SOCIAL SCIENCE

Class 10

MADHYA PRADESH
RAJYA SHIKSHA KENDRA, BHOPAL

YEAR 2012 Rs.

Publicaiton year-2008, Reprint- 2009, 2010, 2011, 2012
© Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal Direction
R.S. Julania
Commissioner, M.P. Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal
Guidance
Rajesh Jain
Aditional Mission Director, M.P. Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal
A.K. Dixit
Aditional Director, M.P. Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal
Co-ordination
Shakuntala Shrivastav
Co-ordinator-Curriculum, Text Book and TLM, M.P. Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal
Subject Co-ordinator
Dr. Sadhna Singh
Academic Consultant, Rajya Siksha Kendra, Bhopal
Writers and Moderation
w Dr. R.P. Singh Retd., Principal, DIET, Vidisha, S.S. Patel, Principal, H.S.S., DIET, Pachmari,
Shivraj Singh Tomar, Asstt. Prof., Autonomous P.G. College, Ambah, Dr. Sadhna Singh R.S.K.
w Dr. Ashokchndra Dahibhate, Asstt. Prof., P.G. College, Guna, Dr. Manoj Awasthi, Asstt.
Prof. Madhav College, Gwalior, Shushma Dixit, Lect., Boys Higher Secondary School, Bairagrah,
Dr. Shalini Saxena, Bhopal,
w Dr. V.S. Gupta, Retd. Principal, P.G. College, Gwalior, Anil Mishra, DIET, Shahdol, Dr.
Ashok Tyagi, Asstt. Prof., M.L.B., Govt. Excellence College, Gwalior, Dr. Mahavir
Prasad Modi, Asstt. Prof., P.G. College, Morena, L.D. Gupta Retd. Principal, P.G. College,
Shivpuri, w Shakun Dhoot, Retd. Principal, H.S.S.
w Shailesh Choubey, Prof. Rani Durgavati Vishwavidhayalya, Jabalpur, Shushma Saran,
Principal, H.S.S., PGBT, Bhopal, Kamal Bhardwaj, Asstt. Prof., A. P.G. College, Ambah,
Morena,
Editing
w Dr. J.P. Singh, Retd., Proff., Regional Educational Research and Trainng Institute, Bhopal
w Dr.S.K.Trivedi, Lecturer, Govt. Hamidia College, Bhopal. w Dr.RamdevBharadwaj, Prof.
Rani Durgavati Vishwavidhayalya, Jabalpur, w Dr. P.D. Maheswari, Retd. Prof., P.G. Excellence
College, Bhopal
Translation
w Dr. A.L. Naik, Retd., Deputy Commissoner, Deptt. of Tribal Welfare w Dr. Rajeshwari
Duby, Asstt. Prof., S.N.K., P.G. Autonomous College, Bhopal w Shushma Saran, Principal,
H.S.S., PGBT, Bhopal,
Mapping & Picturaisation - Vikas Malviya (RSK), Vinay Sapre
© Government of India copyright Act 2008
l The correct depiction of internal description of maps is the responsibility of publishers.
l The territorial waters of India extend into the sea to a distance of twelve nautical miles measured from the
appropriate base line.
l The interstate boundaries between Arunachal Pradesh, Assam and Meghalaya shown in this publication are as
interpreted from the North-Eastern Areas (Reorganisation) Act, 1971 but yet to be verified.
l The international and coastal boundaries of India with the verified record/main copy certified by survey of India.
l The state boundaries between Uttaranchal & Utterpradesh, Bihar & Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh &
Madhyapradesh have not been verified by the Concerned Government .
Composing - Akshar Graphics, Bhopal
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 Approved by
Madhya Pradesh Textbook Standing Committee
S.No. Name and Address Designation
1 Dr. Govind Sharma Chairman
Former Additional Director,
Higher Education, Govt. of M.P., Gwalior
2. Dr. Umrao Singh Choudhary Member
Former Vice Chancellor,
Devi Ahiliya University, Indore
3. Prof. Udai Jain Member
Former Principal, Shri Vaishnav College, Indore
4. Dr. Subhash Gupta Member
Dean, Student Welfare, Devi Ahilya University, Indore
5. Dr. (Smt.) Binay Rajaram Member
Professor and Head of Department, Hindi
Shri Satya Sai Women’s College, Bhopal
6. Prof. Sureshwar Sharma Member
Former Vice Chancellor,
Rani Durgawati Vishwavidyalaya, Jabalpur
7. Dr. Manmohan Upadhyaya Member
Educationist and Deputy Chairman,
M.P. Sanskrit Board, Bhopal
8. Shri Bhagirath Kumrawat Member
Educationist, Bhopal
9. Commissioner Member Secretary
Rajya Shiksha Kendra, M.P., Bhopal
10. Commissioner, Member
Public Instruction, M.P., Bhopal
11. Secretary, Member
Board of Secondary Education, M.P., Bhopal
12. Managing Director, Member
M.P. Text Book Corporation, Bhopal
13. Representative - NCERT Member
14. Representative - Navodaya Vidyalaya Sangathan Member
15. Dr. Prem Bharati Guest Member
Educationist and member, State Level General Body
and working committee M.P. Sarva Shiksha Abhiyan

