrooms is, however, 0.4 seconds meets the performance
ultimately limited by the communicating standards in Table 1.5. The wooden wall
door. Although the doors are of a very panels help to control the RT at low
high standard (this is discussed further frequencies, on vhich hearing impaired
below) they are still a weak sound people often rely for information. The
insulation element. Whilst this may not be teaching staff judged the classroom
a serious problem between classrooms acoustics to be satisfactorv
and the corridor, the presence of doors The RT in the speech therapy room is
benveen classrooms is inconsistent with also well controlled due to the carpet and
the requirement for a high standard of mineral fibre suspended ceiling. The mid-
sound insulation. Connecting doors are frequency value of 0.3 seconds meets the
not recommended. performance standards in Table 1.5.
The sound insulation measured
between the headmaster's office and the Conclusions
speech therapy room was 47 dB The acoustic design of the special school
Dno.4s),wr . This is below the unit is good, in terms of room acoustics
performance standard in Table 1.2 for and unoccupied noise levels, although
sound insulation between an office and a there are some deficiencies in the sound
speech therapy room. The headmaster insulation provided by the internal wall
had complained that he was sometimes constructions.
134
Case Study: An all-age special school for hearing impaired children
Audiology room
In the primary school for hearing Figure 7.7.4: Plan of
impaired children there is an audiology audiology facility
facility, which consists of a technician's
room and an audiometric test room.
The tests carried out in the
audiometric test room are generally
carried out in the ambient acoustic field
rather than using headphones. Activities
range from testing hearing saturation
levels and hearing aid discomfort (during
which high noise levels of up to 90 dB(A)
are generated in the room) to testing for
speech discrimination against background
noise, which requires low ambient noise
levels.
Measurements were carried out of
indoor ambient noise, sound insulation
and reverberation time in the audiology
suite. In addition, a discussion was held
with the audiologist who uses the suite to
obtain his opinion of the suitability of the
acoustics.
135
Case Study: An all-age special school for hearing impaired children
1:Hk
1
136
Case Study: An all-age special school for hearing impaired children
levels are sufficiently low for the on site measurements. Thus the
audiologist to carry out his tests. The reverberation time in the test room has
background noise spectrum does not been well controlled by the selection of
contain an' unpleasant tones, due to the surface finishes. Recommendations are
quiet nature of the school site. also made for reverberation times in third-
The limited sound insulation afforded octave bands from 31.5 Hz to 100 Hz.
by the single-leaf masonry wall and the Due to the small size of the test room,
poor quality single door mean that reverberation times could not be
intrusive noise levels in the test room are measured accurately at these low
high when there is activity in the corridor. frequencies.
The high intrusive noise levels disrupt the
audiologist's work. An appropriate sound Conclusions
insulation performance for the wall Although background noise levels are low
between the test room and the corridor and the reverberation time is well
would be very dependent on the specific controlled, the poor sound insulation
requirements of the audiologist and the means that the test room is unsatisfactory
school, but it is likely that a double-leaf for its purpose.
masonry wall construction plastered on Key points to note are:
both sides (each leaf at least 415 kg/rn2 • The site is in a quiet location, away
including plaster) would be the minimum from any major noise sources such as
required. The door from the corridor into roads, railways and industrial premises, so
the test room is a weak sound insulation background noise levels are low
element and would limit the performance • The audiometric test room is poorly
of any upgraded wall construction. The located adjacent to a noisy corridor.
best solution would be to allow entry to • The 100 mm blockwork wall between
the test room only via the staff room and the test room and the corridor is
technician's room. Failing this, a lobbied inadequate for controlling noise intrusion.
door arrangement would be required. • The single door between the test room
HTM 2045 recommends that and the corridor is a weak sound
reverberation times at all frequencies insulation element.
between 125 Hz and 4 kHz are between • The reverberation time is well
0.2 seconds and 0.25 seconds in controlled by the use of carpet, a mineral
audiology test rooms. The measured fibre tile suspended ceiling system and
reverberation times are generally within mineral fibre tiles on all the walls.
this range, given the accuracy of the
137
Page blank
in original
Case Study7.8: Acoustic design of building envelope and classrooms
at a new secondary school
dB
60-65
'I
aircraft take-off
'sand l:nding
0
ttaffic Airport runway
\7east
Figure 7.8.1 shows a site plan, based Standard products such as attenuated Figure 7.8.1: Site plan
on the noise survey carried out at the trickle ventilators inserted into window showing external noise
start of the project. The high external openings, as are often used in housing, levels, 1Aeq
noise levels are generated by low-flying would not have achieved the required air
aircraft and traffic on nearby busy roads. flow rates. Alternative purpose designed
One option would have been to systems were therefore required.
acoustically seal the building envelope and Classrooms are naturally ventilated by
mechanically ventilate the building. means of inlet vents under the external
However, this was too expensive for the windows and passive stacks located at high
available budget. The design team also level at the rear of the rooms, adjacent to
wished to reduce lifetime costs and opted the central corridors. The inlet louvres
for a naturally ventilated building which duct air into the classrooms via grilles just
would maintain the same internal noise inside the perimeter convector grilles.
levels. These inlet grilles are controlled by
Being an inclusive school, the design classroom users by easy to operate
had to accommodate pupils and other openable flaps covering the grilles.
members of the community with hearing Both inlets and oudets are acoustically
problems. The target for background insulated to prevent the entry of external
noise was set at 35 dB(A). At the same noise.
time the design had to provide fresh air at Depending on the prevailing weather,
a rate of up to 8 litres per second for each wind driven or temperature driven
of the usual number of occupants. This ventilation provides sufficient fresh air.
