COKE - Introduction To The Primary Process Short Course

Introduction to the Primary
Process
T.W. Todoschuk 1
Introduction to the Primary Process
•Cokemaking Overview
•Coal Formation
•Coals for Cokemaking
•Coal Blend Design
•Chemistry, Petrography, Rheology, Physical
•Coal to Coke Transformation (includes movable wall oven discussion)
•Coke Quality
•Coke in the BF
•New Cokemaking Technology including Non-Recovery Cokemaking
•Ironmaking including
•BF description
•Raw materials including iron ore details and PCI
•How a BF works
•Chemical reactions
•Hot metal requirements for Steelmaking
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• What is the purpose of cokemaking?
−To convert coal into coke
−Coke is used as a major fuel for the blast furnace
• What is the purpose of ironmaking?

−To process iron as pellets or sinter (sometimes lump) into liquid
iron – not steel
•What is the purpose of steelmaking?

−To process liquid iron into steel
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Coals
Coal
Coal
Iron OrePellets/Sinter Coke Injection
Oxygen
Steel
LMF1
External
Desulphurization
CC
KOBM
Tank Degasser
Hot EAF
Metal Steel
LMF2 CC
Scrap
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Cokemaking
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Cokemaking
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Cokemaking
No.2
BOILER
Exhauster HOUSE
A Booster
A
Final Cooler
H2S Tower
No.4 BF
Detarrer
Secondary
Primary
Ammonia
Cooler
Absorber
Scrubber
Benzol
Cooler
#6 Battery Stoves
Detarrer
Primary
Cooler Exhauster
B Booster
No. 3 C.P. B
SHUTDOWN
No.3 BF
Stoves
Exhauster
1 No.2 BF
(Down)
COG Exhauster
Bleeder 2
#5 #4
Battery Battery
Detarrer
Primary
Cooler
Exhauster
Detarrer
Primary
Cooler
3
Detarrer
Primary
No.2 CP
Cooler
NO.1
BOILER
Closed HOUSE
HOT MILL
COG Rehaet
Bleeder COG
Furnaces
Holder
LP MAKE-UP
Exhauster Booster 1
1
Scrubber
Primary
H2S
Cooler
Primary
Cooler
Exhauster Booster 2 20" BAY

Primary
Cooler
Scrubber
Primary
Cooler
2 FRONT
Primary
Final Gas
Ammonia
H2S
#1 & #2
Absorber
Scrubber
Scrubber
Cooler
Detarrer
Coolers
Primary
Washer
Benzol
Cooler
#3 Battery MASTER
HCN
Final
Ammonia
H2S
Absorber
Scrubber
Batteries
Detarrer
Benzol
Detarrer
Booster 3
No. 1 C.P. Exhauster
3
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Cokemaking
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Cokemaking
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Cokemaking
Push Side
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Cokemaking
Top Side
Charging hole
Flue Wall
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Cokemaking
Coke Side
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Cokemaking
Wharf After Quench
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Cokemaking
NORTH AMERICA AGE DISTRIBUTION BY BATTERY DESIGN 2007
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Cokemaking
NORTH AMERICA AGE DISTRIBUTION BY BATTERY DESIGN 2018
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Coal Formation
• Coals are heterogeneous sedimentary rocks found in deposits
called coal seams.
• Coal is the final result of the cumulative effects of decaying plant
remains, conditions of decay, deposition, sedimentation and
influences of temperature gradients of the earth’s crust.
• Chemically, coal is organic and inorganic in nature.
– Composed of both carbonaceous and mineral matters.
• Coal grade or purity of coal depends on the nature in which
minerals were deposited with the plant remains during the first
stages of coalification.
• For cokemaking, coking coals are unique because they contain
particles called macerals that soften (reactive) and become plastic
when heated, agglomerate with other macerals that do not soften
(inert), then repolymerize to form coke.
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Coal Formation
• Coal is the major raw
material that is used
in making coke.
• Coal is a combustible
solid usually found in
layers.
• Originates from the
accumulation, burial
and compaction of
partially decomposed
vegetation millions of
years ago.
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Coal Formation
• Coal originated from a variety of plants.
• Higher plant orders, ferns, fungi, algae and different tissues from
these plants: leaves, stalks, woody trunks, bark, pollen, spores,
resins, etc. grew in accord with the climate of different geological
eras.
• These plants grew in large sinking areas of the earth
(geosynclines) that filled with water to form peat bogs in
localized swamps, deltas and intercoastal plains.
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Coal Formation
• Two types of coals were formed depending on the types of
originating plants and tissues and the nature by which they
decomposed.
– Humic or banded coals were formed mainly from cellulosic
materials (woody stalks and roots) and cutenized materials
(leaves, barks)
– Sapropelic or non-banded coals were formed from algae
(boghead coals) or from spores (cannel coals) and
degeneration product of peat in a highly commuted form.
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Coal Formation
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Coal Formation
• Coking coals are humic coals that have been coalified over the
ages so as to reach 84%-90% carbon (daf).
• Key to coalification is time, temperature and pressure.
• Stages of coalification involved metamorphosis of the
biologically altered organic plant remains by the effect of time
and elevated temperatures from increased depth of burial of a
coal seam.
• The temperature gradient in the earth’s crust increases about
3°C to 5°C with every 100 meters of depth.
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Coal Formation
• Temperature with time of burial determines the final degree of
carbonification or rank and carbon content of a coal seam.
– Moisture always decreases with depth in lignite deposits.
– Peat is never found below lignite nor lignite below coal seams.
– Deeper coal seams almost always have higher coal rank.
– Resulting coals have inhomogeneous chemical and physical
characteristics.
– Layers of vegetation have undergone various degrees of
chemical and physical alteration.
– Exhibits a wide range of composition and chemical/physical
properties.
• Coalification proceeds from peat up to including meta-anthracite
as seen in the next slide.
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Coal Formation
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Coal Formation
• To begin with shallow swamps were formed for extended periods
favouring the accumulation of plant debris and its degradation by
the action of fungi and bacteria to produce the peat bog.
• Vegetation grew in the peat bog for many generations with the
plant material settling on the swamp bottom, then being converted
to peat by aerobic microbiological reactions up to a depth of 0.5
meters.
• As depth of burial increases during sedimentation, anaerobic
bacteria gradually replaced aerobic bacteria, then microbial life
gradually diminishes and is absent at depths >10 meters.
• Peat would grow until the rate of subsidence of the geosyncline
increased, water completely submerged the bog and burial by
minerals compressed the bog, squeezing out water and air.
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Coal Formation
• During the early stages of coalification, large quantities of

