Nuclear bombs (war) ATOMS

Do you matter? Okay, that was silly on our part to ask! Of course, you do. You matter and you ARE
matter! Do you know what it means? What is matter? And what is the nature of matter? Well, that is
what we are going to study in this chapter. We will look at the different aspects of matter and study
about their nature. But, first tell us, what is matter?

All matter is made of something, even if it looks like nothing.

We make classifications according to its properties, both chemical and physical

Matter is all the “stuff” that exists in the universe. Everything you can see and touch is made of matter,
including you! The only things that aren’t matter are forms of energy, such as light and sound. In
science, matter is defined as anything that has mass and volume. Mass and volume measure different
aspects of matter.

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What is Matter?

Matter is the stuff in the universe. Too vague? Well, the physics definition says that matter is material
that occupies space and has mass. Maybe that one's too specific, so let's get into some details.

When you put something on a balance on Earth, that balance will tell you the mass of an object. Mass is
a way of measuring the amount of matter present in an object. Maybe the balance says 6 kilograms, for
example. The fact that the object has a mass reading at all, tells you that it contains matter. In fact,
everything around you contains matter. You are using your computer right now, possibly sitting at a
desk with a notebook and pencil handy. All of these objects are made of matter. Even the air you
breathe is matter! It contains atoms and molecules like oxygen, carbon dioxide and nitrogen.

Mass vs. Weight

So matter is the stuff in the universe, and mass is how we measure that stuff. We measure mass using a
balance. Scientists generally like to use kilograms and sometimes grams for objects with small masses,
but pounds are okay too.

When most people talk about mass, they use a different word: weight. They might say that you have a
weight of 60 kilograms. But in science, mass and weight are not the same thing.

Mass is a measure of how much matter is present, and is measured in kilograms, grams, pounds, or
tonnes. Weight is a measure of how strong the force of gravity is, and is measured in newtons.

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Based on your observations, you have just described some characteristics of matter. As you were
observing each sample of matter in Activity 1, you were focusing on particular characteristics. These
characteristics that describe a sample of matter are called properties. Matter can have different
properties. You measured the mass of each sample of matter using a balance or a weighing scale. The
mass of an object is a measure of the amount of matter the object has. You observed that the mass of
each sample of matter in Activity 1 is different from the mass of the other samples. You also found out
that each sample of matter occupies space. The measure of the space occupied by an object is called
volume. All matter have mass and volume. There are other properties of matter such as hardness,
texture, color, flexibility, malleability, and electrical conductivity which vary from one sample to another.

Recall that in Grade 7, you studied other properties of matter. You performed activities to find out some
common properties of solutions. You investigated how fast sugar and salt dissolve in water. You
compared the boiling point of a substance (distilled water) with that of a mixture (sea water).

Now that you can correctly describe matter based on the properties you have observed, it is important
that you know what matter is made of. What makes up matter? If you hammer the stone you used in
Activity 1 into much smaller pieces, what would you get? If you turn the sugar into very fine powder,
what would result? Ice, liquid water, and steam are all the same substance, which is water, yet you can
observe that they look different from each other? How can this be explained? These questions can be
answered in the next activity.

Table 1.

sugar granules (1 tsp. sugar in a small cup)

water (1/2 cup of tapwater)

Table 2.

Stone (1 pc.)

air inside the ball (balloon?/ ball, air pump)

Table 3.

Leaves (3 pcs)

Smoke (5 small wide-mouthed bottles or cups or 150-mL or 200-mL beakers)

Table 4.

heat
light

Every time you look at an object, you observe its properties.

Look at an object next to you and describe it. There are many ways to describe an item.

You may know of the many ways to talk about an object, from how tall it is to what color it is. But did
you know that there's another way to describe an object?

Look at an object next to you and describe it. There are many ways to describe an item. For example,
you might talk about its color, shape, and size or whether it's hard or soft. When you talk about an
object in this way--based on what it looks like, feels like, or by taking simple measurements--you are
describing its physical properties. Objects have many physical properties. One physical property that you
may not have heard of is volume.

Matter is anything that has mass and takes up space. It can be in the form of solids, liquids, or gases.
When you look at an object, you are able to see many of its properties. Scientists classify matter based
on its chemical and physical properties that have been observed and tested. Some physical properties
are only known through experimentation, while others are visible to the naked eye.