equates to approxiniatelv 4.5 air changes • The more windy the weather, the
per hour in both ground and first floor greater the pressure difference across the
classrooms. building envelope and the greater the air
139
Case Study: Acoustic design of building envelope and classrooms
: at a new secondary school
fixed louvres added after building completion to prevent rain sunlight entering through rooflight heats extract duct
penetration in storm conditions will reduce aerofoil effect to assist air movement by stack effect
fresh air in air heated by radiators in winter manually operated fresh air
through rises and mixes with cool fresh air winter - some fresh air vents d
acoustically entering through vents during daytime to reduce heat I
attenuated and all closed at n
'2
openings exposed thermal mass In summer - open at i
for night
downstands
exposed thermal mass fresh air in
heat retained in concrete floor slab I used air out
by convection and wind-assistance through
reemitted at night acoustically
night ventilation in summer louvres closed at night in winter
atteiujated
open in summer
prevents daytime overheating
Figure 7.8.2: Schematic movement in the ducts. duct over the first floor corridor which
diagram of ventilation • The temperature difference when the then rises to the outlet at roof level. The
paths through two storey internal spaces are warmer than outside, passive stack effect is enhanced by
section of building
as in winter, drives the stack effect providing roof glazing over the combined
ventilation causing air to rise up the section of duct which is painted black and
central ducts. encased over a drop ceiling area in the
• The central ducts which leave the back corridor. Solar gain raises the air
Figure 7.8.3: Ground of the classrooms join into a combined temperatures in the top section of
floor air vents ductwork causing the air to rise. This is
particularly effective in hot weather.
• An aerofoil is positioned at the duct
outlet to enhance the wind-driven stack
2 layers
of self-extinguishing effect. The problem of wind-blown rain in
fire retardent
nylon mesh
storm conditions led to modification of
Linear grill
the aerofoils to incorporate louvres
beneath the aerofoil sections. This will
Fixed divider
Insect mesh
probably have made the aerofoils on their
own considerably less effective.
Acoustic inf ill glued to - Radiator
aluminium casing • The windows are openable and are
designed to increase the maximum
possible ventilation rate so that when the
wind and stack driving forces are small
there will still be adequate ventilation,
although this will obviously let in some
ambient noise.
Ground level
The ventilation system is completely
I under the control of the occupants in
individual spaces, who can open and close
flaps over the inlets below the windows
140
Case Study: Acoustic design of building envelope and classrooms
at a new secondary school
_Ground floor vent 28.0 22.5 25.8 40.8 57.9 54.0 53.9 33
21.6_f
First floor vent 24.5 22.2 28.4 42.2 50.8 53.4 53.0 34
19.6_1
141
Case Study: Acoustic design of building envelope and classrooms
: at a new secondary school
142
Case Study7.9: Acoustically attenuated passive stack ventilation of an
extension to an inner city secondary school
143
Case Study: Acoustically attenuated passive stack ventilation of an
extension to an inner city secondary school
BB87 background
noise levels Calculated Measured
Room LAeq,lh (dB) LAeq,lh (dB) LAeq,lh (dB) Comments
144
Case Study: Acoustically attenuated passive stack ventilation of an
extension to an inner city secondary school
freshexftom
exhausted air prevang westerly
opposite to 4. wtod
prevaing wind extra coofing
in summer
cj
h aN ducts
t F classroom
1%
1
F F F stairwell
classroom
I,
,,I",k/ 'k,J
exhust
t t t t %
11 -(-)-
air
fan assisted
sports hail w w w w
t t , t fresh
air
w.c.,s
carried out with the ventilation system The acoustic consultant suggested that Figure 7.9.1: Section
through new extension
open and closed. The results did not attenuated ventilators should also be fitted
shows stack ventilation in
display any significant change in level nor in Mathematics classroom 1, the
operation
was there any significant variation in the Mathematics office and the staff room as
sound pressure level around the room. opening the windows in these rooms
would result in noise levels exceeding the
Ventilation design BB87 guidance of 40 dB LAeq,lhr.
The close proximity of the road meant Taking into account the characteristics
that open windows could not be used for of the new building and site conditions,
ventilation because road traffic noise adequate ventilation has been achieved as
would cause problems and airborne described below
pollutants eniitted by the heavy road
traffic could be carried into the building Teaching areas
through low level open windows. (Classrooms, ICT Rooms, Science
The rooms exposed to traffic noise are Laboratory and Gymnasium)
therefore ventilated using a wind scoop All new teaching spaces are naturally
system with the exception of a manager's ventilated by a wind scoop type system
office which is provided with a noise- through terminals mounted at roof level.
attenuated ventilator unit. This type of The roof terminals are designed to be
unit was originally developed to comply omni-directional allowing the intake of
with the requirements of the Noise fresh air regardless of the prevailing wind
• Insulation Regulations 1975. The unit direction. Each terminal is divided into
• either comprises a variable speed powered equal quadrants; two are positively
• ventilator which is designed to be pressurized by the wind to create a fresh
installed in the building façade and a air intake, the remaining two on the
permanent air vent, or it may be a single leeward side are negatively pressured
• unit which combines both. There are allowing stale air to be exhausted.
normally two speed settings and the Air is ducted from the terminals either
Regulations set limits on noise directly into the second floor rooms or Fugure 7.9.2: The Roof
transmission through the units and the down to the ceiling of the first floor terminals, viewed from
self-noise of the fan. classrooms and gymnasium. Each terminal inside during construction
145
Case Study: Acoustically allenuated passive stack ventilation of an
extension to an inner city secondary school
146
Case Study 7.10: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
learning spaces in a secondary school
147
— Key
1 Reception
2 Office
3 Store
4 Meeting room c_)
5 Medical inspection
6 Principal
-'C,)
-)= '
