Richter scale

 Definition
Richter scale (ML), quantitative measure of an earthquake’s magnitude (size), devised in 1935 by
American seismologists Charles F. Richter and Beno Gutenberg. The earthquake’s magnitude is
determined using the logarithm of the amplitude (height) of the largest seismic
wave calibrated to a scale by a seismograph. Although modern scientific practice has replaced
the original Richter scale with other, more-accurate scales, the Richter scale is still often
mentioned erroneously in news reports of earthquake severity as the catch-all name for the
logarithmic scale upon which earthquakes are measured.
The Richter scale was originally devised to measure the magnitude of earthquakes of moderate
size (that is, magnitude 3 to magnitude 7) by assigning a number that would allow the size of one
earthquake to be compared with another. The scale was developed for temblors occuring in
southern California that were recorded using the Wood-Anderson seismograph and
whose epicentres were less than 600 km (373 miles) from the location of the seismograph.
Present-day seismographs, however, may be calibrated to compute Richter magnitudes, and
modern methods for measuring earthquake magnitude have been developed to produce results
that remain consistent with those measured using the Richter scale.

 Methodology
On the original Richter scale, the smallest earthquakes measurable at that time were assigned
values close to zero on the seismograph of the period. Since modern seismographs can
detect seismic waves even smaller than those originally chosen for zero magnitude, it is possible
to measure earthquakes having negative magnitudes on the Richter scale. Each increase of one
unit on the scale represents a 10-fold increase in the magnitude of an earthquake. In other words,
numbers on the Richter scale are proportional to the common (base 10) logarithms of maximum
wave amplitudes. Each increase of one unit also represents the release of about 31 times
more energy than that represented by the previous whole number on the scale. (That is, an
earthquake measuring 5.0 releases 31 times more energy than an earthquake measuring 4.0.) In
theory, the Richter scale has no upper limit, but, in practice, no earthquake has ever been
registered on the scale above magnitude 8.6. (That was the Richter magnitude for the Chile
earthquake of 1960. The moment magnitude for this event was measured at 9.5.).

The Richter scale and how it measures earthquake magnitude. The Richter scale calculates an
earthquake's magnitude (size) from the amplitude of the earthquake's largest seismic wave
recorded by a seismograph.Encyclopædia Britannica, Inc.
For earthquakes measuring magnitude 6.5 or greater, Richter’s original methodology has been
shown to be unreliable. Magnitude calculations are dependent on the earthquake being local, as
well as on the use of one particular type of seismograph. In addition, the Richter scale could not
be used to calculate the total energy released by an earthquake or describe the amount of damage
it did. Because of limitations imposed by seismographs and the emphasis on measuring a single
peak amplitude, the Richter scale underestimates the energy released in earthquakes with
magnitudes greater than 6.5, since the values calculated after measuring very large seismic
waves tend to cluster, or “saturate,” near one another.
  Modified Richter Scales

The shortcomings inherent in the original Richter scale spawned the development of improved
Richter scales by Richter and Gutenberg. In the decades that followed the creation of the original
Richter scale, they developed the body-wave magnitude scale (mb, which calculates the
magnitude of primary, or P, and secondary, or S, seismic waves traveling within Earth) and
the surface-wave magnitude scale (MS, which calculates the magnitude of Love and Rayleigh
waves traveling along Earth’s surface). Although both scales continued to make use of
seismographs and peak wave amplitudes, they became relatively reliable ways to calculate the
energy of all but the largest earthquakes. The surface-wave magnitude scale also had no distance
restrictions between the earthquake epicentre and the location of the seismograph, and the body-
wave magnitude scale, with its approximately 1,000-km (620-mile) range, was viewed as
accurate enough to measure the few relatively small earthquakes that occurred in eastern North
America. Both scales, however, suffered from saturation when used to measure earthquakes of
magnitude 8 and above.