CO2 and water are expelled from the peat and lignites which
will effect their resulting calorific value.
• During the intermediate stages of coalification, organic
gases and liquids are expelled.
• In the later stages of coalification, condensation reactions
release hydrogen and increase the size of the aromatic ring
systems that make up the coal structure.
• This increased aromatization decreases the coals volatile
matter content.
• The higher the rank of the coal, the greater time it has gone
through the coalification process.
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Coal Formation
• During these early depositional periods, chemical and
biochemical changes of coalification would repeat themselves
over millions of years. This in turn explains the numerous coal
seams in the same location.
• The oxygen potential of the decaying swamp will determine the
composition of the resulting coal.
• Fresh water swamps are more acidic and have less plant
degradation than marine swamps.
• Coals deposited in marine environments generally contain
higher sulphur, hydrogen, nitrogen and ash than coals
deposited in fresh water environments.
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Coal Formation
• Higher sulphur contents are caused be increased activity of
anaerobic bacteria which reduces the sulphate in the seawater
to sulphides (pyrites) in coals. Higher nitrogen and hydrogen
contents are derived from the proteins and metabolic products
associated with the bacteria that were incorporated into the
peat of the marine swamps.
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Coal Formation
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Coal Formation
• Degree of coalification is termed coal rank.
• Higher degree of coalification means a higher coal rank.
• Rank can be measured by numerous parameters.
• Coal volatile matter, mean maximum reflectance of vitrinite,
carbon content, calorific value are a few. These are related
as seen in the figure.
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Coal Formation
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Coal Formation
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Coals for Cokemaking
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• For cokemaking, coking coals are unique because they contain
particles called macerals that soften (reactive) and become plastic
when heated, agglomerate with other macerals that do not soften
(inert), then repolymerize to form coke.
• If we look at the ASTM classification, we can see that the term
“agglomerating” and “non-agglomerating “ is used.
• Agglomerating refers to the ability for the coal to become fluid and
form coke when heated. Non-agglomerating means they do not
become fluid and form coke when heated.
• Coking is used to describe coals that exhibit strong caking
properties.
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• If we look at the coals that are of lower rank than bituminous
coals, we can further classify coals as low rank coal such as
lignite and sub-bituminous. These coals contain much water
and decompose on heating.
• For coals that are higher in rank than bituminous coals, such as
semi-anthracite, anthracite and meta-anthracite, these coals do
not soften and are inert when heat is applied. These coals are
very rich in carbon content.
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• Only bituminous coals will coke.
• In order to determine their coking ability, several rheological
tests are used. These tests include dilatation, fluidity, sole
heated oven and free swelling index.
• Bituminous coals are High Volatile, Medium Volatile or Low
Volatile matter.
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HV (>31% VM):
– Provide contraction and fluid properties.
– Make weak coke by themselves.
– Higher VM coals shrink excessively.
MV (22-31% VM):
– Make optimum strength, reactivity and structure.
– Used for bridging.
– Can generate pressure and are in short supply.
LV (14-22% VM):
– Are the main source of coke strength.
– Do not contract.
– Expand excessively and generate pressure.
T.W. Todoschuk 39
• Within the bituminous category, there are thermal and
metallurgical coals. Metallurgical coal is a term used for
coking coals.
• Thermal coals are coals used in coal fired power plants and
other fossil fuel required industries such as cement kilns.
• These coals are usually the “outcrop” coals that are oxidized
since they are the outer layer of the seam which has been
exposed to the air (oxygen).
• Oxidized coals will not coke due to excessive cross linking of
the polymer chains that make up coal. This will not allow them
to become fluid and form a coherent coke matrix.
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• Oxidized coals usually have rims on the outer edge of the
maceral which renders them inert.
• As metallurgical coals sit after mining, they will pick up oxygen.
It is important to test the rheological properties after they are
mined in order to ensure that adequate coking potential
remains if coal is stockpiled for an extended time. This is
important for coke plants that stockpile coals due to non-
delivery during winter months if coals are transported by lake or
ocean vessel.
• When coal is mined, coal product is tested to determine how
much outcrop has to be removed or if the seam has sufficient
caking ability.
T.W. Todoschuk 41
Coal Blend Design
• There are many reasons for designing the coal blend:
− Coke quality required for the blast furnace.
− Maximize productivity of the coke plant.
− To have good contraction from the walls when finished coking
for a non-damaging push.
− To ensure that maximum wall pressure when the two plastic
layers meet is below the acceptable value that a coke plant
specifies. This is usually a maximum of 7-10KPa.
− To ensure coke plant integrity is not jeopardized.
− To meet coal contract needs or availability of coals.
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Coal Blend Design
• When we talk about coke quality we are referring to:
− Coke strength i.e. Stability, I40, M40, JIS
− Coke strength after Reaction (CSR)
− Coke size i.e. both mean coke size and distribution
− Coke density i.e. apparent specific gravity (ASG)
• Most Cokemakers use a value in use model to determine the
net value to the ironmaking and or steelmaking operation when
purchasing coal(s).
• Before we can discuss coal blending, we need to identify coal
sources in North America.
• Most metallurgical coals are mined in two primary areas:
− Appalachia and Western Canada.
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Coal Blend Design
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Coal Bend Design
• Coals from Appalachian will be from HV to LV.
• Coke strength prediction is based on petrography of
Appalachian coals.
• Appalachian coals are noted for their low ash levels compared
to Australian and Western Canadian coals.
• Coals from Western Canada will also be HV to LV, but most
brands used are MV. These coals are noted for their high inert
levels which improve coke strength and lower wall and gas
pressure and favourable ash chemistry with respect to CSR.
These coals are low in S, but can be higher in P.
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Coal Bend Design
• Vitrinite levels are lower compared to Appalachian coals of
similar rank, but Western Canadian coals have a greater amount
of reactive semifusinite which balances this when it comes to
strength.
• These coals do not predict accurately using the standard
petrography based prediction model used for Appalachian coals.
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Coal Blend Design
70
65
60
55
50
45
ASTM Stability
40
Strong cokes with fluidities less that 20 ddpm
35
30
25
20
15
10
Canadian Coals
5 Appalachian Coals
Australian Coals
0
1 10 100 1000 10000 100000
Fluidity, ddpm
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Coal Blend Design
• A variety of tests are needed to differentiate between coals.
• Coals of the same rank can behave quite differently.
• Coal testing is performed for four main reasons:
– Coal selection for purchasing.
– Blend compatibility to produce the required quality in
the final coke product.
– Cold and hot strength prediction.
– Safe operation of the coke oven.
• Coal evaluation involves four main areas of analysis:
– Chemistry.
– Petrography.
– Rheology.
– Physical.
T.W. Todoschuk 48
Coal Blend Design
MOF blending diagram and comparison of
• It should be noted that 30,000
different predictive methods
there are many 10,000

300
40 0
G-Factor Line 60 30
methods to predict
Calculated Total Dilatation, %

MAXIMUM FLUIDITY ( DDPM )
5,000
Japaneses Target50
3,000 Blendi Blending Area
coke strength. 1,000
ng
Target
Area 200
Stability Factor
NCB Blending area
• Many of these methods 500

300
200 DI 30/15=92
65 55
use either petrography 100

DI 30/15=90 100
or rheology to model 50
20
CANADA 65
50
40
coke strength.
M.V.
COALS 60 30
10
55 200
50 10
5 0.0 30
• Regardless of the 3 1.6 1.4 1.2 1.0
Vitrinite reflectance, Ro max, %
0.8
measurement of 1
0.6 1.0 1.4 1.8
REFLECTANCE ( PERCENT )
strength or the coal

property, most of these
models fall into a
common area of high
coke strength.
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Coal Blend Design
• In North America, typically 3-5 coals are blended together.
− 15-25%LV, 20-35% MV and 35-60% HV
• When we look at the design of the coal blend, chemistry,
petrography and rheology are critical characteristics of the
individual coals that are looked at.
• Chemistry:
− Moisture
− Ash
− Volatile matter
− Fixed carbon
− Yield
• Note: chemical properties are additive by wt%
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Chemistry
Chemistry:
• Coal consists primarily of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen.
• Proximate analysis - H2O, Ash, VM, FC.
• Ultimate analysis - C, H2, S, N2, O2.
• Ash chemistry - SiO2, Al2O3,TiO2,
Fe2O3,CaO,MgO,K2O,Na2O,P2O5.
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Chemistry
• Moisture:
− Typical values are 5-8%
− Too low and coal can be dusty
− Too high and coal will be difficult to handle
− Can have negative impact on oven filling, bulk density, fuel
consumption and coke quality
• Fixed Carbon:
− Not directly measured
− F.C. = 100 - %Ash - %V.M.
− One of cokes main functions is fuel so this will directly
affect coke rate and productivity
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Chemistry
• Ash:
− Determined by the coals selected
− Determines slag volume in the BF
− Higher values increase coke rate and lower productivity
− Lowers amount of fixed carbon
• Sulphur:
− Determined by the coals selected
− Major contributor to HM sulphur which has to be removed
prior to steelmaking
− BF slag practice or external desulphurization
− BF coke rates  and productivity 
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Chemistry
• Volatile Matter:
– Coal V.M. is a measurement of rank
– Driven off during carbonization to form by-products
– By-products are a $ credit
– Blend VM is used as a target in some plants (25-28% VM)
– The next slide shows how coal blend VM is related to coke
strength
• Ash Composition:
– Determined by the coals selected
– SiO2, Al2O3, CaO, MgO, Fe2O3, Na2O, K2O, TiO2 and P2O5
– Reported as % of ash or % of coke
– Major contributor to BF slag composition
– Major factor for CSR
– Influence the ash fusion temperature
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Chemistry
Yield:
• Coal to coke yield
− Depends on the rank of the coal blend
−  blend VM  yield
− Site specific formulas
e.g. Yield = (%coal ash/ %coke ash)
− Cannot divide coal analysis by V.M.
B.F. Yield
• Function of coke handling
• Level of stabilization (drops and heights to the BF from the wharf)
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Chemistry
Stability or M40 vs Volatile Matter for
Canadian, Australian & US Coals
M40
70.0 Appalachian coals
65.0 Western Coals
Australian Coals
85
60.0
55.0 75
50.0
65
ASTM Stability
45.0
40.0
35.0 55
30.0
25.0
20.0
15.0 Coke quality relates very well to coal rank
10.0
5.0
0.0
15.0 20.0 25.0 30.0 35.0 40.0
Volatile Matter Content (daf)
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Petrography
Petrography:
• Measure of the coals microstructure.
• Determine the reactive and inert amounts.
• Coke strength prediction.
• Subjective.
• Coal consists of three non-crystalline microscopic units
called macerals. These are:
−Vitrinite
−Liptinite
−Inertinite
• There are three main groupings of coal macerals based on
the originating chemistry of plant remains.
• Maceral groups have different C, H and O contents.
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Petrography
• Petrography:
– The strength of a coke can be calculated from the
petrographic properties of the coals:
– The strength potential of a coal is defined by the relative
proportion of reactives to inerts.
– Concrete = Cement + Stone
– Excess or deficiencies of either the reactive
or inert components can result in weak coke.
– Petrography is the basis of coke strength prediction
– Based on the microscopic “building blocks” of coal called
macerals
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Petrography
The macerals that make up
coal can be grouped into
three categories based on
their carbonization behavior:
• Reactive.
• Inert.
• Semi-inert.
T.W. Todoschuk 59
Petrography
Reactive:
• Generates gas, softens,
swells
• Becomes fluid before
resolidifying into a
binding network when
carbonized
• vitrinoids, exinoids
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Petrography
In a packed bed like a coke oven:
Individual coal particles have