7 Music practice
8 Changing room
9 Science prep.
10 Darkroom
11 Kiln
.0>_
12 Heat bay
13 Technicians base/materials .
14 Hospitality suite
15 Training kitchen Cl)
16 Sound Laboratory
17 Music Tech.
18 Cloakroom
19 Foyer
20 Wash-up
21 Greenhouse
C-,
ILC Independent Learning Centre o
IS Technology Store
A1-3 Art
11—4 Technology 0
E Electronics =
(I)
RA Resource Area
RA1 Sixth Form ICT Resource
Conf Conference Room
ST Study Room/Genral Teaching CD
RE Religious Education
PA PerformingArts
0 .,
CA)
LAB Science Laborathry
VS Video Studio C',
A
0
0
s Stairs
Toilets Ground floor First floor
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
learning spaces in a secondary school
Acoustic measurements
Measurements of sound pressure level,
reverberation time, speech intelligibility
and airborne sound insulation were made
in the school to assess the acoustic
environment. These measurements were
made in learning base 1 (English learning
base), the art area, the workshop and
technology areas, and language teaching
rooms (study area 1 and study area 5). was measured according to BS EN Figure 7.10.4: Students
Sound pressure levels were measured 60268-16 to assess speech intelligibility. in area A of learning base 1
over 30 minute periods (starting on the Airborne sound insulation was
hour or half-hour) during the school day measured between adjacent language
to determine LAeq,3omin, LA9O,3Omin, teaching classrooms. These classrooms
LA1O,30min,
and Lmin. were enclosed rooms and did not form
Observations of classroom activity were part of the open-plan teaching space.
noted in order to attribute measured In addition to the acoustic
levels to specific activities and events. measurements, teaching staff completed a
In the open-plan area of learning base questionnaire about the effect of the
Figure 7.10.5: Learning
1, the Speech Transmission Index (STI) school layout on their work. base 1 — sound pressure
levels in area A
100 ——
ODJOD LAb
90
0
a)
>
80 = Lg LAeq
a)
a)
70
U,
U,
a)
60
0C 50
0
U) 40
óóöä
30
o
U)C)
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Time
8.30— 10.15 Discussion 10.20 — 13.00 Similar At 13.40 approximately 70 Year 10 pupils occupied all
between teacher and activity as early morning areas of the learning base with roughly equal numbers
around 12 sixth form with 1 teacher and around in areas A, B and C, and remained there until 16.00. At
students in area A 12 students least two of the groups were involved in activities
requiring speech during the whole of this period. For
most of the time, one of the three groups was involved
Students return from Area unoccupied in an activity such as reading or private study that did
short break at 10.20 at 13.00 not require communication with others. Area D was
used occasionally by up to three students working with
computers.
149
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
learning spaces in a secondary school
1 ib — — '-AFmax
100 DODD LA1O
m — LAeq
90
0 LgQ
a,
a, 80 Lpj
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Time L
8.30 — 10.15 Discussion 10.20 — 13.00 Similar At 13.40 approximately 70 Year 10 pupils occupied all
between teacher and activity as early morning areas of the learning base with roughly equal numbers
around 12 sixth form with 1 teacher and around in areas A, B and C, and remained there until 16.00. At
students in area A 12 students least two of the groups were involved in activities
requiring speech during the whole of this period. For
most of the time, one of the three groups was involved
in an activity such as reading or private study that did
Students return from Area unoccupied
not require communication with others. Area D was
short break at 10.20 at 13.00
used occasionally by up to three students working with
computers.
150
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
learning spaces in a secondary school
12
Figure 7.10.7: Learning
10 base 1 — difference in
8 sound pressure levels
E—
oa between area A and area C
cflD 6
0,—-
C.
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a) ( 2
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c c o c o o o c c o o o o cD co
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IX) 1.0
Time
151
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
s learning spaces in a secondary school
152
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
learning spaces in a secondary school
110 — — Lmax
100 LAb
90
>
LAeq
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I Time I L
8.30 Room occupied by 9.20 Students 10.30 Students 13.00 Students 14.05 Approximately 25
approximately 25 students and break for engaged in engaged in students in the room.
staff. Little practical activity, breakfast. practical activities, practical activity. Saws and sanding
Students mostly working on a eg sawing wood. machines being used.
bench close to the whiteboard.
153
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
s learning spaces in a secondary school
— — — Lpj
LAb
0 LAeq
a,
>
= Lpg
a, Lpjj
a,
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154
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
learning spaces in a secondary school
110 _ Lpj
1% Lpç
A LAeq
- 80
—
— ——
— —.
w—
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Lp.jj
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—
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C) CD CD
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CV)
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CV) CV) CV)
Figure 7.10.11:
8.30 Lessons begin and continue 13.00 Students return Art area — sound pressure
until lunchtime. after lunch. levels in area Al
110 — — — Lpjmax
— 100 _4.
DDOO LA1O
— %,
-_ %_% ________
— luuI•_ ______
= D LA9O
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a — — — — .-I .-I -l — ,-l .-I 4
Time
8.30 Lessons begin and continue 13.00 Students return Figure 7.10.12:
until lunchtime. after lunch. Art area — sound pressure
levels in area A2
155
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
s learning spaces in a secondary school
110 — Lfty
100 aaa LA1O
g0 LAeq
= D LA9O
a)
>
a)
__
E 70
U)
(I)
a)
0.
50
c,,40
30rT
!!
Time
Figure 7.10.13: languages (eg German and French) noise ratio could potentially provide
Language study area 1 simultaneously in different areas of the reasonable speech intelligibility. When the
sound pressure levels
open-plan space. spaces were occupied and students
and/or staff were speaking, there was a
Sound pressure levels greater difference between LAcq,3omin
Figures 7.10.13 and 7.10.14 show the and LA9O,30min in the enclosed
sound pressure levels recorded in study classrooms than in the fully occupied
areas 1 and 5 respectively. When the open-plan spaces. This indicates that the
classrooms were unoccupied the measured signal to noise ratios are likely to be
levels were less than 50 dB LAeq,3omin. higher in the enclosed classrooms than in
When there was speech in the room, the open-plan spaces.