A physical property is a characteristic that can be observed or measured without changing the
composition of the sample. Physical properties can be used to describe mixtures as well as pure
substances. Because these pure substances have uniform and unchanging compositions, they also have
consistent and unchanging physical properties.

There are many types of physical properties. Commonly used examples include density, color, odor,
hardness, and volume. Physical properties are further classified based on whether they are extensive or
intensive. Extensive physical properties are those that are dependent on the amount of the substance
present. Intensive physical properties are those that do not depend on the amount of the substance
present. This means they will be the same whether you have one gram or one thousand kilograms of the
substance.

shape, volume, and mass.

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MORE ON MATTER

Everything you can hold, taste, or smell is made of matter. Matter makes up everything you can see,
including clothes, water, food, plants, and animals. It even makes up some things you cannot see, such
as air or the smell of perfume. You can describe a type of matter by its MATERIAL PROPERTIES such as its
colour or how hard it is. Matter is made up of PARTICLES so tiny that only the most powerful microscope
can see them.

Matter can be divided into two groups: non-living matter and living matter. Non-living matter does not
move on its own, grow, or reproduce. The rocks that make up the Earth are examples of non-living
matter. All living things, including animals and plants, are living matter.
NON-MATTER

Not everything is made of matter. Non-matter includes the light from a torch, the heat from a fire, and
the sound of a police siren. You cannot hold, taste, or smell these things. They are not types of matter,
but forms of energy. Everything that exists can be classed as either a type of matter or a form of energy.

MATERIAL PROPERTIES

Different types of matter have different material properties that make them useful for different jobs. A
plastic hosepipe is flexible, so it can be pointed in any direction. A perspex visor is transparent, so the
wearer can see straight through it. A firefighter’s suit is shiny so it can reflect heat and light. Flexibility,
transparency, and shininess are three examples of material properties.

Colour is a very obvious material property. The bright colours of this Queen Alexandra’s Birdwing
butterfly warn off predators and help it to attract a mate. Matter can be brightly coloured, dull, or
transparent. Glass is an example of a transparent material.

Density is the amount of matter packed into a space. Lead, for example, is very dense. A small cube of
lead has a lot of matter packed into a small space, so it feels very heavy. Flour is not as dense. To
balance a set of scales, only two small lead weights are needed in comparison to a much larger pile of
flour.

PARTICLES

All matter is made of incredibly tiny particles called atoms. Atoms are far too small to see with our eyes,
but scientists have worked out how small they are. There are many kinds of atom. Sand grains are made
of two kinds of atom: oxygen and silicon. People are made of about 28 different kinds of atom. Material
properties depend on the kinds of atom the material is made from.

SAND PARTICLES
Grains of sand look like pieces of gravel when viewed through a microscope. They have different shapes
and sizes. Each grain contains millions of atoms, too small to see with a microscope. A sand grain the
size of the full stop at the end of this sentence would contain about 10 million million million atoms.

ATOMS

We cannot really see atoms with microscopes. The best we can do is image them, by bouncing light off
the particles. A computer translates the light beams into an image. Scanning tunnelling microscopes
(STM) and atomic force microscopes (AFM) do this.

BIOGRAPHY: DEMOCRITUS Greek, 460-c. 370 BC

Democritus was one of the first philosophers (thinkers) to say that everything was made up of particles
too small to be seen. He believed these particles could not be destroyed or split. Democritus said that all
changes in the world could be explained as changes in the way particles are packed together.

FIND OUT MORE

https://www.factmonster.com/dk/encyclopedia/science/matter

We are all surrounded by matter on a daily basis. Anything that we use, touch,
eat, etc. is an example of matter. Matter can be defined or described as
anything that takes up space, and it is composed of miniscule particles called
atoms. It must display the two properties of mass and volume.

Introduction
The different types of matter can be distinguished through two
components: composition and properties. The composition of matter refers
to the different components of matter along with their relative proportions.
The properties of matter refer to the qualities/attributes that distinguish one
sample of matter from another. These properties are generally grouped into
two categories: physical or chemical.
 Figure 1: Organizational breakdown of chemical and physical properties of
matter.

Physical Properties and Changes

Physical properties can be observed or measured without changing the
composition of matter. Physical properties are used to observe and describe
matter. Physical properties of materials and systems are often described as
intensive and extensive properties. This classification relates to the
dependency of the properties upon the size or extent of the system or object
in question.