limited space to swell.
Particles push against each other

and bond together.
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Petrography
Inert:
• Essentially remains
unchanged during
carbonization.
• These macerals are
aggregate or filler material
to thicken and strengthen
the coke wall structure.
• inertinoid, mineral
matter.
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Petrography
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Petrography
Semi-Inert:
• Possess behavior
intermediate between
those of reactive and
inerts
• semi-fusinoid.
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Petrography
• Vitrinite:
− Predominant maceral
found in coal.
− Derived from wood or
bark.
− Is the major coke bond-
forming maceral.
− Is rich in oxygen with
moderate amounts of
hydrogen and volatile
matter.
T.W. Todoschuk 65
Petrography
• Liptinite (exinite):
− Derived from waxy
resins, algae,
spores, pollens and
cuticles.
− Hydrogen rich.
− Displays highest
fluidity and
contributes
principally to the
by-products e.g.
tars, gas.
T.W. Todoschuk 66
Petrography
• Inertinite:
− Derived from highly
weathered or oxidized
bark.
− Rich in carbon.
− Little hydrogen or
volatile matter.
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Petrography
• The macerals that make up coal can be grouped into three
categories based on their carbonization behavior:
− Reactive, Inert or Semi-inert.
• Reactive:
− Generates gas, softens, swells upon heating.
− Becomes fluid before resolidifying into a binding
network when carbonized. (Vitrinoids, exinoids)
• Inert:
− Essentially remains unchanged during carbonization.
− These macerals are aggregate or filler material which
thicken and strengthen the coke wall structure.
(Inertinoid, mineral matter)
• Semi-Inert:
− Possess behavior intermediate between those of
reactive and inerts. (Semi-fusinoid)
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Petrography
• Using vitrinite macerals:
Measure the amount of reflected light using
microscope on prepared coal pellets.
Incident
light Photo multiplier
Vitrinite
Coal Ro
Pellet measurements
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Petrography
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Petrography
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Petrography
Vitrinite Ro (%)
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Petrography
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Petrography
• USS Steel Coke Strength Prediction ( based on US Appalachian
coals)
o Composition Balance Index (CBI)
o Strength Index (SI)
o Predicted stability
– Based on their carbonization behavior:
o Reactive (generates gas, softens, swells) typically 65-80%
o Inert (remains unchanged) typically 15-30%
– Vitrinite is the “meat” of the coke, and the key coal component
for coke strength
• V types add up to total vitrinite
• V7 = vitrinite that has a measured reflectance from 0.70-0.79%
• Petrography is additive
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Petrography
COAL 1 COAL 2 COAL 3 COAL 4
25% 30% 25% 20% • Note the additive
nature of the
PETROGRAPHY BLEND
V6 (%) 0.00 components
V7 (%) 0.04 3.35 0.68
V8 (%) 4.40 25.19 6.14
• Typically blend
V9 (%) 34.74 34.56 15.60 Ro is calculated
V10 (%) 21.89 3.98 6.27
V11 (%) 0.18 0.96 0.30
to achieve a
V12 (%) 0.26 1.07 0.02 0.39 target of 1.15%-
V13 (%) 2.16 8.63 3.13
V14 (%) 11.42 28.07 11.27
1.21%
V15 (%) 40.31 13.83 14.23
V16 (%) 21.95 3.17 6.44
V17 (%) 2.15 0.17 0.59
V18 (%) 0.13 0.03
V19 (%) 0.00
VITRINITE (%) 73.31 55.12 62.06 67.09 63.80

REACTIVE (%) 76.51 68.20 74.76 76.19 73.52
INERT (%) 23.44 31.78 25.24 23.81 26.47
MEAN Ro (%) 1.60 1.26 0.98 0.92 1.21
T.W. Todoschuk 75
Petrography
• %V types
• %Reactives
• %Inerts
• %Vitrinite
• =USS Coke Strength Prediction
• Predict Coke Stability
• Note: Stability is not additive
• Two key parameters are calculated
– Composition balance index (CBI)
– Strength Index (SI)
T.W. Todoschuk 76
Petrography
T.W. Todoschuk 77
Petrography
USS ISO Stability Prediction
65
Low Volatile
60
50
Medium Volatile
High Volatile
Inert Rich Inert Deficit

T.W. Todoschuk 78
Petrography
• CBI=describes the amount of inerts
• CBI is typically 0.7-1.3
• CBI is not additive but log CBI is additive
• <1 indicates inert deficient and >1 excessive inerts
• SI is a function of rank i.e. Ro, vitrinite

• Describes the strength potential
• SI values are additive
• Typically 4.50-5.20
• Typically the blend is a mixture of LV, MV and HV

• Try to combine coals to be in the target window
• Target window is the most robust for coal petrographic
variability
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Petrography
USS ISO Stability
65
60
CBI 0.70-1.30
50
SI 4.50-5.20 Target window
Ro 1.15-1.23%
Reactives 65-80%
Inerts 15-30%
Inert Rich Inert Deficit

T.W. Todoschuk 80
Petrography
• An excess of reactive components can:
– Generate excessive coking pressure or
– Cause insufficient blend contraction (hard pushes).
• An excess of inert components:

– Can result in a rapid diffusion of VM to occur in the plastic
layer.
– Prevents the development of swelling pressures and pores
within coal particles.
– Particle bonding will be poor and the final coke will be
friable.
T.W. Todoschuk 81
Rheology
Rheology:
• Measure of the coals ability to become fluid, swell and
contract – coking ability.
• Measures the caking properties of coals.
• Measures the temperature range that coals
become fluid.
• Measures the volume changes associated with heating a
coal(s) - expansion and contraction.
T.W. Todoschuk 82
Rheology
T.W. Todoschuk 83
Rheology
% Dilitation
Initial Softening
Temperature °C Maximum Dilitation
Temperature
% Length
Change
Maximum Contraction
Temperature °C
% Contraction
T.W. Todoschuk 84
Rheology
• The sole heated oven test is also Weight
required to ensure that the coal
blend adequately contracts at the Fireclay tile
steel plate
end of the coking cycle.
• Values range from -7% to -14%. Silicon insulation insulation
• For ovens that have trouble carbide
sole tile coal
walls, blends need to be coke
designed that give more than
Heating
enough contraction to prevent elements
insulating
stickers when pushed. brick
• This test needs to run on the
blend as contraction is not
additive.
T.W. Todoschuk 85
Rheology
T.W. Todoschuk 86
Rheology
T.W. Todoschuk 87
Rheology
T.W. Todoschuk 88
Rheology
T.W. Todoschuk 89
Rheology
T.W. Todoschuk 90
Rheology
T.W. Todoschuk 91
Rheology
• Has no absolute specification.
• Is used to check if coking capacity of input coals has
deteriorated.
• Determines blend components compatibility.
• Will affect pore, wall and texture development.
• Blend components will have the required temperature overlap

• Blend fluidity 1000-4000 ddpm
• Dilatation of 50-150%
• SHO contraction of 6-12%
• Rheology is not additive
• Temperature range can be very usefull
T.W. Todoschuk 92
Physical
• Is used primarily to monitor and control coke oven feed
material.
• Coal arrives usually 0” x 2”
• Size consist.
• Grindability.
• Bulk Density.
T.W. Todoschuk 93
Physical
Coal properties not only vary with rank and petrographic
components, but also coal particle size.
•Want an optimum size and distribution.
•Typically 80%-3mm for cokemaking:
− Bulk density.
− Obtaining a continuous coke structure.
− Dilation in reactive coal particles.
− Course reactive and fine inerts.
Grindability:
• The amount of work required to grind a coal will be
a function of:
− Petrographic composition.
− Rank.
− Geological history.
T.W. Todoschuk 94
Physical
Bulk Density:
• Primarily a function of
moisture and grind.
• Too high of BD can
lead to excessive
pressure.
• Increase in BD results
in denser coke.
• Maintain BD by oil
additions or water.
• Low BD increases
heating rate.
T.W. Todoschuk 95
Physical
Influence of Bulk Density on the Center
Temperature
1200
Center Temperature (°C)
1000
44 #/ft^3
710 kg/m^3
800
55 #/ft^3
600 880 kg/m^3
400
200
10 12 14 16 18 20 24 26
Coking Time (hrs)
T.W. Todoschuk 96
Coal to Coke Transformation
Coking process is basically:
COAL + HEAT (ABSENSE OF AIR)=COKE + GAS
• Typically, coal is heated to 1000-1100°C in 16-24 hrs.