LAeq,3omin was typically between 65 and
75 dB. In general, LAeq,3omin was Reverberation time
Figure 7. 10.14: between 15 dB and 20 dB higher than The mid-frequency reverberation time in
Language study area 5 each studs' area was 0.5 seconds, which
LA9O,3Omin, indicating that the signal to
sound pressure levels
100 ——
aaDa
LAeq
= = D LA9O
a)
a)
a)
Lpj
U)
U,
a)
0
-D
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Cl)
0000000000000000
30
0
o (fl 0
d (fl 0
c .-i 0 Cfl 0 C) 0 Cfl 0 Cfl 0
_( .-I .-I
.-i
,-I .-I .-I - .-l ,-I 4 -l ,-4 l
c',i Lfl
Time
156
Case Study: An investigation into the acoustic conditions in open-plan
learning spaces in a secondary school
Summary
Teaching in an open-plan area in a
secondary school requires a different type
of working from teaching in traditional
enclosed classrooms. This is due in part to
the noise levels in open-plan teaching
areas. In this school, both students and
teachers in the open-plan areas reported were occupied, measured sound pressure Fugure 7.10.15:
being disturbed by noise, whilst in levels were between 65 and 70 dB Students in learning base I
enclosed classrooms very little disturbance LAeq,3omin. At these levels, the signal to gathered around the
teacher in area A
was reported. Some of the techniques noise ratios are likely to be less than 10 dB
observed in primary schools in Case and speech intelligibility will be
Study 9.2 were used when it was inadequate. When the teaching areas were
important to ensure that students could occupied and students and/or teachers
hear the teacher during noisy periods. For were speaking, there was a greater
example, students were gathered more difference between LAeq,3omin and
closely around their teacher. Also, LA9O,3Omin in the enclosed classrooms
teaching staff in the area co-operated with than in the open-plan spaces. This
each other to minimise disturbance to suggests that the signal to noise ratios arc
classes in adjacent areas. generally higher in enclosed classrooms
It is concluded that it is difficult to than in open-plan areas. Hence, speech
justiFy the use of open-plan areas in intelligibility is likely to be better in
secondary schools in terms of their enclosed classrooms than in fully occupied
acoustic environment. This is a similar open-plan areas.
conclusion to that in Case Study 7.2 for In many open-plan teaching spaces it is
open-plan primary schools. High noise difficult to achieve clear communication
levels in occupied open-plan areas are the of speech between teacher and student,
primary cause of inadequate speech and between students. For this reason,
intelligibility, especially for those students careful consideration should be given as
furthest from the teacher. STI to whether to include open-plan teaching
measurements demonstrated that for spaces in a secondary school. If open-plan
these students, the performance standards areas are required then rigorous acoustic
in Table 1.6 of Section 1 were not met. design is necessary to meet the required
When all areas of the learning base performance standards in Section 1.
157
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in original
Introduction to Appendices
The ten appendices provide supporting information for the main sections
of Building Bulletin 93, including explanations of acoustic terms, sample
calculations and other background information.
There are mans' technical terms and principles of the behaviour of sound in
descriptors used in acoustics, which can buildings. There are many acoustics text
not be covered in-depth in these short books available, some of which are listed
appendices. However, to help non- in the bibliography These can be referred
acousticians, Appendices 1 to 3 include to for a more complete description of all
definitions of those acoustic terms which acoustic terms and descriptors.
are used in BB93, and describe the basic
Page
159
Page blank
in original
Appendix 1: Basic concepts and units
Jet aircraft at
5 metres
Artillery fire at
1 metres
Platform of under-
ground train station
Large symphony
orchestra (forte)
Noisy office
Normal
conversation
Average
suburban area
Quiet home
Bedroom or
quiet whisper
Empty theatre
Recording
studio
I I I I I I I I I I I I I I
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 110 120 130 140
I I
Threshold of audibitty Threshold of feefing
161
Appendix 1: Basic concepts and units
F_
O — 76n
0 — 576 640
C — 512
0__.
A
F—
0
— 320
o— _. 296
256
440
384
•.
—
III
ij
O _ 242 — Oboe Flute
A
O _ 192
rC —
— Soprano
111111
ISO Mo
O
0
C
0
A
—
— 144
—
_ 96
F —
128
120
I I Tenor
Viola
Trumpet
French horn
ilU
96 Baritone
O
C
C__.66
72 Bass Bass darinet
B — 60
A__.
G_.
F —48
O —3246 40
Ceto
I
Tuba
Bassoon
C_
6___ 30
Double bass
A STRING INSTRUMENTS WiND INSTRUMENTS
HUMAN VOICE
162
Appendix 1: Basic concepts and units
163
Page blank
in original
Appendix 2: Basic principles of room acoustics
11.0
-__
O.6 I
0.
0
___
O.8 I ___ __
___
___ ___
___ ____
O.4 ___ ____ ___ ____ ___
:
=
I
0.2 I ___ ____ ___ ____ ___ I
. - .-
— Absorption class A
Absorption class B
— Absorption class C
— — Absorption class D
— — Absorption class E
a-
0
125 250 500 1000 2000 4000
Octave band centre frequency, Hz
165
Appendix 2: Basic principles of room acoustics
surface scattering all sound away from the this does not convey all the intricate
specular direction has a scattering details of the sound field that determine
coefficient of 1. Scattering coefficients are peoples' subjective responses. There are
a relatively new measure in room many other measures used to represent
acoustics so there is little data currently various aspects of subjective response to
available but the' are important in room room acoustics. For school acoustics there
acoustics computer modelling. is a need to have criteria for subjective
speech intelligibility for which the
Reverberation time, T objective measure selected for BB93 is the
After being emitted from a source, sound Speech Transmission Index.
waves are repeatedly reflected from room
surfaces and, as a result of absorption, Speech Transmission Index, STI
gradually reduce in strength. The The intelligibility of speech in a room is a
reverberation time, T, of a space is a complex function of the location of the
measure of the rate at which the sound speaker, the location of the listener,
decays. It is defined as the time taken for ambient noise levels, the acoustic
the reverberant sound energy to decay to characterisics of the space, and the
one millionth of its original intensity loudness and quality of the speech itself.