An intensive property is a bulk property, meaning that it is a physical property

of a system that does not depend on the system size or the amount of
material in the system. Examples of intensive properties include temperature,
refractive index, density, and hardness of an object. When a diamond is cut,
the pieces maintain their intrinsic hardness (until their size reaches a few
atoms thick). In contrast, an extensive property is additive for independent,
non-interacting subsystems. The property is proportional to the amount of
material in the system.

Intensive properties: A physical property that will be the same regardless of

the amount of matter.

 density: ρ=mvρ=mv
 color: The pigment or shade
 conductivity: electricity to flow through the substance
 malleability: if a substance can be flattened
 luster: how shiny the substance looks

Extensive Properties: A physical property that will change if the amount of

matter changes.

 mass: how much matter in the sample

 volume: How much space the sample takes up
 length: How long the sample is
PHYSICAL CHANGE
Change in which the matter's physical appearance is altered, but composition
remains unchanged.

A physical change takes place without any changes in molecular composition.

The same element or compound is present before and after the change. The
same molecule is present through out the changes. Physical changes are
related to physical properties since some measurements require that changes
be made. The three main states of matter are: Solid, Liquid, Gas

 Solid is distinguished by a fixed structure. Its shape and volume do not

change. In a solid, atoms are tightly packed together in a fixed
arrangement.
  Liquid is distinguished by its malleable shape (is able to form into the
shape of its container), but constant volume. In a liquid, atoms are close
together but not in a fixed arrangement.
 Gas is made up of atoms that are separate. However, unlike solid &
liquid, a gas has no fixed shape and volume.
EXAMPLE 1: PHYSICAL CHANGE
When liquid water (H2OH2O) freezes into a solid state (ice), it appears
changed; However, this change is only physical as the the composition of the
constituent molecules is the same: 11.19% hydrogen and 88.81% oxygen by
mass.

Figure 2: Physical Change: Ice Melting is a physical change. Image used with
permission from Wikipedia.

Chemical Properties and Changes

Chemical properties of matter describes its "potential" to undergo some
chemical change or reaction by virtue of its composition. What elements,
electrons, and bonding are present to give the potential for chemical change.
It is quite difficult to define a chemical property without using the word
"change". Eventually you should be able to look at the formula of a compound
and state some chemical property. At this time this is very difficult to do and
you are not expected to be able to do it. For example hydrogen has the
potential to ignite and explode given the right conditions. This is a chemical
property. Metals in general have they chemical property of reacting with an
acid. Zinc reacts with hydrochloric acid to produce hydrogen gas. This is a
chemical property.

Chemical change results in one or more substances of entirely different

composition from the original substances. The elements and/or compounds
at the start of the reaction are rearranged into new product compounds or
elements. A CHEMICAL CHANGE alters the composition of the original
matter. Different elements or compounds are present at the end of the
chemical change. The atoms in compounds are rearranged to make new and
different compounds.

EXAMPLE 2: CORROSION OF METALS

Corrosion is the unwanted oxidation of metals resulting in metal oxides.

2Mg+O2→2MgO(1)(1)2Mg+O2→2MgO

Figure 3: Chemical Change: A burning magnesium ribbon with very short

exposure to obtain oxidation detail. Image used with permission from Capt.
John Yossarian (Wikipedia)
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Lesson Objectives
 Define matter, mass, and volume.

 Identify physical properties of matter.

 List examples of chemical properties of matter.

Vocabulary
 chemical property

 density

 flammability

 mass

 matter

 physical property

 reactivity

 volume

 weight

Introduction
Here’s a riddle for you to ponder: What do you and a tiny speck of dust in outer space
have in common? Think you know the answer? Read on to find out.

What is Matter?
Both you and the speck of dust consist of atoms of matter. So does the ground beneath
your feet. In fact, everything you can see and touch is made of matter. The only things
that aren’t matter are forms of energy, such as light and sound. Although forms of
energy are not matter, the air and other substances they travel through are. So what is
matter? Matter is defined as anything that has mass and volume.

Mass
Mass is the amount of matter in a substance or object. Mass is commonly measured
with a balance. A simple mechanical balance is shown in Figurebelow. It allows an
object to be matched with other objects of known mass. SI units for mass are the
kilogram, but for smaller masses grams are often used instead.
[Figure 1]
This balance shows one way of measuring mass. When both sides of the balance are at the same level, it means that objects in the
two pans have the same mass.

