Empirical-Analytical Approaches in the Social Sciences

In this lesson we will learn about the Empirical-Analytical approaches in the social sciences.
Before we continue with the lesson let us define the terms empirical and analytical so that it
could help you more in understanding this lesson.

Empirical, also known as sense experience, is the knowledge or source of knowledge

acquired by means of the senses, particularly
by observation andexperimentation.[1] The term comes from theGreek word for
experience, ἐμπειρία (empeiría).
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Empirical_evidence)

So the term empirical mostly defined as source of knowledge acquired by means of the senses.It
means somehow it should be observed by the 5 senses of human (Sense of Sight, Sense of
Hearing, Sense of Touch, Sense of Taste, and Sense of Smell).

Analytical skill is the ability to visualize, articulate, conceptualize or solve both complex
and uncomplicated problems by making decisions that are sensible given the available
information. Such skills include demonstration of the ability to apply logical thinking to
breaking complex problems into their component parts.
(https://en.m.wikipedia.org/wiki/Analytical_skill)

This means, in this lesson we will encounter approaches, theories and Statements that uses
Analytical skill.

This lesson are divided into three parts, 1.1 Micro Level approaches in the social sciences, 1.2
Macro Level Approaches in the social sciences, 1.3 Interdisciplinary Approach in the Social
Sciences.

1.1 Micro level Approaches in the Social

Sciences

RATIONAL CHOICE THEORY

According to the book that we are using, Rational choice theory (RCT) is a powerful tool in making
sense of why people act or behave in the way they do. According to Elster 1989 ( inWard 2002, 65),
"(t)he essence of rational choice theory is that 'when faced with several courses of action, people
usually do what they believe is likely to have the best overall outcome." So, rational choice theory
tells us the reason why people have their own perspective about something , they have their own
way of understanding, and they have their own choice to choose.
Rational choice theorist' explanations of individual actions and the outcomes they lead to are
anchored on three pillars, namely,
(1) strategies or courses of action open and available to them,
(2) their preferences over the end-states to which combinations of actions chosen by the various
players lead, and,
(3) their beliefs about important parameters such as others' preferences.
These 3 pillars that being used by the rational choice theorist' explains how an individual make/made
his/her decision about something.

A central feature of rational choice theories is the predominant focus on the individuals as the actor
making the decisions (Lalman et al. 1993, 81). An assumption of the mainstream variant of RCT is
that "individuals have all the rational capacity, time, and emotional detachment necessary to choose
the best course of action, no matter how complex the choice" (Ward 2002; 2005). This statement
explains how Rational Choice theory works on every individual, we all have our own choice and that
choice came from various reasons. Our choice are being made mentally, physically, and
emotionally. Example, what do you usually do first? Wash your face and then brush your teeth or
Brushing your teeth first before washing your face? , What will you do if a robber pointed a knife to
you and forcing you to give him all of your money? Will you do it? Or you will try to run? Or you will
try to fight him?, You are on your way to your job interview and then suddenly your brother/sister
called you because he/she is in an emergency situation, would you go home and check your
brother/sister? Or You will proceed to your job interview that you've been preparing for?. Rational
Choice Theory is always being used by individuals on their everyday living.

SYMBOLIC INTERACTIONISM
Symbolic interactionism defines as a sociological framework that focuses on the different
meanings individuals attach to objects, peoples, and interactions as well as the corresponding
behaviors that reflect those meanings and/or interpretations. It is a framework that actualizes the
nature of humans to make sense of their actions and interactions through external cues from their
everyday life and environment (Vejar 2015)

Simply, symbolic interactionism is the external response of an individual towards a situations like
meeting a new person, scolding a bunch of hard-headed students, talking to your crush, or even just
watching movies.

George Herbert Mead was one of the idea contributors of symbolic interactionism and he was also
an influential figure in the field of symbolic interactionism. Gestures are important in communication
according to Mead. When we interact with others, our posture, tone of voice, voice inflections, as
well as hand and facial movements convey significance. They can either accentuate or contradict
that which we are verbally stating (Vejar 2015).

There are three overarching premises that constitute symbolic interactionism.

First - Meaning is an important element of human existence - A Concept that is both subjective and
individualistic, and that people consequently act in accordance with the meanings they construe.

Second - People identify and mold their unique symbolic references through the process of
socialization - This postulation suggests that people are not inherently equipped with interpretive
devices that help navigate through complex realms of human behavior.