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 Preface
The new text book is an attempt to execute the national curriculum 2005, in
which investment in information, associating children with life outside school,
reducing the tradition of textual knowledge and learning by memorization and to
work in the direction of child centered learning. To meet these aims of education,
M.P. Education Deptt. and M.P. Board of Secondary education has developed an
intergrated new curriculum. In this subject matter related to Environment, Geogra-
phy, History, Political Science and Economics has been incorporated. The new
textbook of class 10 has been prepared on the basis of new integrated curriculum
keeping in mind the cognitive development of students of class 10. Children will be
able to create new learning by relating to the information and contents of the book.

Its hoped that the new textbook of Social Science will help the learners to grasp
the information related to the subject in an easy and simple manner. It will also help
to develop their skills and qualitative development in the subject. The book will help
in childrens' participation in learning, reducing mental pressure and making the
contents interesting. The Board is grateful to all the people and institutions who have
given their valuable contribution in the preparation of the book. The Board also
expresses its heartfelt gratitude to the author whose literature has been used in book
writting. In the end the Board of Secondary Education expresses its gratitude to the
teachers/educationists and parents who have given their valuable suggestions for the
improvement of the book.

Its a collective effort of writers, moderators and subject coordinators, under

the guidance of a standing committee. It has been our endeavour to develop a book
without errors but improvement is a continuous process. In human efforts there is
always a scope for improvement. Therefore suggestions are invited for improving the
book.
Commissioner
Rajya Siksha Kendra,
Bhopal

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 About the Book
Social Science is a very interesting subject as it is related to our
social environment. But the teaching of it is very generalized. This
also affects the desired results. Therefore while teaching, realistic
picturisation of subject matter is very important.
Keeping the above fact in mind an effort has been made to
incorporate the subject matters of Environment, Geography, History,
Political Science and Economics in an interesting manner. The
following efforts have been made in the book -
u The contents and skills related to the chapters have been given
under the heading of ‘We will study’ in the beginning. This will
help the teachers while teaching and evaluation.
u The book has been made in two colours and important information
has been shown in bold and Boxes.
u Maximum efforts to provide information through graphs, pictures
and maps have been made.
u Colourful maps have been given which will make the subject
interesting and learning easy. This will also help in developing
skills and understanding.
u Different words have been given in the end so that an understanding
of the definition of words develops in the students.
u Exercises towards the end of the lessons have been given to
develop the writing skills, self thinking, relating facts with each
other developing the skill of drawing conclusions, and the ability
to express informations. Very short questions, short questions and
long questions and map work has been included for the same.
Objective type questions have been included so that children get
familiarized with the pattern of competitive exam. In the exercises,
knowledge understanding, application and skill based questions
have been included which will help in the correct evaluation of
the level of students learning.
u Project work has been included in the activities which will help
in developing the potential of the child. Besides students will also
learn to relate with surrounding environment and daily life and
acquire knowledge.
Writers

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 Syllabus

SOCIAL SCIENCE
Class-10
01. Indian Resources
Type of Resources : Natural resources - Soil formation, types and distribution, soil
conservation.
Water Resource - Types, Sources, Distribution, Use, Protection & Conservation.
Forest and Wild Life : Forest types, utility, vegitation wild animals and their
conservation endangered animals.
Agriculature - Main crops, contribution of Agriculture in National Economy, Herbal.
Medicine and Horticulture Farms, their utility and conservation.
Mineral Resource - Types, Distribution, Use, Conservation and Economic importance.
Power Resource - Types : Conventional & Non-Conventional, Distribution, Utilisation
& Conservation.
02. Industry :
Types, Description of Special Industries, Contribution of Industries to National
Economy, Industrial Pollution and efforts for solution
03 Transport, Communication and Foreign Trade :
Transport - Utility and types - Railways, Roadways, Airways, Waterways, Pipeline,
Ports & Harbours.
Communication, Importance of Communication in modern days, Means of
Communication. Contribution of foreign Trade to Indian Economy, Imports and
Exports.
04 Disaster Management :
Natural Calamities - Drought, Flood, Earthquake, Landslides, Tsunami. Man Made
Calamities - Nucleic, Biotic and Chemical, Bomb Blast. General Calamities -
Precautions and Security
05 Maps - Reading and Marking
06 First struggle of Freedom and after -
First struggle for Freedom of 1857. Introduction of important revolutionaries, birth
of India National Congress, Moderates and Extremists.