• The coal does not transform throughout the width of the oven at
once.
• Coal next to the wall is the first to heat, soften and resolidfy.
• This coking front works its way from both walls and travels to the
center of the charge where this front from both walls will meet
towards the end of coking.
• Time is required to allow for the heat from the flue walls to
penetrate the coal charge in the oven.
T.W. Todoschuk 97
Coal with the addition of heat starts the process
T.W. Todoschuk 98
T.W. Todoschuk 99
T.W. Todoschuk 100
If we were to stop and section an oven during the coking cycle
you would see the following phases:
• Coke – final product that has seen adequate time and
temperature.
• Semi coke – coke that has gone thought the coal to coke
transformation but has not had soak time to complete the
carbonization reactions.
• Plastic layer – a thin layer between the coal and the
semicoke where actually the coal to coke transformation
takes place. This plastic layer is the coking front that moves
from the oven walls to the oven center.
• Coal - the original coal charge that has not seen the heat
from the flue walls yet. This coal at the center is the last to
coke as the plastic layers meet.
T.W. Todoschuk 101
T.W. Todoschuk 102
T.W. Todoschuk 103
Wet coal that has
been charged is
heated to 100°C
where moisture is
driven off
T.W. Todoschuk 104

Up to 350°C, dry coal
heats up with minor
changes
T.W. Todoschuk 105

The coal begins to soften
with bubbles being formed as
the coal decomposes to form
a plastic phase
T.W. Todoschuk 106

Rapid growth of bubbles brings
about the swelling and fusion of
particles and agglomeration.
The degree of which depends on
the coals coking properties.
T.W. Todoschuk 107

Swelling occurs because:
rate of gas generation in a coal
particle is > its rate of evolution
from the particle.
T.W. Todoschuk 108

With further heating the
plastic phase
repolymerizes to a
brittle semi-coke
T.W. Todoschuk 109

Cell wall development.
Light hydrocarbon gases and
hydrogen are released.
T.W. Todoschuk 110

Solid semi-coke contracts.
The coke fissures when the tensile
strength of the coke is exceeded.
T.W. Todoschuk 111

Forms lumps of coke which
also contain cracks.
T.W. Todoschuk 112

Semi coke condenses to
a more graphitic structure
with soak time.
T.W. Todoschuk 113

• The plastic layer separates the
coke that is produced, starting at
the walls and the uncarbonized
coal and gases produced on the
center side of the plastic zone.
• The plastic zone is typically 15-
20mm thick.
• Pressure will be generated
because the plastic zone is not
permeable enough to the gases
being generated.
T.W. Todoschuk 114
T.W. Todoschuk 115
• Moisture migrates using path of less
resistance (low bulk density areas).
• Greater moisture requires more
energy to vaporize it.
• Will vary the coking progress.
• Variation in gas and wall pressure
(not an even force on the walls)
• Variation in coke quality (different
heating and coking rates within the
charge).
T.W. Todoschuk 116
• At temperatures below 800°C, the coal
will have a tendency to swell and
above 800°C, a tendency to shrink.
• The dilatation in the plastic region and
degree of non-uniform contraction that
follows will determine the net size and
strength of the coke produced.
• The temperature of transformation, i.e.
bubble development, particle fusion
and texture development will depend
on the rank of coals used.
T.W. Todoschuk 117
1 1. The unaltered coal as charged
on the left;
2 2. A darker, denser line of
5
impregnated coal (the “cool”
surface of the plastic layer);
3. A distinct interruption in continuity
4 (indicated by arrow) leading to
another;
4. Tarry line (the “hot” surface of the
3 plastic layer) blending into
5. The solid semi-coke and coke
pieces which end on the far right
as “cauliflower” end coke against
the oven wall.
T.W. Todoschuk 118
• All essential phases of coke formation take place in the plastic
zone.
• This plastic stage is responsible for pore structure formation,
optical characteristics, surface area and strength development
and will depend upon the types of coal that are used, the
blend preparation characteristics and carbonizing conditions.
• To ensure a well-fused structure, it is important that the fluid
properties of the coals that are blended have overlap in their
plastic temperature ranges.
T.W. Todoschuk 119
Plastic Layer
• Varies with the volatile matter of
the coal blend.
• The plastic zone is not permeable
enough to the gases being
released during coking.
• The contained gases will cause
an increased amount of pressure
in the coal portion, which is
transmitted through the plastic
and coke layers to the oven walls.
T.W. Todoschuk 120
• Expansion is due to pore formation.
• Pore formation is only possible if the particle becomes plastic
and if internal pressure is built up.
• Internal pressure will be a function of the amount of gas
developed and the diffusion rate.
• Particle size and amount and size of inerts are important.
• This is demonstrated in the next slide. As the percentage
vitrinite decreases, there is less effect of internal pressure on
the coke matrix.
• Passage through the plastic stage is not only responsible for
the formation of the pore structure but also its optical
character.
• For a given set of carbonizing conditions, the degree of
softening depends on rank.
T.W. Todoschuk 121
T.W. Todoschuk 122
Structurally cokes are complex
• Different pore and wall sizes and shapes
• Various major and minor coke fissures.
• Wall material will contain different carbon forms or textures:
– Different microscopic properties.
– Different optical anisotropy (crystallinity is a function of rank
and type of coals, blend and heating conditions)
– As soon as the resolidification temperature is reached, the
optical character and size of the coke does not undergo
further change.
– The intensity of the anisotropy grows with rising temperature.
– Examples of what different rank coals look like under the
microscope with a tinted plate are shown in the next slide.
T.W. Todoschuk 123
T.W. Todoschuk 124
T.W. Todoschuk 125
• The rate of contraction of the semicoke most important.
• The plastic layer is critical since the coal to coke transformation
is actually taking place here.
• Higher rates of contraction (which can be due to excessive flue
temperatures, under filling ovens, high moisture periods where
there will be less coal in the oven) will cause the semicoke to
contract faster than designed.
• This will lead to excessive cracking in the coke matrix and
produce both smaller sized coke and weaker coke.
T.W. Todoschuk 126
• A rapid rate of contraction will promote a greater amount of fissures.
This will occur with faster coking times, under charging and high
moisture periods.
• If the more fissures are present, the coke will be weaker and also
smaller. Both coke strength and size will be negatively affected by a
rapid rate of contraction.
• If we look at coke strength after reaction, the important part of the
coal to coke transformation is that the produced coke has to have
an adequate soak time to mature and order the carbon forms which
promotes higher coke strength after reaction.
• It is important to realize how operational issues influence the coal to
coke transformation in order to better understand coke quality and
its improvement.
T.W. Todoschuk 127
Wall Pressure:
• The origin of the wall load is the gas pressure in the
decomposing softening coal.
• The fusing coal particles generate both a low permeability
material and the gas that has difficulty escaping it.
• Fissures in the coke layer reaching from the wall onto the
“hot” plastic layer surface, offer an escape channel for the
raw gas under pressure within the plastic layer.
• The contained gases will cause an increased amount of
pressure in the coal portion which is transmitted through the
plastic layer and coke layers to the oven walls.
• Movable Wall Oven is used to measure expected pressure
generation. It is also used to make industrial simulated coke
for evaluation.
T.W. Todoschuk 128
• Used to make industrial type

coke.
• Blend design.
• Coke quality.
• Wall and gas pressure
measured.
• Carbonization studies.
Coal Grind 80%‐3mm
Coal Moisture 3.0‐3.5%
Oven Bulk Density 817±8kg/m3
ASTM Bulk Density 778 kg/m3
Carbonization Rate 34.3 mm/hr to 900°C
Push 3 hours after center temperature reaches 950°C
Stabilize simulate wharf (0 drops) or blast furnace coke (3‐3m
drops)
T.W. Todoschuk 129
Wall Pressure:
• There are two pressure peaks:
− Moisture evaporation
− Two plastic layers meet
• Upper limit of <1.5 p.s.i.
• Must also look at gas pressure.
• Function of
− Coal blend rank
− Petrographic components
− Charge bulk density
− Coking conditions
T.W. Todoschuk 130
T.W. Todoschuk 131
• There are two pressure

peaks.
• The first peak is due to
moisture evaporation.
• The second peak
occurs when the two
migrating plastic layers
meet at the oven center
towards the end of the
coking cycle.
T.W. Todoschuk 132
• Wall and gas pressure will be a function of:
− Coal blend rank
− Coal petrographic components (reactives, inerts)
− Charge bulk density (grind, moisture, filling)
− Coking conditions (heating rate, flue temperature, coking time)
• Need to test ALL blends
− Wall and gas pressure
− Sole heated contraction
− Coke quality
− Robustness of blend design
T.W. Todoschuk 133
Coke Quality Development
What is the link between fundamental coal and coke properties
under different coking conditions?
Need to understand:
• Cokemaking Process.
• Behaviour of coking coals under these processes.
• What are the cause and effect parameters needed to
understand
T.W. Todoschuk 134
Coke quality development has three basic steps:
• Coal selection and blending.
• Correct charging and filling practice.
• Adequate time and temperature.
Coke quality parameters:

• Coke Stability. (I40 and M40)
• Coke Hardness.
• Coke Size.
• Coke Strength after Reaction (CSR).
T.W. Todoschuk 135
Soak Time
1200 Final Coke Temperature
(time from reaching
1100 (min. 950 C)
1000
950 C to push)
900
TEMPERATURE (C)
800
700
600
500 Heating Rate to 900°C
400
300
200
100
TIME
0
T.W. Todoschuk 136
* Round Screens
T.W. Todoschuk 137
Stability:
• Coal selection fixes coal rank.
• Choose coals and blend to optimize rank, level of reactives and
inerts.
• Coals that have not lost rheological properties to a point that
coke quality is impacted.
• Rate of contraction through the 700-1000C region with a solid
maximum finishing temperature is a primary factor.
• Oven charging, oven density, filling and coal moisture can have
a serious effect on stability because these will affect:
− Amount of coal in the oven.
− Effective heating rate.
− Rate of contraction.
− Final temperature gradient.
− Finishing temperature.
T.W. Todoschuk 138
Unknown Coal
100 15% 16%
90
Variance Accounted For
80
70
60
50
40
30 Process
20 69%
10
0
ASTM Bulk Rank Heating Rate Final Coke Storage Time Unknown
Density to 900°C Temp
T.W. Todoschuk 139
Hardness:
• Coal selection fixes coal rank.
• Choose coals and blend to optimize rank, level of reactives
and inerts.
• Maintain oven bulk density.
• Adequate final temperature and soak time.
T.W. Todoschuk 140
Coal
Unknown 1%
100 8%
90
80
70
60
50
40 Process
30 91%
20
10
0
ASTM Bulk Density Final Coke Temp Rank Unknown
T.W. Todoschuk 141
Coke Size:
• Coal selection is not a factor per se.
• We don’t design blends for size.
• Breeze can be added to increase coke size (anti-fissurant)
• Need to choose coals that make adequate strength.
• Rate of contraction through the 700-1000C region with a solid
maximum finishing temperature is a primary factor.
T.W. Todoschuk 142
Oven charging, oven density, filling and coal moisture can have a
serious effect on size because these will affect:
• Amount of coal in the oven.
• Effective heating rate.
• Rate of contraction.
• Final temperature gradient.
• Finishing temperature.
T.W. Todoschuk 143
Coal
Unknown 4%
100 22%
90
80
70
60
50
40 Process
30 74%
20
10
0
Heating Rate ASTM Bulk Coke Inerts Soak Time Unknown
Density
T.W. Todoschuk 144
Coke Strength After Reaction:
• Choose coals and blend to optimize rank, level of reactives and
inerts.
• Choose coals that have favorable ash chemistry.
• Adequate final temperature and soak time.
T.W. Todoschuk 145
T.W. Todoschuk 146
Unknown
16%
100
90
80 Coal
70 47%
60
50 Process
40 37%
30
20
10
0
ASTM Bulk Coke Ash Coke Inerts Final Coke Rank Unknown
Density Chemistry Temp
T.W. Todoschuk 147
• Specific BF coke specifications for coke quality to meet BF
needs.
• Purchase coals to meet these needs under controlled coke plant
operation.
• Variability or lack of control leads to:
− Product and process variability.
− Can and will lead to a shorter battery life.
− BF will see this variability in its operation and campaign life.
T.W. Todoschuk 148
• Coal Moisture
• Oven Bulk Density
• Coking rate
• Coking time
• Soak time
• End of coking
• Final coke temperature
• Delays
T.W. Todoschuk 149
T.W. Todoschuk 150
Coke quality:
Present Future
Chemistry ash, residuals
Size narrow size dist’n
Stability 60% >65%
Hardness 67-70% >70%
CSR 58-62% >65%
CRI 25-30% <25%
ASG 0.90-0.95 >1.00
Stabilization 80-85% >95%
T.W. Todoschuk 151
Coke in the BF 1. Heat Source: Coke is a fuel
which provides heat and energy for
the various chemical reactions and
melting of slag and metal.
2. Reducing Agent: Coke produces
and regenerates reducing gases for
the reduction of iron oxides.
3C + Fe2O3 3CO + 2Fe
3. Permeable Bed: Slag and metal
pass down into the hearth while hot
reducing gases pass up into the
stack.
4. Burden Support: Coke is the
only solid material in the lower
regions of the Blast Furnace.
T.W. Todoschuk 152
Role of coke in the Blast Furnace
T.W. Todoschuk 153
Coke in the BF
Coke degradation can be broken down into two basic stages:
• The first stage is due to mechanical stabilization of the coke

prior to being charged into the Blast Furnace.
• The second stage occurs in the Blast Furnace where coke is

subjected to severe mechanical, chemical and thermal
conditions.
T.W. Todoschuk 154
Coke in the BF
• Impact and abrasion during
charging
• Abrasion during burden descent
• Gasification by CO2(g) and H2O(g)
• Alkali absorption
• Thermal shock
• Ash reactions
• Impact in the raceway
• Slag/metal attack
T.W. Todoschuk 155
Coke in the BF
• Chemistry - thermochemical balance
• Strength - impact and abrasion (stability/hardness)
Tumble 3”x 2”
1400 rev
Screen
Plus 1”= Stability
Plus 1/4” = Hardness
T.W. Todoschuk 156
Coke in the BF
• Reactivity - reactivity and hot strength
(CSR/CRI)
Crush sample
19x22 mm
1100°C
100% CO2(g) for 2 hrs.
Tumble
Plus 9.5mm = CSR
(Wi-Wo)/Wi*100 = CRI
T.W. Todoschuk 157
Coke in the BF
• Size analysis - distribution and size consistency
• Porosity - surface area and structure
• Macrostructure/Microstructure- defects and carbon
forms
T.W. Todoschuk 158
Coke in the BF
T.W. Todoschuk 159
New Cokemaking Technology
• Aged coke plants
• Non-compliant coke plants
• Increase production costs
• Huge investment cost to replace aged or non-compliant coke
plants
T.W. Todoschuk 160
Alternative cokemaking technologies – 4 groups:
• Based on modification to slot oven cokemaking
• Based on continuous form cokemaking
• Based on continuous cokemaking
• Based on non-recovery (energy recovery) cokemaking
T.W. Todoschuk 161
Based on modification to slot oven cokemaking
•Scope 21 - Japan
•Jumbo Coke Reactor - Germany
T.W. Todoschuk 162
Scope 21
Super Coke Oven for Productivity and Environment Enhancement
towards the 21st Century
• Japan Iron and Steel Federation
• Initiated in 1994 and completed pilot oven studies in 2003 (440
tests carried out)
• Commercial plant in 2008
Main objectives:
• Effective use of coal resources (up to 50% poor coking coals,
drying, rapid preheating and increased coal bulk density using
briquetted fine coal)
• High productivity (preheat charge to 350-400C, 900C in oven,
reheat to 1000C in CDQ, high conductivity bricks)
• Energy savings (preheat, lower coke discharge temperature,
recover sensible heat from gases)
• Environmental protection (low NOx by improving heating system)
T.W. Todoschuk 163
Scope 21
T.W. Todoschuk 164
Scope 21
T.W. Todoschuk 165
Scope 21
T.W. Todoschuk 166
Scope 21
T.W. Todoschuk 167
Scope 21
T.W. Todoschuk 168
Scope 21
T.W. Todoschuk 169
Jumbo Reactor
Multi Chamber Single Chamber