(corresponding to a 60 dB reduction in In addition, if a sound reinforcement
the sound level). system is used, it depends on the design
The reverberation time is proportional and adjustment of this system. The
to the volume of the room and inversely Speech Transmission Index, STI, is an
proportional to the quantity of absorption objective measure defined in BS EN
present: 60268-16:1998, which accounts for all
these factors.
T=0.l6V/Sci S A2.1 To measure the STI, a special sound
source is located at the position of the
where S and a are respectively the talker (with the normal microphone in
surface area and absorption coefficient of place for any sound reinforcement
each surface i in the room. An example of system). The resulting signal is detected at
the application of this equation is given in the listening position. Signal processing
Appendix 6. using the modulation transfer function
betveen transmitted and received signals
Mid-frequency reverberation time, Tmt is carried out to determine the STI.
The sound absorption of surfaces usually STI is a value between 0 and 1, the
varies with frequency and therefore the higher the value, the better the speech
reverberation time in a space also varies intelligibilitv Speech intelligibility ratings
with frequency. Hence, values of Tare corresponding to STI values are as
normally given in frequency bands. In follows:
BB93 the reverberation time criteria are STI Speech Intelligibility
set in terms of the average value of the
three octave bands, 500 Hz, 1 kHz, and 0.1 to 0.3 Bad
2 kHz, denoted as Tmf 0.3 to 0.45 Poor
0.45 to 0.6 Fair
Tmf=(T500+Tlk+T2k)/3 S A2.2
0.6 to 0.75 Good
0.75 to 1 Excellent
Other acoustic measures
Sound heard in a room generally
comprises an extremely complicated
combination of many reflected and
scattered sound waves. This situation is
made manageable by considering only the
overall statistics of the sound field such as
the reverberation time. Unfortunately,
166
Appendix 3: Basic principles of sound insulation
167
Appendix 3: Basic principles of sound insulation
168
Appendix 3: Basic principles of sound insulation
169
Page blank
in original
Appendix 4: Classroom sound insulation — sample calculations
R = Rw,est+ XdB
R = 43 + 5 dB
R = 48 dB
171
Appendix 4: Classroom sound insulation — sample calculations
172
Appendix 4: Classroom sound insulation — sample calculations
173
Page blank
in original
Appendix 5: Sound insulation of the building envelope
175
Appendix 5: Sound insulation of the building envelope
176
Appendix 6: Calculation of room reverberation times
For empty rooms with volumes less than where a1,.. .,Un are the absorption
200 m3, simple room geometry and a coefficients of the different surfaces in the
reasonable distribution of sound room and S1,...,S are the areas of the
absorption, the reverberation time, T, can surfaces having absorption coefficients
be calculated using Sabine's formula and
absorption coefficients appropriate to the Absorption coefficients can be obtained
room surfaces as shown below from the spreadsheet on the DfES
acoustics website and/or from
T= 0.16v seconds manufacturers' data. Values for some
A common materials, used in the worked
'here Vis the volume of the room in m3 example which follows, are given in
and A is the absorption area in the room Table A6.1.
in m. Two decimal places should be used for Note: Reverberation time
Table 1.5 gives the recommended mid- the absorption coefficient values for calculations using Sabine's
formula in all octave bands
frequency reverberation times for rooms. calculations.
can be carried out using
The mid-frequency reverberation time, In empty teaching rooms with volumes the method illustrated in
Tmf, is the arithmetic average of the less than 200 m3 and simple room the worked example that
reverberation times in the 500 Hz, geometry, the absorption area, A, needed follows. However,
1000 Hz and 2000 Hz octave bands. to give the required reverberation time, T, neglecting air absorption
can be obtained by rearranging Sabine's slightly underestimates the
Tmf— T500 Hz + T1000 Hz + T2000 Hz formula as follows: equivalent sound
3 absorption area in a room.
177
Appendix 6: Calculation of room reverberation times
Worked example
A school laboratory is required to have a mid-frequency reverberation time of less than
0.8 seconds. The room is rectangular in plan, is 7 m wide, 9 m deep and has a ceiling
height of 3 m. There is one door and the glazing is located in one of the 7 m x 3 m
walls. The room volume is 7 m x 9 m x 3 m = 189 m3. The glazing has an area of
6 m2 and the door has an area of 2 m2.
Step 1 Calculate the surface area related to each material in the room (ie floor, walls,
doors, ceiling and windows).
Step 2 Obtain values of absorption coefficients for the room surfaces. In this case, the
values are taken from Table A6.1.
Absorption coefficient a
Surface Area (m2) 500 Hz 1000 Hz 2000 Hz
Floor 63 0.04 0.05 0.05
Door 2 0.08 0.08 0.08
Walls 88 0.06 0.07 0.09
Ceiling 63 0.10 0.05 0.05
Windows 6 0.05 0.04 0.03
Step 3 Calculate the absorption area (m2) related to each surface in octave frequency
bands (Absorption area = surface area x absorption coefficient).
178
Appendix 6: Calculation of room reverberation times
Step 4 Calculate the sum of the absorption areas (m2) obtained in Step 3.
Step 5 Calculate the reverberation time for the room using Sabine's formula.
Step 6 Calculate the mid-frequency reverberation time (Tmf) from the reverberation times in the 500 Hz, 1000 Hz
and 2000 Hz octave bands.
2.08 + 2.35 + 2.65
Tmt = = 2.36 seconds
Step 7 Identify a sound absorbing material that is suitable for use in a school laboratory and determine the best
position for the material.
A manufacturer produces a non-flammable sound absorbing material that can be cleaned relatively easily. The
following absorption coefficient data is provided for the material.
Because the room is used as a laboratory, it is decided that the most appropriate place for the sound absorbing
material is on the ceiling or high on the walls.
Step 8 Estimate the required area of the sound absorbing material and calculate the mid-frequency reverberation
time when it is in place.
As a first estimate, it is decided to cover the entire ceiling with the sound absorbing material. The total absorption
areas in the 500 Hz, 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz octave frequency bands are then calculated.