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07 Events related to Independence Struggle -
Important events of the Indian struggle for Independence, Movement against of "Bang
Bhang". (Partition of Bengal) Partition of India in 1947and its salient features,
Contribution of Madhya Pradesh to the Freedom Struggle.
08. Major events of the Post-Independence period -
Kashmir Problem India's relations with neighboring countries, Chinese war with India
in 1962, India-Pakistan wars of 1965 and 1971, emergence of Bangladesh, emergency
in India, Rise of India as an atomic power.
09. Indian Constitution -
Formation of constituent Assumbly and Drafting Committee, Salient Features of
Indian Constitution.
10. Working of Indian Democracy -
Federal System, Division of Administrative power between Centre and States, Organs
of Government: Legislature, Executive and Judiciary, Local Administration.
11. Major Challenges before Democracy -
Increase in Population, Unemployment, Communalism, Terrorism, drug addication:
Major Hinderences in Success of Democracy and measures for removal.
12. Story of Economic Development -
Ancient and modern concept of economic development, National Income & Per
capita Income, Indicators of human development, developing States with examples,
Economic Planning in India, physical and non physical with examples. Rural Develop-
ment and Employment Guarantee Scheme
Money and Financial system : An Introduction of money in ancient times, Financial
Institutions such as money lenders, Zamindars, self help groups, chit funds, private
financial institutions and different types of Banks.
13. Service Sector :
Service Sector- Meaning and Importance as a Component in Income, Infrastructure-
Economic and Social Contribution of India's Service sector in the World.
14. Consumer Awareness :
Consumer Awareness - Need and Importance, Consumer Exploitation, Causes and
Remedies, Stadardsation of Commodities, Government Role.
15. Economic System and Globalisation :
Economic System - Meaning, Capitalism, Socialism and Mixed Economy-Character-
istics, Merits and Demerits.
Globalisation - Meaning, Needs, Development Earlier to 1991 and Modern Reforms,
Impact of Globalisation.

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 Social Science
Unitwise mark distribution

Time - 3 Hrs. Marks - 100

Unit Subject content / Lesson Marks Period
1. Resources of India (I) 05 10
Resources of India (II) 05 10
2. Industries in India 05 07
3. Transport Communication and Foreign Trade 05 06
4. Map Reading and Depiction 05 06
5. Disaster Management 05 08
6. The First Freedom Struggle of 1857 05 08
National Awakening and establishment 05 07
of political organization in India
7. Freedom Movement and related Events 06 07
Contribution of Madhya Pradesh in the 04 05
Freedom Struggle
8. Important Events of the 05 08
Post Independent India
9. Indian Constitution 06 12
10. Functioning of Indian Democracy 07 12
11. Main Challanges before Democracy 07 12
12. Economic Development & Planning 05 05
Money and Financial System 05 05
13. Economy : Service sector and infrastructure 05 08
14. Consumers Awareness 05 08
15. Economic System 03 06
Globalisation 02 04
Revision 20
Total 100 180

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 INDEX
Chapter Subject Chapter Page
No.