 Moment Magnitude Scale

The moment magnitude (MW or M) scale, developed in the late 1970s by Japanese
seismologist Hiroo Kanamori and American seismologist Thomas C. Hanks, became the most
popular measure of earthquake magnitude worldwide during the late 20th and early 21st
centuries. It was designed to produce a more-accurate measure of the total energy released by an
earthquake. The scale abandoned the use of peak wave amplitudes in its calculations, focusing
instead on calculating an earthquake’s seismic moment (M0)—that is, the displacement of the
fault across its entire surface multiplied by the force used to move the fault. Since the moment
magnitude scale was not limited by Richter’s process, it avoided the saturation problem and thus
was used to determine the magnitudes of the largest earthquakes. Moment magnitude
calculations, however, continue to express earthquake magnitude using a logarithmic scale,
which allows its results to compare favorably with those of other scales below magnitude 8.

Richter Scale Of Earthquake Magnitude

The Richter scale of earthquake magnitude is listed in the table.

magnitude earthquakes per
category effects
level year

less than 1.0 to generally not felt by people, though more than
micro
2.9 recorded on local instruments 100,000

3.0–3.9 minor felt by many people; no damage 12,000–100,000

4.0–4.9 light felt by all; minor breakage of objects 2,000–12,000

 magnitude earthquakes per
category effects
level year

5.0–5.9 moderate some damage to weak structures 200–2,000

6.0–6.9 strong moderate damage in populated areas 20–200

serious damage over large areas; loss of

7.0–7.9 major 3–20
life

severe destruction and loss of life over

8.0 and higher great fewer than 3
large areas

Richter scale of earthquake magnitude

From: https://www.britannica.com/science/Richter-scale

MERCALLI SCALE
 Definition
Another way to measure the strength of an earthquake is to use the Mercalli scale. Invented by
Giuseppe Mercalli in 1902, this scale uses the observations of the people who experienced the
earthquake to estimate its intensity.

The Mercalli scale isn't considered as scientific as the Richter scale, though. Some witnesses of the
earthquake might exaggerate just how bad things were during the earthquake and you may not find
two witnesses who agree on what happened; everybody will say something different. The amount
of damage caused by the earthquake may not accurately record how strong it was either.

 Factors that affect the damage that occurs

o the building designs,

o the distance from the epicenter,
o the type of surface material (rock or dirt) the buildings rest on.

Different building designs hold up differently in an earthquake and the further you are
from the earthquake, the less damage you'll usually see. Whether a building is built on
solid rock or sand makes a big difference in how much damage it takes. Solid rock
usually shakes less than sand, so a building built on top of solid rock shouldn't be as
damaged as it might if it was sitting on a sandy lot.
 From: https://sciencing.com/scales-used-measure-earthquakes-7238883.html
http://www.geo.mtu.edu/UPSeis/intensity.html

ROSSI–FOREL SCALE
 Definition
The Rossi–Forel scale was one of the first seismic scales to reflect earthquake intensities.
Developed by Michele Stefano Conte de Rossi of Italy and François-Alphonse Forel of
Switzerland in the late 19th century, it was used for about two decades until the introduction of
the Mercalli intensity scale in 1902.

The Rossi–Forel scale and/or its modifications is still in use in some countries, such as the
Philippines.

Scale
The 1873 version of the Rossi–Forel scale had 10 intensity levels:
I. Microseismic tremor. Recorded by a single seismograph or by seismographs of the same
model, but not by several seismographs of different kinds. The shock felt by an experienced
observer.
II. Extremely feeble tremor. Recorded by several seismographs of different kinds. Felt by a small
number of persons at rest.
III. Feeble tremor. Felt by several persons at rest. Strong enough for the direction or duration to
be appreciable.
IV. Slight tremor. Felt by persons in motion. Disturbance of movable objects, doors, windows,
cracking of ceilings.
V. Moderate tremor. Felt generally by everyone. Disturbance of furniture, ringing of some bells.
VI. Strong tremor. General awakening of those asleep. General ringing of bells. Oscillation of
chandeliers, stopping of clocks, visible agitation of trees and shrubs. Some startled persons
leaving their dwellings.
VII. Very strong tremor. Overthrow of movable objects, fall of plaster, ringing of church bells.
General panic. Moderate to heavy damage buildings.
VIII. Damaging tremor. Fall of chimneys. Cracks in the walls of buildings.
IX. Devastating tremor. Partial or total destruction of buildings.
X. Extremely high intensity tremor. Great disaster, ruins, disturbance of the strata, fissures in the
ground, rock falls from mountains.
FROM: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Rossi%E2%80%93Forel_scale