Note: Because the mid-frequency reverberation time is required, calculations need only be conducted in the
500 Hz, 1000 Hz and 2000 Hz octave bands. However, should reverberation times need to be calculated for all
octave bands, the calculation method is the same as that illustrated for each octave band.
179
Appendix 6: Calculation of room reverberation times
This reverberation time meets the reverberation time requirements in Section 1.1 for the school laboratory.
180
Appendix 7: Calculation of sound absorption required in
corridors, entrance halls and stairwells
181
Appendix 7: Calculation of sound absorption required in corridors,
entrance halls and stairwells
Step 1 Calculate the surface area related to each absorptive material (ie for the floor, walls, doors and ceiling).
Step 2 Obtain values of absorption coefficients for the floor, walls, glazing and doors. (The values below are taken
from Table 7.1 of Approved Document E.)
Step 3 Calculate the absorption area (m2) related to each surface in octave frequency bands.
(Absorption area = surface area x absorption coefficient)
Step 4 Calculate the sum of the absorption areas (m2) obtained in Step 3
250 Hz 500 Hz 1000 Hz 2000 Hz 4000 Hz
Total absorption area Cm2) 4.07 4.35 5.08 5.47 6.74
Step 5 Calculate the total absorption area (A1) required for the entrance hail.
The volume is 112 m3 and therefore A1 = 0.2 x 112.0 = 22.4 m2.
182
Appendix 7: Calculation of sound absorption required in corridors,
entrance halls and stairwells
Step 6 Calculate additional absorption area (m2) to be provided by the ceiling. If values are negative in any octave
band then there is sufficient absorption from the other surfaces to meet the requirement without any additional
absorption in this band.
(Additional absorption = AT —total absorption area (from Step 4))
Step 8 Identify a ceiling product from manufacturers' laboratory measurement data that provides absorption
coefficients that exceed the values calculated in Step 7.
Step 1 Calculate the surface area related to each absorptive material (ie for the floor, walls, doors and ceiling).
Step 2 Obtain values of absorption coefficients for the floor, walls, glazing and doors. (The values below are taken
from Table 7.1 of Approved Document E.)
Step 3 Calculate the absorption area (m2) related to each surface in octave bands.
(Absorption area = surface area x absorption coefficient)
183
Appendix 7: Calculation of sound absorption required in corridors,
entrance halls and stairwells
Step 4 Calculate the sum of the absorption areas Cm2) obtained in Step 3.
Step 5 Calculate the total absorption area (A1) required for the corridor.
The volume is 129.6 m3 and therefore A1 = 0.25 x 129.6 = m2.
Step 6 Calculate additional absorption area (m2) to be provided by ceiling. If values are negative in any octave
band then there is sufficient absorption from the other surfaces to meet the requirement without any additional
absorption in this band.
(Additional absorption = AT — total absorption area (from Step 4))
Step 8 Identify a ceiling product from manufacturers' laboratory measurement data that provides absorption
coefficients that exceed the values calculated in Step 7.
184
Appendix 8: Equipment specifications for
sound field systems in schools
Standard loudspeakers
A standard specification for loudspeakers is difficult, since there are circumstances
when specialised solutions are required. The specification provided below is a general
recommendation for typical loudspeakers used in a set of four to six in a classroom
within the normal range of sizes.
185
Appendix 8: Equipment specifications for sound field systems in schools
186
Appendix 8: Equipment specifications for sound field systems in schools
Mixer amplifier
Inputs 1 mic/line Mic (-50 dBu sensitivity) • 1 mono, compatible with teacher
line (-10 dBu sensitivity) radio microphone receiver
switchable • 1 stereo (mixed to mono),
to enable music playback,
connection to computer
1 stereo line Stereo phono or 3.5 mm audio output. Alternatively builtn
jack (-10 dBu sensitivity) cassette player
• Prefer minimum of 1 additional
mono input to enable second
1 mic/line Mm/line switchable as microphone for class discussion
above use when child using personal
FM system is present.
Dynamic range >75 dBA from Allows for usable listening range and
amplifier noise floor to scope for adjustment of controls.
clipping point
187
Appendix 8: Equipment specifications for sound field systems in schools
System main parameters Wideband FM radio microphone These channels are provided
system operating in the VHF high for service to the hearing
band channels allocated for use in impaired without requirement
personal FM systems. for a licence.
Must conform to IR 2030, published
by the Radiocommunications Agency
under the category Short Range
Devices. See www.radio.gov.uk for
latest standards.
If necessary to accommodate a large These channels require a
number of channels within a single licence, with an associated
school or site, licensed radio annual fee.
microphone units operating in the
UHF band can be used.
•
Channel selection It is preferred that the system has This enables a spare unit to
a user programmable support all units within a
channel selection. school or group of schools.
Also enables channels to be
easily changed in the event of
interference or the desire to
tune the system to match a
compatible personal FM receiver
brought in by a student.
Transmitter controls Volume Transmitter should be provided with a Some cheaper transmitters
and indicators or gain means to adjust the level of the signal. provide no gain adjustment.
This should be recessed or This limits use with other
screwdriver controlled to minimise the microphones and some users.
risk of accidental adjustment. This actually controls the
modulation of the radio section
of the transmitter.
On/off A switch should be provided to enable An on/off switch should not
Switch the transmitter to be switched off be used unless the receiver is
to preserve battery life. This should also turned off.
be recessed to prevent If the TX is off, the receiver
accidental operation. may pick up an alternative
source on the same channel.
188
Appendix 8: Equipment specifications for sound field systems in schools
continued
Mute A switch should be provided to This allows the audio to
switch enable the audio signal output be turned off to allow
from the transmitter to be muted private conversation, etc.
without turning off the transmitter.
Transmitter battery Life 6 hours from a rechargeable nicad Battery life should be
battery under continuous measured under real operating
transmission conditions conditions. Many published
figures are not trustworthy as
Battery compartment should be they are actually for a standby
robust, enabling battery to slide in. condition.
A loose, plug-on battery
connection is not acceptable.