1. Geography Resources of India (I) 1

2. Resources of India (II) 19
3. Industries in India 40
4. Transport Communication and Foreign Trade 55
5. Map Reading and Depiction 77
6. Natural Disasters and Disaster Management 90
7. History The First Freedom Struggle of 1857 111
8. National Awakening and establishment 123
of political organization in India
9. Freedom Movement and related Events 136
10. Contribution of Madhya Pradesh in 159
Freedom Struggle
11. Important Events of the 173
Post Independent India
12. Civics Indian Constitution 188
13. Functioning of Indian Democracy 196
14. Main Challanges before Democracy 227
15. Economics Economic Development & Planning 243
16. Rural Development and Employment 256
Guarantee Scheme
17. Money and Financial System 269
18. Economy : Service sector and infrastructure 278
19. Consumers Awareness 292
20. Economic System 302
21. Globalisation 315
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 Chapter-1
Resources of India (I)
(Soil, Water, Forest and Wild Life)
Resources are those aspects which
We shall learn  facilitate the satisfaction of human wants or
1.1 Resource- Meaning, Importance help to solve the problems. In other words,
and Type anything which fulfills human wants or more
1.2 Soil- Formation, Type, distribution
or less it helps in solving problems are called
and Conservation
resources. For example, water is a resource
1.3 Water - Sources of water, their
types, distribution and as it is used for drinking, irrigation, cleaning
conservation of water purposes and cooking. In the same way all
1.4 Forest- Utility and conservation those things which fulfill human needs or
of forest and wild life wants are known as resources.
1.5 Wild life - Endangered Species Resources make human life simple and
happy. Primitive man was completely
dependent on nature. Early man utilized elements of nature with his intelligence. Today
those countries which have more resources are considered as developed and prosperous.
Resources have importance in our life as their availability indicates development.
We must understand that any element of nature is a resource when it helps to fulfil
human needs. Man can convert any substance or material into resources. To fulfil his
needs man can make the natural elements useful and valuable by his intelligence, skill
and technical knowledge. With this process the natural elements become resources. In
short we can say that 'Natural elements become resources when man modifies them to
be more useful and valuable to fulfil his needs with the help of his intelligence, skill and
technical knowledge.
Usually resources are natural. According to
Mcnall, P.E. 'Natural Resources are those Land
il
So

resources which are provided by nature and are

useful to men.' In the process of conversion of er
Air at
materials to resources creation, man's role is Natural W
supreme. Man himself is a resource. An educated, Resources
skilled and healthy man is a valuable resource for e r Forest
a country. P ow
Resources can be classified on the basis of
Minerals
ownership, availability, distribution and uses. Wild Life

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Classification on the basis of ownership :
● Personal Resources- Property, health etc.
● National Resources- Wealth of nation, Military power, Patriotism etc.
● World Resources - Physical and Biological elements of the world for the
welfare of mankind.
Classification on the basis of Availability :
● Renewable Resource-Those resources which regenerate themselves naturally,
provided that they are not subjected to wholesome destruction e.g. agricultural
land remains useful by using manure. Some of them are renewable only so
long as they are used prudently within the limits set by nature.
● Non Renewable Resources- Those resources when once used they are finished
forever e.g.; Petrol, coal etc.
● Recyclable Resources- Those minerals, which can be reprocessed and used
again and again e.g.; Minerals like iron, copper etc.
● Inexhaustible Resources - Those resources which are not exhausted even if
they are used. e.g., Solar energy, water.
Classification on the basis of Distribution :
● Easily available resource (Ubiquities)- Resources which are available
everywhere e.g. Oxygen in the air.
● Common available resources (Commonalities) -Resources which are available
at many places. e.g.; soil, tillable land.
● Rarely available resources (Rarities)-Resources which are available in few
places e.g.; Coal, Gold, Uranium etc.
● Single resources (Uniquities)-Resources which are available at one or two
places in the world e.g.; Commercial cryolite metal which is found only in
Greenland in the natural form.
Classification on the basis of uses :
● Unused Resources- When resources are not in use they are called unused
Resources. e.g. deposit of certain minerals is known but they can not be
extracted and used.
● Unusable Resources- Resources which cannot be used further even with the
present day technique are unusable resources.
● Potential Resources- There are resources which are known but are not in
use due to lack of technology or planning, possibly they may be used in near
future are known as potential resources. e.g. running water of rivers may be
used for irrigation by constructing a canal. Similarly, dams may be constructed

