AIR-POLLUTION WIND TUNNEL MODELLING

Z. Jaňour1, F. Dittrt2, M. Severa2, V. Eliáš2, K.Brych2

1
Institute of Thermomechanics AS CR, Dolejškova 5, 182 00, Prague 8, Czech Republic.
2
Institute of Hydrodynamics AS CR, Pod Paťankou 5, 166 12, Prague 6, Czech Republic,

Introduction

Essentially all the activities of man are influenced by atmospheric motions from
ground up to a thousand meters in altitude, so called the Atmospheric Boundary Layer (ABL).
Consequently, a good knowledge of how mean winds and turbulence characteristics are
distributed vertically and horizontally is necessary if air-pollution concentrations and wind
forces on structures (two important environmental problems) are to be predicted with
reasonable certainty.

Fig. 1 Atmospheric Boundary Layer Sketch

Unfortunately processes in the ABL – see Fig. 1 are complicated by the combined
influences of Earth's rotation, buoyancy forces, surface drag forces, and the geometry of
topographic features. The Coriolis acceleration results in the mean wind direction turning to
the right with increasing height (northern hemisphere) at a turning rate which depends upon
the vertical distribution of eddy viscosity and density. Intensive studies of the ABL have been
made to determine the effects of temperature stratification and surface roughness on flow
characteristics. Most of these studies have been confined to uniform boundary temperature
and roughness of heights small compared to the surface layer depth on plane surfaces.
However the effects of nonuniform boundary temperature and roughness, roughness heights
equal to or higher than the surface layer depth, and boundary surfaces nonplanar by
topographic features are common in nature. Field and laboratory studies have become the first
source of knowledge on the ABL, and the increasing need to study environmental problems in
areas of complex boundary conditions has motivated serious efforts to simulate atmospheric
boundary layers in the laboratory.
Simulation of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer in an exact sense does not seem to be
possible. But comparison of data obtained in wind tunnels with corresponding atmospheric
data have shown a good similarity. The purpose of this contribution is to review requirements
for the ABL simulation, describe facilities which have been designated for this purpose (such
as wind tunnels), specify some similarity criteria, and introduce experimental methods for
qualitative and quantitative assessments for flow and diffusion characteristics.

Simulation of the Atmospheric Boundary Layer

The basic physical model is a boundary layer formed over the floor of a long wind-
tunnel working section . The general requirements for geometric, dynamic and thermal
similarity and similarity of boundary conditions can be obtained directly by dimensional
analysis. According to it, the system of the equation of motion for turbulent flow and
dispersion in the ABL has to be transformed into following nondimensional form:
• the conservation mass equation-

∂ ρ * ∂ ρ ui
+
*
( *
)=0 (1)
∂ t* ∂ xi
*

• the momentum conservation equations-

∂ ui ∂ p *  ∆T0 L0 g 0  * *
*
* ∂ ui
*
L Ω 
+  0 0 2ε ijk Ω j u k
* *
+ uj =− − 2 
∆T g δ i 3 +
∂t *
∂ xj
*
 U0  ∂ xi  T0 U 0 
*

* (2)
 υ 0  ∂ 2 ui
*
∂ − ui′u ′j
  +
U 0 L0  ∂ x k x k
* *
∂ xj
*

• the conservation of turbulent energy equation-

∂ T* * ∂ T
*  k0  υ 0  ∂ 2T *
+ ui =    +
∂ t* ∂ xi  ρ 0 C p 0 υ 0   L 0 U 0  ∂ x k ∂ x k
* * *