Wet Coal Wet Coal
T.W. Todoschuk 170
Jumbo Reactor
• Built in 1992 – ran trials for 3.5 years
• European Development Center for Coking Plant Technology
• 10m high x 0.85m wide x 10m long
Objectives:
• Minimize emissions (50%)
• Preheat coal (energy savings of 8%)
• Broader coal base
• Coke quality improvement (especially CSR >65%)
• Individual oven heating control
• Lower investment and production costs (less ovens with 50t
per oven)
T.W. Todoschuk 171
Jumbo Reactor
• Not commercial at this point

• Ready to build a 2 million tpy plant
• Cost estimated at 800 million USD
• Plant being dismantled
T.W. Todoschuk 172
Based on continuous form cokemaking:
• Carbonyx – USA <<
• CTC (Carbonite) – USA <<
• FMC - USA
• Peabody - USA
• IGT - USA
• Sapozhnikov Form Coke - Russia
• JISF Form Coke - Japan
• ANCIT - U.K.
T.W. Todoschuk 173
Carbonyx
• Of all the continuous formed coke process, this is the only
process that has been built to a demonstration stage plant
at Ardmore, Oklahoma (2005)
• Carbonyx was accepted by U.S. Steel for commercial
installation at it’s Gary Works
T.W. Todoschuk 174
Carbonyx
Carbon alloy products and a process for their production Patent number: 8110169
Abstract: A carbonaceous material, also referred to as a carbon alloy, and a process of making the
carbonaceous material is provided. A particulate of partially pyrolyzed carbon (PPC) base is formed
on heating a carbon-containing feed material and a nucleating agent in the form of a interactive
filler is included. The nucleating agent is adhered together to the PPC particles by application of
heat. The material is molded into a shape, voids in the material are collapsed and the resulting
carbon alloy is cooled.
Transported material heating with controlled atmosphere

Patent number: 7150627
Abstract: A tunnel oven for heating transported carbonaceous materials includes an enclosure
having a passage and a transport device for moving solid carbonaceous materials through and
along a length of the passage. A direct convection heater is operably connected to the enclosure to
heat the solid carbonaceous material as the material is moved along the length of the passage. A
temperature controller is operably coupled to the heater to provide one or more selected
temperatures along the length of the passage. An atmosphere controller controls the heating
atmosphere along the length of the passage so that the surface of the solid carbonaceous material
is protected against oxidation.
T.W. Todoschuk 175
Carbonite
• Has had several names and owners
• CTC, Antaeous
• Began in 1983, 1994 10 tpd pilot facility in Virginia
• Unique twin screw feeder
T.W. Todoschuk 176
Carbonite
T.W. Todoschuk 177
Carbonite
T.W. Todoschuk 178
Carbonite
T.W. Todoschuk 179
Carbonite
• Bench scale
• Could be limited by patents (charring temperature)
• Could be a foundry coke facility in Norton, VA
T.W. Todoschuk 180
Based on continuous cokemaking:
• Calderon – USA (push in steel
tubes)
• UKHIN – Ukraine (push in coking
chamber)
Caldreon
• Mid to late 1990’s built a pilot
facility in Alliance OH
• Bethlehem, USX and LTV
interested along with DOE
T.W. Todoschuk 181
Calderon
• Movement via a
piston
• Gases withdrawn
from inner tube; re-
circulated in to
space between
inner and outer
T.W. Todoschuk 182
Calderon
• Increased productivity and quality (bd of 60 lb/ft3)
• Higher yield due to reactor pressure of 15 psig
• Reactor tube strength allows for higher amounts of LV coal
• Environment (sealed system)
• Lower capital and operating costs (one tube = 9 ovens)
• Made >60% stability, BRT <12%
• No takers to date
T.W. Todoschuk 183
Based on non-recovery (energy recovery) cokemaking
• SunCoke Energy- USA
• Kembla – Australia
• Indigenous designs from
China/India/Columbia/Peru/Brazil/ Argentina (Note: Some
from South American countries use Non Recovery coke
oven to make coke from petroleum coke with pitch binder)
T.W. Todoschuk 184
Energy Recovery
Major advantages:
• Negative pressure
• Volatiles are combusted
• No BP plant (no waste water or tar sludge disposal issues)
• MACT standard for EPA
• SunCoke Energy has proven track record
T.W. Todoschuk 185
Energy Recovery
T.W. Todoschuk 186
Energy Recovery
T.W. Todoschuk 187
Energy Recovery
T.W. Todoschuk 188
Energy Recovery
Position of Re-solidified Plastic Layer in Non Recovery Oven
T.W. Todoschuk 189
Energy Recovery
• Less pollution; EPA classified NR/HR as MACT.
• No carbonization wall pressure.
• Ability to work on single coal; wide range of blend rank;
allows higher amount of low rank, non-coking coals.
• As majority of input is direct radiant heating from coal
volatiles combusting above charge; hence, higher temp.
• Coking time adjustable without affecting productivity.
• Lesser variability because mostly horizontally charged.
• Lower cost.
T.W. Todoschuk 190
Energy Recovery
• Compared to slot oven coke, ER coke shows increased:
– CSR, Stability & Hardness, Apparent Specific Gravity
(density) and Pprolytic Carbon (CSR)
• High temperature combined with uniform spatial temperature
distribution, slow coking rate and longer soak times.
• Improvement in coke quality can be obtained using lower
rank coals.
• Could also briquette.
T.W. Todoschuk 191
New Cokemaking
Summary
• Slot Oven Coke producers face difficult obstacles to replace
aged or non-compliant coke plants.
• Alternatives have been explored.
• AISI identified energy recovery as the technology choice
going forward. EPA also recognized ER for air standards.
• Energy recovery has made significant in roads due to cost,
ease of operation and environment.
• Scope 21 coke plant (1.0mtpy) has been adopted at NSC’s
Oita Works, with a second plant at Nagoya Works.
• Carbonyx is being built/commissioned at Gary.
• Carbonite to make foundry coke is in start up.
T.W. Todoschuk 192
Ironmaking
T.W. Todoschuk 193
Ironmaking
Blast Furnace Ironmaking:
• To convert the iron ore feed
into hot metal (HM - liquid
alloy of iron and carbon) by
using carbonaceous
materials, mainly coke, as
reductant and fuel,
associated with hot air.
• Hot Metal is typically 92-
94% Fe and 4-5% C
T.W. Todoschuk 194
Ironmaking
• Iron has been in use for over 3000 years
• Modern BF started 1800’s
• Cylindrical with variable diameters
• Outside – steel shell
Inside – refractory
• Typical modern furnace:
− 80 m high, 10 m hearth D
− 5200 m3 inner volume
− 10,000-12,000 ton/day
• Unique process
• Expect >20 year campaign life
T.W. Todoschuk 195
Ironmaking
T.W. Todoschuk 196
Blast Furnace
Top cone - supports charging/gas exit systems

Throat - burden stockline
Stack - heat exchange /reduction reaction
Belly - widest part, gases pass drop liquids

Bosh - expansion to top for easy gas ascend
Tuyere - hot blast, injection
Hearth - final reduction, collect liquids
Tap hole - hot metal/slag exit
T.W. Todoschuk 197
Blast Furnace
Charging System
Skip car
Top charging system
T.W. Todoschuk 198
Blast Furnace
Off-gas System
Downcomer
Uptake
Gas cleaning systems
T.W. Todoschuk 199 199

Blast Furnace
Hot Blast System

• Hot stoves (2-4)
• BFG/COG as fuel
• HB to1250oC
• Turbo blower
• Hot blast main
• Tuyere
T.W. Todoschuk 200
Blast Furnace
Casthouse
Drill
Clay gun
Trough
Runner
Torpedo car
T.W. Todoschuk 201
Blast Furnace
Raw materials (pellets and coke)
are charged in the top of the
furnace
Hot gases heat the pellets and

coke in the shaft of the furnace
Hot Blast and coal is injected into

the lower part of the furnace at the
tuyeres
Liquid iron and slag accumulate in

the hearth
T.W. Todoschuk 202
Blast Furnace
• Iron ore - provides iron units charged in as pellet, sinter or lumps,
main iron oxides Fe2O3 or Fe3O4
• Coke - provides thermal energy, provides reducing reagent,
provide physical supports to the burden and permeability to the
gas
• Flux - provides base materials reacts with impurities forms slag,
provides desulphurization capacity
• Hot blast (HB) - provides thermal energy provides oxygen for
combustion provides nitrogen for carrying heat superheated up to
1250oC
• Injectants - coal, oil, natural gas, up to 250 kg/thm replacement
for coke oxygen up to 34% in HB increase productivity
T.W. Todoschuk 203
Blast Furnace
• Iron ore, coke, flux charged from top,
(descending)
• Super heated air (hot blast) blown in
from tuyere, burns coke, generates
heat and reducing gases
(ascending)
• Gas-solid counter current flows,
the most efficient heat exchanger
• Iron ore preheated, reduced and
smelted to hot metal
• Hot metal/slag tapped from bottom,
top gas leaves at top
T.W. Todoschuk 204
BF Zones
T.W. Todoschuk 205
BF Zones with Good and Poor Coke Quality
T.W. Todoschuk 206
PCI
• Injecting pulverized coal into
a blast furnace as an
auxiliary fuel to reduce the
amount of coke consumed
and therefore to reduce
operating costs in the
production of pig iron
• The technology involves
injecting very fine particles of
coal at high rates into the
chamber of the blast furnace
as a fuel
• PCI includes a coal grinding
and coal injection system.
T.W. Todoschuk 207
PCI and the Raceway
T.W. Todoschuk 208
Coke Replacement
T.W. Todoschuk 209
Major Reactions
3Fe2O3 + CO = 2Fe3O4 + CO2