MSK 64 SCALE
 Definition
The Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale, also known as the MSK or MSK-64, is a macroseismic
intensity scale used to evaluate the severity of ground shaking on the basis of observed effects in
an area of the earthquake occurrence.
The scale was first proposed by Sergei Medvedev (USSR), Wilhelm Sponheuer (East Germany),
and Vít Kárník (Czechoslovakia) in 1964. It was based on the experiences being available in the
early 1960s from the application of the Modified Mercalli intensity scale and the 1953 version of
the Medvedev scale, known also as the GEOFIAN scale.[1]
With minor modifications in the mid-1970s and early 1980s, the MSK scale became widely used
in Europe and the USSR. In early 1990s, the European Seismological Commission (ESC) used
many of the principles formulated in the MSK in the development of the European Macroseismic
Scale, which is now a de facto standard for evaluation of seismic intensity in European countries.
MSK-64 is still being used in India, Israel, Russia, and throughout the Commonwealth of
Independent States.
The Medvedev–Sponheuer–Karnik scale is somewhat similar to the Modified Mercalli (MM)
scale used in the United States. The MSK scale has 12 intensity degrees expressed in Roman
numerals (to prevent the use of decimals):
I. Not perceptible Not felt, registered only by seismographs. No effect on objects. No
damage to buildings.
II. Hardly perceptible Felt only by individuals at rest. No effect on objects. No damage to
buildings.
III. Weak Felt indoors by a few. Hanging objects swing slightly. No damage to buildings.
IV. Largely observed Felt indoors by many and felt outdoors only by very few. A few
people are awakened. Moderate vibration. Observers feel a slight trembling or swaying of the
building, room, bed, chair etc. China, glasses, windows and doors rattle. Hanging objects swing.
Light furniture shakes visibly in a few cases. No damage to buildings.
V. Fairly strong Felt indoors by most, outdoors by few. A few people are frightened and
run outdoors. Many sleeping people awake. Observers feel a strong shaking or rocking of the
whole building, room or furniture. Hanging objects swing considerably. China and glasses clatter
together. Doors and windows swing open or shut. In a few cases window panes break. Liquids
oscillate and may spill from fully filled containers. Animals indoors may become uneasy. Slight
damage to a few poorly constructed buildings.
VI. Strong Felt by most indoors and by many outdoors. A few persons lose their balance.
Many people are frightened and run outdoors. Small objects may fall and furniture may be
shifted. Dishes and glassware may break. Farm animals may be frightened. Visible damage to
masonry structures, cracks in plaster. Isolated cracks on the ground.
VII. Very strong Most people are frightened and try to run outdoors. Furniture is shifted
and may be overturned. Objects fall from shelves. Water splashes from containers. Serious
damage to older buildings, masonry chimneys collapse. Small landslides.
VIII. Damaging Many people find it difficult to stand, even outdoors. Furniture may be
overturned. Waves may be seen on very soft ground. Older structures partially collapse or sustain
considerable damage. Large cracks and fissures opening up, rockfalls.
IX. Destructive General panic. People may be forcibly thrown to the ground. Waves are
seen on soft ground. Substandard structures collapse. Substantial damage to well-constructed
structures. Underground pipelines ruptured. Ground fracturing, widespread landslides.
X. Devastating Masonry buildings destroyed, infrastructure crippled. Massive landslides.
Water bodies may be overtopped, causing flooding of the surrounding areas and formation of
new water bodies.
XI. Catastrophic Most buildings and structures collapse. Widespread ground disturbances,
tsunamis.
XII. Very catastrophic All surface and underground structures completely destroyed.
Landscape generally changed, rivers change paths, tsunamis.
USSR GEOFAN
 USSR Meaning
Union of Soviet Socialist Republics, former communist country in eastern Europe and northern
Asia; established in1922; included Russia and 14 other soviet socialist republics (Ukraine and
Byelorussia andothers); officially dissolved 31 December 1991