189
Appendix 8: Equipment specifications for sound field systems in schools
Headworn microphone
190
Appendix 9: Noise at Work Regulations relating to teachers
191
Appendix 9: Noise at Work Regulations relating to teachers
The second action level is 90 dB(A) apply, and 140 Pa at which the duties at
LEPd. If any employee is likely to be 85 dB(A) LEPd are required. 200 Pa
exposed to this level or above, employers' remains as an overall peak exposure limit.
additional duties under the Regulations Another feature of the new directive
include the following which may be relevant to teachers is that
• to reduce noise exposure of employees it will be possible to assess noise exposure
through noise control measures other on a weekly, rather than a daily basis, if
than hearing protection exposure varies significantly from day to
• to mark hearing protection zones where day.
noise reaches the second action level with
recognised signs Further information
• to provide hearing protection to all The above summary of some aspects of
employees and to ensure that it is worn. the Noise at Work Regulations is included
for information, but does not purport to
At this action level employees must
be a complete statement of the
again maintain an' equipment provided,
and must also wear the hearing protection Regulations. Employers and employees
who believe that they may have duties
provided. under the Regulations should obtain a
The regulations also specify a peak copy of the Regulations and should be
action level of 200 Pascals (equivalent to
familiar with the requirements. For a fi.ill
an unweighted sound level of 140 dB).
version of the regulations see the HMSO
This represents an instantaneous sound
web site[]. For information on the
level, caused for example by a loud bang.
effects of noise, the current regulations,
Where this level is exceeded, employers
the new Directive and its implications for
and employees have the same duties as at
the UK see the Health and Safety
the second action level. Exposure to the
Executive website[6]. The text of the
peak action level is normally linked with
Directive may be found on the website of
the use of cartridge operated tools, guns the Official Journal of the Euopean
or similar loud explosive noises, but can
Union. For a discussion of the
occur during the loud playing of a
implications for music teachers see
musical instrument[1].
v'wmusiced.co.uk.
Changes to the Regulations
New legislation will come into force in
February 2006 to comply with the
Physical Agents (Noise) Directive. For
musicians, who may include music
References
teachers, the new legislation will not be
[1] R Canham and B Shield. Noise surveys of
enforced until 2008.
orchestral musicians at the Barbican concert
The main changes to the legislation are
hall. Proc. Institute of Acoustics 21(6),
that, in effect, the action levels will be
217-225, 1999.
lowered by 5 dB(A). In general, the
[2] A Wright Reid. A sound ear. Association of
actions currenth' required at 85 and
British Orchestras 2001.
90 dB(A) LEPd will be mandatory at
[3] Noise at Work Regulations 1989.
80 and 85 dB(A) LEPd respectively. In
[4] Directive 2003/10/EC of the European
addition an overall personal exposure level
Parliament and of the Council of 6 February on
of 87 dB(A) LEPd is to be introduced;
the minimum health and safety requirements
this is the limit of exposure at the ear
regarding the exposure of workers to the risks
which means that the level at the ear
arising from physical agents (noise). Official
(with or without hearing protection) Journal of the European Union L042,
must never exceed 87 dB(A) LEPd.
15 February 2003, 38-44.
Two peak exposure limit values are
[5] www.hmso.gov.uk
included in the directive: 112 Pa at which
[6] www.hse.gov.uk
the duties required at 80 dB(A) LEPd
192
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
All submissions to the Building Control Example submission This example submission
Body (BCB) should clearly identify the The following items are provided in focuses on only a few of
the rooms, although the
relevant performance standards from support of the submission to the Building same level of detail would
Section 1, how they will be met, and the Control Body to demonstrate compliance be required for all relevant
performance that the design is expected with the acoustic requirements of Part E rooms in the school.
to achieve. Calculations, test reports etc of the Building Regulations.
should preferably be included in The ground floor plan of the rooms
appendices to the submission, rather than and the acoustic performance standards
in the main body of the submission. The are shown in Figure A1O.1. On the first
extent of acoustic information required to floor there are classrooms above the
satisfy the BCB ma' var' between ground floor classrooms and music
Authorities and individuals. This example classrooms.
provides an indication of the minimum
level of information that should be A 10.1 Indoor ambient noise levels in
provided. The right hand column unoccupied spaces
contains a commentary on the The performance standards in Table
submission. A1O.1 for indoor ambient noise levels
A set of symbols has been created for
use on plans in submissions to allow a
quick visual inspection of the BB93
performance standards for each acoustic Table A1O.1: BB93 performance standards —
indoor ambient noise level
criterion and the performance that the
design is expected to achieve. The Room BB93 performance
symbols can be downloaded from the standard LAeq,3omin
DfES acoustics website. Hand-produced (dB)
drawings would also be acceptable. Figure A1O.1: The plan of
Classroom <35 the rooms and the acoustic
performance standards
Music
Classroom
Assembly Hall
1.1
1.0- 1.2
193
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
Details of the noise survey have been taken from Table 1.1, Section 1. level, 59.9 dB LAeq,3omin, is shown in
should be provided in an A noise survey was carried out at the Table A10.3.
appendix. Sufficient
information should be site on XX.YY.ZZZZ to establish the The construction of the external
provided to allow the BCB noise climate. Free-field external noise envelope of the school will be a cavit
to confirm that the levels in terms of LAeq,3omjn and
measurement times and
brick/block wall with 6/12/6 glazing.
positions are appropriate
LA1,3Omin were measured at a position The sound transmitted through the
and representative for the corresponding to the proposed school façade has been calculated for the
proposed school. facade closest to the dominant external classroom to determine the indoor
The external noise
noise source, the nearby road. The ambient noise level. The upper limit for
spectrum is required to
calculate the indoor measured data are shown in Table A10.2. the reverberation time of the classroom
ambient noise level due to from Table 1.5, Section 1 has been used
sound transmission through in the calculation.
the façade.