Fe3O4 + CO = 3FeO + CO2
FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
FeO + C = Fe + CO
C + CO2 = 2CO
C + O2 = 2CO
T.W. Todoschuk 210
Temperature Profile
Temperature profile of gas and solids
along the height of the blast furnace
T.W. Todoschuk 211
Mass Balance
• To produce 1 ton of liquid iron, it takes:

− 1.5 tons of iron ore pellets
− 0.5 tons of high quality metallurgical coke
− 200 lb. of burnt lime (CaO)
− 300 lb. of coal for injection
− About 4 tons of hot air
• The above also produces about 6 tons of waste gas
T.W. Todoschuk 212
Iron Ore
T.W. Todoschuk 213
Iron Ore
T.W. Todoschuk 214
Iron Ore
T.W. Todoschuk 215
Iron Ore Tests
T.W. Todoschuk 216
Iron Ore High Temperature Test
T.W. Todoschuk 217
The Effect of Mg
T.W. Todoschuk 218
Acid vs Fluxed Pellets
1150C 1300C
50% Reduction 80% Reduction
1 inch WG 1 inch WG
T.W. Todoschuk 219
High Temperature Testing
T.W. Todoschuk 220
Hot Metal
• Hot Metal quality has to satisfy physical and chemical properties
required by Steelmaking
• Temperature – steelmaking prefers high hot metal temperature for
higher scrap addition to lower costs
• Cleanleness – minimum slag carryover into the torpedo car and is
largely a function of casting practice
T.W. Todoschuk 221
Hot Metal vs Steel
• Hot metal / Liquid iron -

a main product of BF with 92-
94%Fe and 4-5%C. It is the
foundation for all finished
steel products.
• Steel - an alloy consists of Fe

and other elements, (up to
2%C). About 2000 standard
grades. Most important multi-
functional and most
adaptable material.
T.W. Todoschuk 222
Hot Metal Chemistry
• Carbon – important fuel in steelmaking, not controllable in BF.
• Silicon – also a fuel in steelmaking, Si% in hot metal increases BF
coke rate and steelmaking slag volume. The trend is towards the
low Si% hot metal.
• Sulfur – highly undesirable, can cause “red shortness” (hot
brittleness) during hot rolling and can decrease transverse strength
in steel products. S is partly removed in BF, and partly removed at
outside BF to 0.002 to 0.02%.
• Phosphorus – not desirable, causes “cold brittleness”. Not
controllable in BF. Only way for low P% is to charge low P ore.
Removed at steelmaking.
T.W. Todoschuk 223
Hot Metal Chemistry
Hot Metal
• Hot metal is the main product of BFironmaking.
• After desulphurization, it is transported in liquid state to the
steelmaking shops where it is refined to liquid steel.
T.W. Todoschuk 224
Blast Furnace Slag
Slag
• Slag is the by product in BF process to separate the impurities
from iron. Slag can be used in products such as glass, cement and
concrete. The main compositions in slag are CaO,SiO2, Al2O3 and
MgO.
% CaO % SiO2 % MgO % Al2O3 % FeO % S Basicity

37-44 30-38 8-12 9-13 0.4-0.7 1.3-2.5 ~1.10
Slag Basicity - important property index higher basicity

favor sulfur removal, but less fluidity
%CaO  % MgO
Basicity   0 .9  1 .2
% SiO2  % Al2O3
T.W. Todoschuk 225
Blast Furnace Slag
Basic features of CaO-

SiO2-Al2O3 slag
systems.
Composition vs. the

melting temperature
T.W. Todoschuk 226
Stack or Lumpy Zone
Stack or lump zone
• Stock line (<200oC) to softening
zone (1000oC)
• Discrete layers of ore and coke
• Drying and heating H2O(l) = H2O(g)
• Ascending gases reduce
descending iron oxides
3Fe2O3 + CO = 2Fe3O4 + CO2
Fe3O4 + CO = 3FeO + CO2
T.W. Todoschuk 227
Cohesive Zone
Cohesive zone
• Start at ore softening (1000oC)
to melting (1350oC)
• Discrete layers of ore and coke
• Iron ore in transition from
softening mass to liquid
• Solid coke layers provide
permeability for gas flow, liquid
drainage, and support burden
• Heating and some reduction:
FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
FeO + C = Fe + CO
T.W. Todoschuk 228
Active Coke Zone
Active coke zone
• Loosely packed moving coke iron
and slag droplets drip down
• Combustion gas pass upward
• Chemical reactions/activities involve
coke, slag, iron and flux
• Final reduction of Fe, Si, P, Mn
FeO + C = Fe + CO
MnO + C = Mn + CO
SiO2 + 2C = Si + 2CO
P2O5 + 5C = 2P + 5 CO
T.W. Todoschuk 229
Raceway
Raceway
• Semi-void region in front of
tuyere created by hot blast
enters the BF at a velocity of
200 to 300 m/s
• Combustion of coke and
injected fuels, generates heat
and reducing gas
C + 1/2 O2 = CO + Heat
C + H2O = CO + H2
• Temperature reaches 2000oC
T.W. Todoschuk 230
Hearth
Hearth
• Collects liquid iron and slag
• Carburization
C (coke)  C (hot metal)
• Hot metal and slag
temperature reaches1500oC
T.W. Todoschuk 231
Reaction Summary
T.W. Todoschuk 232
Ironmaking
Top gas
• Top gas (BFG) leaves the furnace through the gas collection
system at the top of the furnace. After removal of dust, this
gas is used in the hot stove and coke oven as fuel.
%CO %CO2 %H2 %N2 ETACO Temp. F

20.61 22.37 3.20 53.82 51.96 284
% CO 2
ETACO  x 100 %
% CO  % CO 2
T.W. Todoschuk 233
Solution Loss Reaction
Indirect reduction reaction at lower temperature:
FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
Direct reduction reaction at temperatures >=1000 C:
FeO + CO = Fe + CO2
CO2 + C = 2CO
FeO + C = Fe + CO
Solution loss reaction:
CO2 + C = 2CO
It regenerates reducing gases and consumes carbon. It is very
endothermic and very sensitive to temperature. Its determines ETACO
and fuel efficiency.
T.W. Todoschuk 234
Ironmaking Slag
Slag Formation and Requirements:

• All slag is formed at or below the cohesive zone
• Composition changes as it drips down towards hearth
• Must be liquid and highly fluid at ironmaking temperature
• Must have sufficient sulfur-removal capacity
• Minimize slag volume
T.W. Todoschuk 235
Ironmaking Sulphur
Sulfur Removal:
• S enters the blast furnace mainly from the coke ash.
• S forms hydro-sulfide (H2S) gas at the raceway and
absorbed by liquid iron and slag.
• S in the hot metal must be removed at very high temperature
in the hearth and with presence of CaO in the slag:
FeS + CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO
• The amount of S removed depends on temperature, the slag

volume and slag composition.
T.W. Todoschuk 236
Ironmaking Sulphur
Torpedo car desulphurizaition
T.W. Todoschuk 237
Ironmaking Control
Charging Control:
• Mass balance based burden calculation model is used to
determine the mix of the charge. The materials charged will
influence the hot metal composition, slag basicity and coke rate.
• Burden distribution can also be adjusted to control gas flow
permeability and solid movement inside the furnace.
Hot Blast Control:
• The wind (hot blast) rate is the most important and most
commonly used means for blast furnace operation control.
• Wind rate is directly related to blast furnace productivity and
strongly influence the furnace operation stability.
• Hot blast temperature and humidity can be adjusted to control
the furnace thermal states and fuel rate.
T.W. Todoschuk 238
Ironmaking Control
Tuyere Injection Control:
• Appropriate tuyere injection adjustments are used in BF
operation to control raceway combustion temperature,
furnace thermal state, gas permeability and fuel rate.
• Those injections include oxygen enrichment, steam injection,
natural gas / oil / coal injections.
RAFT:
• Raceway Adiabatic Flame Temperature (RAFT)
• AISI empirical equation:
• RAFT (F) = 2686
+ 0.82 x blast temperature (F)
+ 95 x oxygen enrichment (%)
- 23.5 x steam (grain/scf dry blast)
- 123.6 x oil (lb/1000 scf dry blast)
- 29.9 x coal (lb/1000 scf dry blast)
T.W. Todoschuk 239
Ironmaking Productivity
BF Productivity:
• Measured by “nthm/day/100 ft3 working volume”
• Current BF value: 6-12 nthm/d/100 ft3 wv
• BF productivity is directly related to wind rate
Higher wind rate  higher combustion of coke  higher solid
materials descend  higher productivity.
• Mainly determined by the BF operation stability.
• Essential step is to improve permeability
• Burden materials (coke and iron ore and their thickness)
• Charging sequence and placement (wall or center)
T.W. Todoschuk 240
• The furnace pressure drop can be expressed by the Ergun
Equation:
P  1   G2
 1.75 3 
L   De  g
• The furnace permeability is inversely proportional to the pressure