*
(3)
∂ − θ ′u i′  υ 0  U0
2
 *
+   Φ
∂ xi  L 0 U 0   C p 0 ( ∆ T ) 0 
*

• diffusion equation-

*
∂ Χ* * ∂ Χ
*
 kχ  υ0  ∂ 2Χ* ∂ − χ ´ u´ i
+ ui =    + ( 4)
∂ t* ∂ x i *  υ 0   L 0U 0  ∂ x k * ∂ x k * ∂ xi *
where symbol * denote nondimenional dependent variable and index 0 denote characteristic
variable scale (e.g. U0 denote the characteristic velocity scale). Consequently, exact dynamic
similarity requires that:
• dimensionless parameters formed from the scaling factors be equal for the two flow
systems. These dimensionless parameters are the following:

♦ Reynolds number Re = U0L0/υ0

♦ Gross Richardson number Ri = [(∆T0/T0)](L0/U02)g0
♦ Rossby number Ro = U0/L0Ω0
♦ Prandtl number Pr = υ0(k0/ρ0Cp0)
♦ Eckert number Ec = U02/Cp0(∆T)0
♦ Schmidt number Sc = ν0/kχ
• surface-boundary conditions similarity,
• similarity of the approach characteristics
• undistorted scaling of geometry
has to be fulfilled.
All these requirements cannot be satisfied simultaneously in existing facilities.
However, comparisons of data obtained in appropriate wind tunnels with corresponding in
situ data have shown good similarity even though the requirements for exact simulation were
relaxed - see e. g. Cermak[1] . Permissible relaxation of similarity requirements for both flow
characteristics are presented for micro-, small-, and meso-scale phenomena, i.e.
approximately 10-3-101, 101-104, and 104-105m respectively. In this case we speak about the
approximate simulation:
• Monin, Obukhov´s theory[4] is applied for micro-scale flow,
• Reynolds number independence – see Cermak[2] is used for small scale flow over rough
surface, or over sharp faced obstacles (buildings),
• Laminar-turbulent similarity – see Cermak[1] is used for stratified meso-scale flow.
The criteria for diffusion modelling is that all patterns of isoconcentration lines
stemming from substances which are emitted from sources must be geometrically similar in
model and prototype. The model parameters which arise from this criteria are the same as
those obtained through dimensional analysis.
For a discussion of the scaling laws, consider Fig. 2. It shows a general source,
represented through a stack, which is defined through its height hs in the boundary layer.

ua

u(z)

Vs ∆h(x)
h
ρ s, C s

D s=2R s
ρ(z) hs

Fig. 2 Diffusion from a point source: definition

 The region in which the disturbance caused by the stack and the discharge have a
direct effect on the flow field is the near field. In the far field these effects are felt only
through the effective source height hs + ∆hs and the virtual origin xs of the diffusion field. The
effective source height is a measure for location of the diffusing plume, while the virtual
origin is a measure of the spread rate db/dx, because it denotes the distance in amount of the
stack at which the spreading of the diffusion field must commence in order to attain the
actually observed near-field width of the diffusion plume at the matching distance between
near and far field.
In addition to the previously introduced scaling parameters for the modelling of the
atmosphere in the wind-tunnel, we have to add some new scaling parameters concerning the
plume itself, i.e. describing the rise of the plume (either buoyant or not ) ejected into the cross
flow. and its diffusion characteristics. We only consider here neutrally stable ambient fluid
(dρs/dz = 0).
With ρa, ua, and h as reference variables, the first dimensionless parameters we need
for modelling when interest is focused on the motion of plumes of gases emitted from stacks:

ua δ a z 0 R s ua h
, , , ,
hΩ h h h υ a

The emissions set their own scale near the exit because of the turbulence generated in
the shear layer between plume and wind. This requires that the ratio of the initial momentum
of the plume to the momentum of the oncoming flow be the same in model and prototype. For
the plume axis this requirement can be inferred from the plume-rise formula for a source
emitting an effluent with non-neutral buoyancy. The plume height is described in the
buoyancy-dominated region through a 2/3 power law, which in nondimensional form is:

1/ 3 2/ 3
∆h V g′ ⋅ h  x ∆ρ
= 16
.  s 2    with g ′ = g (5)
h  u u   h ρ

which requires for geometric similarity of model and prototype field that

 Vs   Vs   g′ ⋅ h  g ′ ⋅ h
  =  and  2  = 2  (6)
 u m  u  p  u m  u  p
u2
The last second scaling parameter corresponds to the Froude number Fr 2 = ,
gh( ρ − ρ s ) / ρ
which is the ratio of inertia to buoyancy forces.
Under these conditions buoyancy can be obtained in the laboratory by mixing lighter or
heavier fluids into the effluent. In the wind tunnel, buoyancy is obtained with gas admixtures,
for example helium.
Equations similar to that of the plum axis are obtainable for the spread rate b in the
near field, which is governed by exactly the same factors. Thus if the dimensionless numbers
discussed above are matched, similarity of the near field is obtained for the plume axis and
spread rate.
For the far field, buoyancy and initial momentum are weak effects, and the dominant
role is played by the turbulence of the atmospheric motion, which has to be scaled correctly.
the near field remains important only in setting initial conditions: it is therefore possible to do
far-field experiment on a model of different scale (for example 1:1000) as the near field (for
example 1:200) by replacing the source by an equivalent point source located at x = xs and h +
∆hs where xs and ∆hs are determined on the large model. But limitations are set by the Coriolis
effect.
Far-field data are quite dependent both on intermittency and meandering of the plume,
both effects of turbulence eddies which are different in model and prototype. One must
therefore associate a time scale with the concentration which is measured. For example a scale
of 1:1000 results in the requirement that a 10 minutes average in prototype be represented by
a 0.6 second average in the model. Experimentally, this averaging time is difficult to achieve,
usually averages are taken over long times, of the order of minutes so that some of the
variability of the data is averaged out.

Wind Tunnel

A few ten special wind-tunnels have been built all over the world for the simulation. A
new environmental wind-tunnel at the Institute of Thermomechanics belongs to them. The
tunnel is designed as an open-circuit facility that is operated as a fan driven one-see Fig. 3. It
has the cross section 1.5 m x 1. 5 m and the length to the working section 25.5 m. The long
test section achieve sufficiently thick boundary layer on the wall of the working section (cca
0.3 m) with the necessary dependent variables profiles.

Fig. 3. Wind tunnel at the Institute of Thermomechanics

The tunnel inlet is formed by elliptic elements inside of a suction tower with 64 m2 screens
and of size 6 m x 6 m x 12 m preventing external disturbances. It follows a corner with 17
vanes with the gap between thin sheet metal vanes h = 0.1248 m and the chord c = 0.312 m.
An aluminium honeycomb made for aircraft sandwich and 6 screens with screen open area
ratio ß = 0.57 and 0.79 placed behind the corner guarantee that the wind tunnel meet all
demands of a first class aerodynamics facility. The working section of the length 2 m with
glass side walls follows a section of lights and the two corners. The tunnel is driven by a 30
kW centrifugal blower at the exit. The velocity at the working section is within interval (0,1 ,
13) ms-1 and depend upon number of revolutions per second (more details in Jaňour, Jonáš,
Mazur[3]).
Experimental methods
To solve and investigate all necessary flow and dispersion characteristics in
aerodynamic wind tunnel, it was necessary to develop and to adapt some new methods of
measurement. First of all, there was demand for flow visualisation and for application of such
a method for rough introduction and approximation. We were using during that time common
system consisting from laser light sheet, Hi-Res B/W CCD camera, suitable focusing system,
frame grabber and Pentium based computer for processing. We were able to get really
interesting results, with this, quite simple system. Of course, it was first necessary to optimise
size and amount of particles used for visualisation, to find optimised parameters of laser light
sheet, camera etc. Example of acquired results is shown a localisation of chimney pollution
distribution in “Orlice” river basin (Fig. 4).

Fig. 4. The plum of smoke from the chimney in the Orlice river basin visualised by laser
sheet.