Third - There is a cultural dimension that intertwines the symbolic "educational" development. - For
Example, in conversation, the amount of physical space in which we distance our bodies has
culturally symbolic significance ( Rothbaum, Morelli, Pott & Liu-Constant, 2000).
1.2 Macro level Approaches in the social
sciences

STRUCTURAL FUNCTIONALISM
Structural functionalism is "a framework for building a theory that sees society as a complex
system whose parts works together to promote solidarity and stability" (Macionis 2007, 15).

The Structural functionalism was developed by Talcott Parsons in the 1930's under the influence of
the works of Max Weber and Emile Durkheim ( McMahon 2015 ).

Examples of Structural functionalism are the family, government, religion, education, and economy.
Social structure shapes our lives in various contexts such as the family, the workplace, classroom,
and community; and all social structure functions to keep society going, at least in its present form (
Macionis 2007)

What is Manifest Functions and Latent Functions?. These came from the concept of Robert
Merton. Manifest Functions, "the recognized and intended consequences of any social pattern"
and Latent functions, the unrecognized and unintended consequences of any social pattern."
(Macionis 2007, 15)

The Structural-functional approach built on the following premises.

1. Within every social structure or system -- politics, family, organizations -- each member of the
system has a specific function.

2. Those functions can be small or substantial, are dynamic in nature (i.e., they can change), and
work toward the same purpose: to keep the system operational within its environment.

3. Change is the evident within any society or system; however, for the system to survive, it must
adapt to that change in order to maintain its equilibrium (McMahon 2015)

To maintain the equilibrium of the system, Parsons identified four imperatives for societies to
survive, which he called the AGIL model, the acronym for the first letters of each of these four
imperatives. These are:

● Adaptation: Acquiring and mobilizing sufficient resources so that the system can survive.

● Goal Attainment: setting and implementing goals

● Integration: maintaining solidarity or coordination among the subunits of the system

● Latency: creating, preserving, and transmitting the system's distinctive culture and values (
McMahon 2015 Emphasis added)

INSTITUTIONALISM
The study of political institutions was dominant within political science in Britain and the US in the
early twentieth century. Until the 1950's, intitutionalism enjoyed a privileged status within the
discipline-- its assumptions and practices as well as its methodological and theoretical premises
were rarely questioned, let alone subject to the behavioral critique (Lowndes 2002).

The institutional approach can be understood as a subject matter, as a method, and as theory. As a
subject matter, the study of political institutions is central to the identity of the discipline of political
science ( Rhodes 1995 ).

As a method, the traditional or classic institutional approach is "descriptive-inductive, formal-legal ,

historical-comparative".

Descriptive because it employs the techniques of the historian and explores specific events, eras,
people, and institutions and Inductive because inferences are drawn from repeated observations
(Rhodes 1995, 43)

Formal because it involves the study of formal government organization, and legal because it
includes the study of public law (Eckstein 1979, 2 in Rhodes 1995, 44)

And the classic or traditional institutional approach is also comparative. Woodraw Wilson (1989, xxiv
in Rhodes 1995, 45) argued that one's "institutions can be understood and appreciated only by those
who know other systems of government . . . By the use of a thorough comparative and historical
method . . . A general clarification of views may be obtained."

1.3 Interdisciplinary Approach in the social

sciences
HUMAN-ENVIRONMENT SYSTEM
APPROACH
The Human-Environment Systems (HES) in the social sciences is an interdisciplinary approach in
the social sciences. It bridges the gap between, and integrate knowledge from, the social and
the natural sciences within one framework in the study of environmental and social issues.

Human-Environment system (HES) refers to "the interaction of human systems with corresponding
environmental or technological systems" (Scholz & Binder, n.d. 791)

The Human-Environment system tells us how Human and society interacts each other just like how
a farmer plow his/her farm to produce goods. To improve the environment human is needed, to help
humans environment is needed. Humans and the environment interacts with each other to make a
balance in the society.

The Human-Environment is also referred to as the "coupled human-environment system" or the

"coupled human and natural system" or CHANS "acknowledges the fact that humans, as users,
actors, and managers are not external, but integral elements of the human-environment system -- as
users, actors, and managers -- they become duty bearers themselves who must share the
responsibility for the sustainability of the human-environment system.