drop.
• It increases with the void fraction and decreases with the wind
rate:
K  1/ ΔP and K  ε3 / G2
T.W. Todoschuk 241
• Charge high metallic iron content materials such as scrap
and DRI or HBI. Main concern is costs.
+1% metallic iron  +0.9% Prod. / - 0.8% fuel
• Add oxygen in hot blast – higher oxygen content results in
higher combustion rate, higher temperature and higher
reducing power gas, but will lower total gas volume, less
heat for burden.
• Usually combined with other fuel injections.
+1% oxygen  3% prod.
T.W. Todoschuk 242
Hot Metal Summary
Hot Metal
• Temperature – steelmaking prefers high hot metal temperature for
higher scrap addition to lower costs
• Cleanness – minimum slag carryover into the torpedo car and is largely
a function of casting practice
• Carbon – important fuel in steelmaking, not controllable in BF.
• Silicon – also a fuel in steelmaking, Si% in hot metal increases BF coke
rate and steelmaking slag volume. The trend is towards the low Si%
hot metal.
• Sulfur – highly undesirable, can cause “red shortness” (hot brittleness)
during hot rolling and can decrease transverse strength in steel
products. S is partly removed in BF, and partly removed at outside BF
to 0.002 to 0.02%.
• Phosphorus – not desirable, causes “cold brittleness”. Not controllable
in BF. Only way for low P% is to charge low P ore. Removed at
steelmaking.
T.W. Todoschuk 243
Ironmaking New Technology
Ironmaking Technologies:
• Blast Furnace (BF) Process
• Smelting Reduction (SR) Process
• Direct Reduction (DR) Process
SR vs DR Process:
• Process with iron oxide reduced in solid state and produces
solid direct reduced iron (DRI) as the final product is referred to
as a DR process.
• A process in which at least the partial reduction is taking place
in liquid state and the final product is liquid iron, is a SR
process.
T.W. Todoschuk 244
Ironmaking New Technology
• Smelting Reduction (SR) Process:
− Shaft furnace - COREX
− In-bath smelting – HIsmelt, DIOS, AISI
• Direct Reduction (DR) Process:
− Shaft furnace – MIDREX, HYL
− Rotary hearth – Fastmet, IDI, Redsmelt
− Rotary kiln –SL/RN
• Iron Nugget – ITmk3 Process
T.W. Todoschuk 245
Corex
Reducing gas Export gas
solids
COREX <900oC >1600oC
FexOy +y CO = xFe + y CO2 Melter -

gasifier
C+1/2O2=CO+ H
Pre-reduction Coal
shaft furnace +
O2
Liquid Iron
T.W. Todoschuk 246
Corex
COREX has 6 installations, 5 in operation:
1. ISCOR, 1989, 350,000 tpa, shut down
2. POSCO, 1995, 700,000 tpa,
3. Saldnaha, 1999, 650,000 tpa, with Midrex DRI plant
4. Jindal No.1, 1999, No.2, 2001, 2 x 800,000 tpa
with 2x130 mW power station
5. BaoSteel, 2007, 1,500,000 tpa
Major Obstacles in North America:

• Excess off-gas from melter-gasifier
• Highly depends on energy and natural gas market prices
• High capital costs
• Construction is long (36 months), labor costs are high
T.W. Todoschuk 247
Hismelt
HIsmelt
GAS CLEANING
SYSTEM
OXYGEN
ENRICHMENT
COLD BLAST AIR
REACTOR STOVES
T.W. Todoschuk 248
Hismelt
HIsmelt Process:
• Developer – Rio Tinto
• Pilot Plant – Kwinana, Australia, 100,000 tpa
• Demonstration Plant – 800,000 tpa, trials started in 2005,
currently reached 80% production
• Excellent pilot plant group, reliable test results
• Need demonstrate success at large scale
T.W. Todoschuk 249
Direct Reduction
Direct Reduction (DR) Processes:
• 12 processes/110 plants, in 2008, 68.5 million tons DRI
• Natural gas DR processes account 75% DRI
• MIDREX 58% and HYL 15% world DRI production
• Increase of coal-based DR production leading by India
with the use of numerous small rotary kiln processes
• DRI mainly used in EAF as substitute for scrap, DR not a
true replacement for BF
T.W. Todoschuk 250
Iron Nugget
Iron Nugget – ITmk3 Process:
• Developed by Kobe Steel
• Rotary Hearth Furnace (RHF)
• Use fine iron ore and coal
• Reduced in solid state, melted to liquid to separate iron and
slag
• Produce solid iron nuggets to be charged to EAF
• Went through Lab and pilot tests
• Steel Dynamics to build a 500,000 t/y plant in Minnesota, to
be in operation late 2009
T.W. Todoschuk 251
ITmk3 Process
ITmk3 Process Flow Sheet
Iron Nuggets
T.W. Todoschuk 252
Ironmaking Summary
• BF – dominant iron producer for 20-30 years

• Major development on coke replacement injections, high coal
injection rate up to 250 kg/thm
• More aged coke oven will be closed and North American
steel industry will face severe coke shortage
• Alternate processes will be more attractive
• COREX and HIsmelt processes will likely obtain serious
consideration
T.W. Todoschuk 253

COKE - Introduction To The Primary Process Short Course

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COKE - Introduction To The Primary Process Short Course

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Introduction to the Primary

• What is the purpose of ironmaking?

•What is the purpose of steelmaking?

Exhauster Booster 2 20" BAY

• During the early stages of coalification, large quantities of

there are many 10,000

Calculated Total Dilatation, %

• Many of these methods 500

use either petrography 100

strength or the coal

Individual coal particles have

Particles push against each other

VITRINITE (%) 73.31 55.12 62.06 67.09 63.80

Inert Rich Inert Deficit

• SI is a function of rank i.e. Ro, vitrinite

• Typically the blend is a mixture of LV, MV and HV

Inert Rich Inert Deficit

• An excess of inert components:

• Blend components will have the required temperature overlap

COAL + HEAT (ABSENSE OF AIR)=COKE + GAS

• Typically, coal is heated to 1000-1100°C in 16-24 hrs.

Coal with the addition of heat starts the process

T.W. Todoschuk 104

T.W. Todoschuk 105

T.W. Todoschuk 106

T.W. Todoschuk 107

T.W. Todoschuk 108

T.W. Todoschuk 109

T.W. Todoschuk 110

T.W. Todoschuk 111

T.W. Todoschuk 112

T.W. Todoschuk 113

• Used to make industrial type

• There are two pressure

Coke quality parameters:

• The first stage is due to mechanical stabilization of the coke

• The second stage occurs in the Blast Furnace where coke is

Multi Chamber Single Chamber

• Not commercial at this point

Transported material heating with controlled atmosphere

Position of Re-solidified Plastic Layer in Non Recovery Oven

Top cone - supports charging/gas exit systems

Stack - heat exchange /reduction reaction

Belly - widest part, gases pass drop liquids

Top charging system

Gas cleaning systems

T.W. Todoschuk 199 199

Hot Blast System

Hot gases heat the pellets and

Hot Blast and coal is injected into

Liquid iron and slag accumulate in

3Fe2O3 + CO = 2Fe3O4 + CO2

• To produce 1 ton of liquid iron, it takes:

• Hot metal / Liquid iron -

• Steel - an alloy consists of Fe

% CaO % SiO2 % MgO % Al2O3 % FeO % S Basicity

Slag Basicity - important property index higher basicity

Basic features of CaO-

Composition vs. the

%CO %CO2 %H2 %N2 ETACO Temp. F

Slag Formation and Requirements:

FeS + CaO + C = Fe + CaS + CO

• The amount of S removed depends on temperature, the slag