Next step in experiments is always quantitative analysis. It is known, that the

measurement and modelling in environmental wind tunnel is quite complicated and it seems
to be difficult to capture suitable data with standard instrumentation and process it formally.
Care must be taken into account in utilisation of LDA system for measurement in
environmental wind tunnel (see Fig. 5). Poor signal to noise ratio and quality of signal under
condition of turbulent flow, back reflection configuration, inhomogeneous seeding particles
distribution etc. influencing signal an analysis and data processing has to be solved. In this
case the an optical probe is a typical arrangement used for the measurement in the observed.
The beams which intersect in the measuring point register the particle position of the model
smoke. So it is possible to determine the local instantaneous velocity components of the flow
of particles. This experiments are carried out in the Institute of hydrodynamics in an
aerodynamic wind channel of the “cultivating system” as well as in the Institute of
thermomechanics in an aerodynamic tunnel with the orographic model of the real terrain of
the town Jablonné n.O.
The method for the quantitative assessment of the pollutant concentrations around a point
source by infrared spectroscopic analyser is in progress. The sketch of the experimental set
up is demonstrated on the Fig. 6. The concentration of the observed components of the model
gas is determined experimentally by means of the continuous infra-red spectroscopic analysis
of the sample collected by a probe in the observed point. The tracing gas is the carbon
dioxide. The detecting probe moves in the measuring space following three orthogonal axes.

z LDA

vz
ŠZ
xp OS
xvp x x

ZN

x,y,z – axes describing the air space OS – optical probe

ZN – source of the air pollution ŠZ – dissemination of the pollution from
LDA- Laser-Doppler probe the source
vz, vx – measured velocity components

Fig. 5 Sketch of LDA measurement

z
IA

ŠZ zp
OS
xp x
yp
ZN

x,y,z- axes describing the air space IA – infra-red gas analyser

OS – collecting probe of the continuous ZN – source of the air pollution
gas sample xp,yp,zp – axes of the possible movement
ŠZ – dissemination of the pollution from of the collecting probe
the source
Fig. 6 Mean concentration measurement
Conclusions

Simulated atmospheric boundary layers may be employed profitably in a number ways. From
a long-range point of view, the most important utilisation is for basic research on the structure
of turbulence and diffusion in thermally stratified surface layers as well as for education
effect. However, an equally valuable use is for the study of specific environmental problems.
Following tasks solved at the Institute of Thermomechanics serve as an example for it:
• flow and dispersion over complex terrain - in the framework Key-Field of Science
Development Programme (No. 6),
• flow and dispersion over urban terrain - COST 615 (flow and dispersion over street
canyon) and COST 715 (flow and dispersion over urban complex terrain),
• air-pollution in the Orlice River Basin (Jablonné nad Orlicí)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT: The work is funded from the budget of the Czech Republic by
means of the Ministry of Education, Youth and Physical Training of CR (Project No. OC
F1.30 and No. OC. 615:50) and of the Grant Agency of the Academy of Sciences under grant
No. A3076801.

References
[1] Cermak J. E. - Laboratory Simulation of the Atmospheric Boundary layer, AIAA J., 9 (1971), 1746,
[2] Cermak J. E. – Aerodynamics of Buldings, Annual Review of Fluid mechanics, 8 (1976), 75
[3] Jaňour Z., Jonáš P., Mazur O. - Wind -tunnel for Atmospheric Boundary Layer Simulation (in
Czech), Kolokvium DYNAMIKA TEKUTIN´ 97, (1997), 25,
[4] Monin A. S., Obukhov A. S. – Dimensionless characteristics of turbulence in the atmospheric
surface layer, Doklady AN SSSR 93 (1953), 223.
[5]Dittrt F., Jaňour Z., Severa M. – Simulation of the model pollutant dissemination.
Kolokvium DYNAMIKA TEKUTIN´98, (1998), 7