Mass versus Weight

The more matter an object contains, generally the more it weighs. However, weight is
not the same thing as mass. Weight is a measure of the force of gravity pulling on an
object. It is measured with a scale, like the kitchen- scale in Figure below. The scale
detects how forcefully objects in the pan are being pulled downward by the force of
gravity. The SI unit for weight is the newton (N). The common English unit is the pound
(lb). With Earth’s gravity, a mass of 1 kg has a weight of 9.8 N (2.2 lb).

[Figure 2]
This kitchen scale measures weight. How does weight differ from mass?

Problem Solving

Problem: At Earth’s gravity, what is the weight in newtons of an object with a mass of 10
kg?

Solution: At Earth’s gravity, 1 kg has a weight of 9.8 N. Therefore, 10 kg has a weight of

(10 × 9.8 N) = 98 N.

You Try It!

Problem: If you have a mass of 50 kg on Earth, what is your weight in newtons?

An object with more mass is pulled by gravity with greater force, so mass and weight
are closely related. However, the weight of an object can change if the force of gravity
changes, even while the mass of the object remains constant. Look at the photo of
astronaut Edwin E. Aldrin Jr taken by fellow astronaut Neil Armstrong, the first human to
walk on the moon, in Figure below. An astronaut weighed less on the moon than he did
on Earth because the moon’s gravity is weaker than Earth’s. The astronaut’s mass, on
the other hand, did not change. He still contained the same amount of matter on the
moon as he did on Earth.

[Figure 3]
If the astronaut weighed 175 pounds on Earth, he would have weighed only 29 pounds on the moon. If his mass on Earth was 80
kg, what would his mass have been on the moon?

The amount of space matter takes up is its volume. How the volume of matter is
measured depends on its state.

 The volume of liquids is measured with measuring containers. In the kitchen,

liquid volume is usually measured with measuring cups or spoons. In the lab,
liquid volume is measured with containers such as graduated cylinders. Units in
the metric system for liquid volume include liters (L) and milliliters (mL).

 The volume of gases depends on the volume of their container. That’s because
gases expand to fill whatever space is available to them. For example, as you
drink water from a bottle, air rushes in to take the place of the water. An "empty"
liter bottle actually holds a liter of air. How could you find the volume of air in an
"empty" room?

 The volume of regularly shaped solids can be calculated from their dimensions.
For example, the volume of a rectangular solid is the product of its length, width,
and height (l × w × h). For solids that have irregular shapes, the displacement
method is used to measure volume. You can see how it works
in Figure below and in the video below. The SI unit for solid volumes is cubic
meters (m3). However, cubic centimeters (cm3) are often used for smaller volume
measurements.
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=q9L52maq_vA
[Figure 4]
The displacement method is used to find the volume of an irregularly shaped solid object. It measures the amount of water that
the object displaces, or moves out of the way. What is the volume of the toy dinosaur in mL?

Physical Properties of Matter

Matter has many properties. Some are physical properties. Physical properties of
matter are properties that can be measured or observed without matter changing to a
different substance. For example, whether a given substance normally exists as a solid,
liquid, or gas is a physical property. Consider water. It is a liquid at room temperature,
but if it freezes and changes to ice, it is still water. Generally, physical properties are
things you can see, hear, smell, or feel with your senses.

Examples of Physical Properties

Physical properties include the state of matter and its color and odor. For example,
oxygen is a colorless, odorless gas. Chlorine is a greenish gas with a strong, sharp
odor. Other physical properties include hardness, freezing and boiling points, the ability
to dissolve in other substances, and the ability to conduct heat or electricity. These
properties are demonstrated in Figure below. Can you think of other physical
properties?
[Figure 5]
These are just a few of the physical properties of matter.

Density
Density is an important physical property of matter. It reflects how closely packed the
particles of matter are. Density is calculated from the amount of mass in a given volume
of matter, using the formula:

Density (D)=Mass (M)Volume (V)

Problem Solving

Problem: What is the density of a substance that has a mass of 20 g and a volume of 10
mL?

Solution: D=20 g/10 mL=2.0 g/mL

You Try It!
Problem: An object has a mass of 180 kg and a volume of 90 m 3. What is its density?