In this example, only a Table AlO.2: Noise survey data — LAeq3omin Ventilation will be provided by an
single noise measurement and LA1,30min (external noise) acoustic ventilator and a passive stack roof
has been taken at the ventilator with acoustic attenuation
proposed façade position
for the few classrooms LAeq,3Omin LA1 ,3Omin treatment. The ventilation requirement
Time (dB) (dB) has been calculated based on 3 litre/s per
under consideration.
Normally, noise person.
measurements would be
08:00—08:30 57.5 66.1
taken at the positions of all 08:30 — 09:00 56.8 64.8 The calculations have been carried out
the proposed school 09:00 — 09:30 58.0 64.8 using the Excel spreadsheet based on BS
façades. In some cases
09:30 — 10:00 57.7 66.0 EN 12354-3:2000 from the DfES
these measurements would acoustics website The results are shown in
be adjusted to take 10:00 — 10:30 57.4 66.9
account of some facades 10:30 — 11:00 56.9 64.6 Table A10.4.
being shielded from the 11:00—11:30 56.1 63.9 The indoor ambient noise level is
noise by the proposed calculated to be 34.7 dB LAeq,3omin
11:30 — 12:00 59.1 66.3
building.
12:00—12:30 59.4 67.1 which is just below the upper limit for
12:30 — 13:00 59.8 64.9 classrooms, 35 dB LAeq,3omin, and
On sites where there is a 13:00 — 13:30 58.6 66.4 therefore satisfies the performance
greater incidence of standards in Table 1.1, Section 1.
individual noisy events such 13:30 — 14:00 58.5 66.2
as from aircraft overflights 14:00 — 14:30 57.4 65.3 Note 1 of Table 1.1, Section 1 gives
or near a railway a more 14:30 — 15:00 57.9 66.8 guidance on indoor levels from individual
detailed noise survey would external noisy events. The facade will
15:00 — 15:30 58.2 65.6
normally be expected. offer a similar reduction in performance
15:30 — 16:00 57.4 66.0
16:00 — 16:30 59.9 71.3 for LA! ,30min as for LAeq,3omin, hence
16:30 — 17:00 56.6 65.0 the indoor level should not regularly
Depending upon the site,
each elevation could be exceed 55 dB LA1,3Omin.
exposed to a different level For these classrooms there are no noise
of noise. Therefore a
different ventilation
sources due to building services that
strategy could be used on The 30 minute time period with the require consideration.
each elevation. This would highest external noise level during the
require separate school day, 59.9 dB LACq,3omin, is
calculations.
highlighted in the table.
The Leq,3ornin noise spectrum
corresponding to the 30 minute time
period with the highest external noise
Leq,3omin (dB)
194
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
Classroom Classroom 45
195
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
196
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
UI
A1O.3 Airborne sound insulation The walls and doorsets to be used in The submission should
reference the source(s) of
between circulation spaces and other the school are referenced in Table A10.8
all laboratory sound
spaces used by students along with references to the laboratory insulation data for the
The performance standards in Table sound insulation test certificates. Doorsets walls, doorsets and
will have a vision panel and neoprene ventilators. Copies of
A 10.7 for airborne sound insulation laboratory sound insulation
between circulation spaces and other blade seals to the jambs and head, and test certificates can be
spaces used b students have been taken drop threshold seals. included in the appendices
of the submission, or
from Table 1.3, Section 1. reference can be made to
the test report number and
the laboratory accreditation
number.
Table A10.7: BB93 performance standards - airborne sound insulation between circulation
spaces and other spaces used by students
197
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
/////j
a
EXTERNAL FACADE
I I
b
CLASSROOM
C
/ CLASSROOM
//
and polyurethane
resilient layer
/ //
d
:
// // 'WWWffi
Mastic filled joint
// //
Plasterboard
soffit treatment
on timber
Deflection head
detail packed
with mineral
/I,
Paition to pass mastic
through wall linning
I
CORRIDOR
CLASSROOM CLASSROOM
140 mm dense
Mastic blockwork
crosswall tied
into 100 mm
corridor wall
198
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
Table A1O.8: Separating elements - airborne sound insulation between circulation spaces and other spaces used by students
Separating Separating element BB93 performance Separating element Laboratory test report
element (Refer to Figure Al 0.2 standard laboratory performance
for wall details) R (dB) R (dB)
A1O.4 Impact sound insulation of laboratory sound insulation test certificates. The submission should
floors The separating floor construction
The performance standards in Table shown in Figure A1O.4 with a permanent calculation tools or
A10.9 for impact sound insulation have carpet (ie glued to the floor) will be used software used to estimate
been taken from Table 1.4, Section 1. in the classroom and the music classroom the sound insulation due to
the combination of direct
The floor construction to be used in to achieve the performance standards. and flanking transmission.
the school is in Table A10.10 along with The first floor science laboratories will
references to the estimation method and have vinyl flooring instead of carpet.
199
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
Room data sheets maybe A1O.5 Reverberation in teaching and Table A1O.11: BB93 performance standards -
a convenient way to
present information about
study spaces reverberation times
the various room finishes The performance standards in Table ______________________________________
to the BCB as they may A10.l 1 for the reverberation times have Room BB93 performance standard
already have been been taken from Table 1.5, Section 1. Tmt (s)
generated for the school.
These data sheets may
The reverberation times for the
also be an appropriate classrooms and the assembly hail have Classroom <0.8
place to identify the other been calculated as described in Appendix
acoustic standards
6 of BB93. Assembly hall 0.8— 1.2
proposed for the school.
Absorption coefficients
Painted blockwork 60 0.10 0.05 0.06 0.07 0.09
Carpet on concrete floor 56 0.05 0.05 0.1 0.2 0.45
Glazing 14 0.1 0.07 0.05 0.03 0.02
Reverberation times
200
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
Absorption coefficients
1.11
201
Appendix 10: Example submission to Building Control Body
202
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k
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Institute of Acoustics
77A St Peter's Street, St Albans, Herts, ALl 3BN
Tel: 01727 848195 Fax: 01727 850553
Email: ioa@ioa.org.uk
Website: www.ioa.org.uk
207
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