To better understand density, think about a bowling ball and a volleyball. The bowling
ball feels heavy. It is solid all the way through. It contains a lot of tightly packed particles
of matter. In contrast, the volleyball feels light. It is full of air. It contains fewer, more
widely spaced particles of matter. Both balls have about the same volume, but the
bowling ball has a much greater mass. Its matter is denser.

KQED: Aerogel
It looks like frozen smoke, and it's the lightest solid material on the planet. Aerogel
insulates space suits, makes tennis rackets stronger and could be used one day to
clean up oil spills. Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory scientist Alex Gash shows
us some remarkable properties of this truly unique substance. For more information on
aerogel, see http://science.kqed.org/quest/video/quest-lab-aerogel/.

Chemical Properties of Matter

Some properties of matter can be measured or observed only when matter undergoes a
change to become an entirely different substance. These properties are
called chemical properties. They include flammability and reactivity.

Flammability
Flammability is the ability of matter to burn. Wood is flammable; iron is not. When
wood burns, it changes to ashes, carbon dioxide, water vapor, and other gases. After
burning, it is no longer wood.

Reactivity
Reactivity is the ability of matter to combine chemically with other substances. For
example, iron is highly reactive with oxygen. When it combines with oxygen, it forms the
reddish powder called rust (see Figurebelow). Rust is not iron but an entirely different
substance that consists of both iron and oxygen.
[Figure 6]
The iron in these steel chains has started to rust.

Lesson Summary
 Matter is anything that has mass and volume. Mass is the amount of matter in a
substance. Volume is the amount of space matter takes up.

 Matter has both physical and chemical properties. Physical properties can be
measured or observed without matter changing to a different substance.

 Chemical properties of matter can be measured or observed only when matter

undergoes a change to become an entirely different substance.

Lesson Review Questions

Recall
1. Define matter.

2. How does mass differ from weight?

3. Describe the displacement method for measuring the volume of an object.

4. Identify two physical properties and two chemical properties of matter.

Apply Concepts
5. Create a table comparing and contrasting physical properties of tap water and
table salt.

6. Apply the concept of density to explain why oil floats on water.

Think Critically
7. Some kinds of matter are attracted to a magnet. Is this a physical or chemical
property of matter? How do you know?

Points to Consider
The physical and chemical properties of substances can be used to identify them.
That’s because different kinds of matter have different properties.

 What property could you use to tell the difference between iron and aluminum?
  How could you tell whether a liquid is honey or vinegar?
https://www.ck12.org/book/CK-12-Physical-Science-For-Middle-School/section/3.1/

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KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 All properties of matter are either physical or chemical properties and physical properties are
either intensive or extensive.

 Extensive properties, such as mass and volume, depend on the amount of matter being
measured.

 Intensive properties, such as density and color, do not depend on the amount of the substance
present.

 Physical properties can be measured without changing a substance’s chemical identity.

 Chemical properties can be measured only by changing a substance’s chemical identity.

Key Terms

 intensive property: Any characteristic of matter that does not depend on the amount of the
substance present.

 extensive property: Any characteristic of matter that depends on the amount of matter being
measured.

 physical property: Any characteristic that can be determined without changing the substance’s
chemical identity.

 chemical property: Any characteristic that can be determined only by changing a substance’s
molecular structure.

All properties of matter are either extensive or intensive and either physical or chemical. Extensive
properties, such as mass and volume, depend on the amount of matter that is being measured.
Intensive properties, such as density and color, do not depend on the amount of matter. Both extensive
and intensive properties are physical properties, which means they can be measured without changing
the substance’s chemical identity. For example, the freezing point of a substance is a physical property:
when water freezes, it’s still water (H2O)—it’s just in a different physical state.
Solid, liquids, and gases: Water can exist in several states, including ice (solid), water (liquid), and water
vapor (gas).

A chemical property, meanwhile, is any of a material’s properties that becomes evident during a
chemical reaction; that is, any quality that can be established only by changing a substance’s chemical
identity. Chemical properties cannot be determined just by viewing or touching the substance; the
substance’s internal structure must be affected for its chemical properties to be investigated.

Physical Properties

Physical properties are properties that can be measured or observed without changing the chemical
nature of the substance. Some examples of physical properties are:

 color (intensive)

 density (intensive)

 volume (extensive)

 mass (extensive)

 boiling point (intensive): the temperature at which a substance boils

  melting point (intensive): the temperature at which a substance melts

Physical properties: Matter has mass and volume, as demonstrated by this concrete block. You can
observe its mass by feeling how heavy it is when you try to pick it up; you can observe its volume by
looking at it and noticing its size. Mass and volume are both examples of extensive physical properties.

Chemical Properties

Remember, the definition of a chemical property is that measuring that property must lead to a change
in the substance’s chemical structure. Here are several examples of chemical properties:

 Heat of combustion is the energy released when a compound undergoes complete combustion
(burning) with oxygen. The symbol for the heat of combustion is ΔHc.

 Chemical stability refers to whether a compound will react with water or air (chemically stable
substances will not react). Hydrolysis and oxidation are two such reactions and are both
chemical changes.

 Flammability refers to whether a compound will burn when exposed to flame. Again, burning is
a chemical reaction—commonly a high-temperature reaction in the presence of oxygen.
  The preferred oxidation state is the lowest-energy oxidation state that a metal will undergo
reactions in order to achieve (if another element is present to accept or donate electrons).

Physical and Chemical Changes to Matter

There are two types of change in matter: physical change and chemical change.

LEARNING OBJECTIVES

Identify the key features of physical and chemical changes

KEY TAKEAWAYS

Key Points

 Physical changes only change the appearance of a substance, not its chemical composition.

 Chemical changes cause a substance to change into an entirely new substance with a new
chemical formula.

 Chemical changes are also known as chemical reactions. The “ingredients” of a reaction are
called reactants, and the end results are called products.

Key Terms

 chemical change: A process that causes a substance to change into a new substance with a new
chemical formula.

 chemical reaction: A process involving the breaking or making of interatomic bonds and the
transformation of a substance (or substances) into another.

 physical change: A process that does not cause a substance to become a fundamentally
different substance.

There are two types of change in matter: physical change and chemical change. As the names suggest, a
physical change affects a substance’s physical properties, and a chemical change affects its chemical
properties. Many physical changes are reversible (such as heating and cooling), whereas chemical
changes are often irreversible or only reversible with an additional chemical change.

Physical & Chemical Changes: This video describes physical and chemical changes in matter.
Physical change: Blending a smoothie involves physical changes but no chemical changes.

Physical Changes

Another way to think about this is that a physical change does not cause a substance to become a
fundamentally different substance but a chemical change causes a substance to change into something
chemically new. Blending a smoothie, for example, involves two physical changes: the change in shape
of each fruit and the mixing together of many different pieces of fruit. Because none of the chemicals in
the smoothie components are changed during blending (the water and vitamins from the fruit are
unchanged, for example), we know that no chemical changes are involved.

Cutting, tearing, shattering, grinding, and mixing are further types of physical changes because they
change the form but not the composition of a material. For example, mixing salt and pepper creates a
new substance without changing the chemical makeup of either component.

Phase changes are changes that occur when substances are melted, frozen, boiled, condensed,
sublimated, or deposited. They are also physical changes because they do not change the nature of the
substance.
Boiling water: Boiling water is an example of a physical change and not a chemical change because the
water vapor still has the same molecular structure as liquid water (H2O). If the bubbles were caused by
the decomposition of a molecule into a gas (such as H2O →H2 and O2), then boiling would be a chemical
change.

Chemical Changes

Chemical changes are also known as chemical reactions. The “ingredients” of a reaction are called the
reactants, and the end results are called the products. The change from reactants to products is signified
by an arrow:

Reactants → Products

The formation of gas bubbles is often the result of a chemical change (except in the case of boiling,
which is a physical change). A chemical change might also result in the formation of a precipitate, such
as the appearance of a cloudy material when dissolved substances are mixed.

Rotting, burning, cooking, and rusting are all further types of chemical changes because they produce
substances that are entirely new chemical compounds. For example, burned wood becomes ash, carbon
dioxide, and water. When exposed to water, iron becomes a mixture of several hydrated iron oxides and
hydroxides. Yeast carries out fermentation to produce alcohol from sugar.

An unexpected color change or release of odor also often indicates a chemical change. For example, the
color of the element chromium is determined by its oxidation state; a single chromium compound will
only change color if it undergoes an oxidation or reduction reaction. The heat from cooking an egg
changes the interactions and shapes of the proteins in the egg white, thereby changing its molecular
structure and converting the egg white from translucent to opaque.
The best way to be completely certain whether a change is physical or chemical is to perform chemical
analyses, such as mass spectroscopy, on the substance to determine its composition before and after a
reaction.