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 to produce electricity.
● Latent Resource-There are many resources which have been unknown to
man. If the properties and the utility of a resource is not known it is called
latent resource. Petroleum was a latent resource until its properties and uses
were not known to man.
In this chapter we will study soil, water, forest and wild life as resources.
1.2 Soil - Formation, Type, Distribution and Conservation
Soil is a valuable wealth. Soil is the basis of economic development of our country.
According to an American Pedologist Dr. Bennett, 'Soil is the upper most layer of the
unconsolidated particles found on the earth surface which is made up of parent rocks and
vegetation.' Large area of the earth surface is covered by soil. It is a combination of
parent rocks and organic matter where in suitable climatic conditions different types of
vegetation grow.
Soil is very important for human life, especially for farmers. Human life depends
on soil. All living organisms get their food directly or indirectly from soil. We get
cotton, silk, jute and wool for making clothes from soil, either directly or indirectly. e.g.
sheep eats grass and gives us wool, silk worms survives on vegetation and vegetation
grows in soil. Our industries like animal rearing, agriculture and forest based industries
all depend on soil. So soil is the basis of our life. According to Wil Cox, 'the history of
civilization is the history of the soil and the education of the individual begins from the
soil.'
Formation of Soil
Soil is a renewable resource but the process of its formation is very slow. It takes
hundreds of years in the formation of one centimeter thick layer of soil means in the
formation of two and half centimeter thick layer more than thousand years will be
required. Plain surface is best for the formation of soil because least problems are
created here during the formation. There are different factors which help in formation
of soil e.g.- parent rocks and topography, climatic conditions which helps in
weathering of rocks, plants, animals and their remains.
Soil Profile- Soil profile is the sequence, colour, texture and nature of the
horizons (layers) superimposed one above the other and exposed in a pit-section dug
through the soil mantle. (a) Upper most layer is Top Soil. (b) Second layer is Sub Soil.
(c) Third layer is weathered parent rock material. (d) Fourth layer consists of parent
rocks.
Top Soil of the upper most layer is the real soil. Its important characteristic is the
presence of humus and organic matter. Second layer is sub soil which consists of rocks,
sand particles and clay. Third layer consists of weathered parent rock material and the

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fourth layer is made of parent
rocks.
Soil - Types and
Distribution
Soil has been classified
by many scientists. India is
known for its topographical
structure, vegetation and
diversity in its climate.
Therefore, Indian soils are
classified into following
types-
Alluvial Soil - This is
also known as claye or loamy
soil. It is light brown in colour
and found upto 490 meters
depth. This soil is generally
deficient in nitrogen,
phosphorous and humus but
rich in potash and lime. Three
major rivers of India - the
Satluj, the Ganges and the Brahmaputra originating from Himalayas and their tributaries
transport this soil in India. Fine particles are deposited in the delta region of these rivers
after flowing hundreds of kilometers in thousand years. These fine particles are known
as alluvium. This soil consists of fine sand, clay and loamy particles.
This soil is found in large area of the country and is very important. It occupies 40
percent of total area of the country. It is found in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Uttarkhand, Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Meghalaya and northeast Rajasthan situated in
the basins of river Satluj, Ganga and Brahmaputra originating from Himalayas. Similarly,
in southern India it is found in the delta region of Godavari, Krishna, Kaveri, eastern and
western coastal plains as well as the interior parts of the valley of Narmada and Tapti.
Black Soil and Regur Soil - This soil is also known as Regur or Black Cotton
Soil. It is dark black in colour and made up of finely grained particles. They retain
moisture for a long time. They are generally deficient in nitrogen, phosphorous and
humus but rich in potash, lime, magnesium, aluminum and iron. A number of chemical
elements are found is this soil. They become sticky when wet and develop cracks on
drying up. These cracks help in mixing air in the soil. In India, it is found from Gujrat
to Amarkantak and Belgaum to Guna. It occurs in the region of the Deccan Trap in

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 Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

Maharashtra, Marathwada, Madhya Pradesh, southern part of Orissa, northern districts of

Karnataka southern and western areas of Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Uttar Pradesh.
It is suitable for cotton and cereals.
Red Soil - This soil is derived by the disintegration of crystalline and meta

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morphic rocks in dry and wet climate. Continuous heat on the hill slopes of Tapti river
valley disintegrate the rocks and the iron present in these rocks is mixed with the soil
which gives it red colour. It is brown, chocolate, yellow and in some places it is black
in colour. Its depth and fertility is not same everywhere as it is made up of different
types of rocks. It is porous in nature and is fertile when it is very fine and thick. It
consists of iron, aluminum and lime. On the uplands this soil is thin, poor, gravely, stony,
porous and light coloured, but in the lowlands it is rich, deep dark coloured, fertile and
red in colour.
It is found from Bundelkhand in Uttar Pradesh to southern peninsula and in Madhya
Pradesh, Jharkhand, West Bengal, Meghalaya, Nagaland, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Tamil
Nadu and Maharashtra. Bajra crop is grown in this soil, but in dark red coloured soil
cotton, wheat and millets are grown.
Laterite Soil - This soil is formed in the regions which have dry and wet season
by turn. It is formed due to the disintegration of laterite rocks. It is found on flat
highlands. It is poor in lime, phosphorous and potash but rich in humus. Deep laterite soil
is rich in iron oxide and potash. There are three types of Laterite soil :
1. Dark red Laterite Soil 2. White Laterite Soil 3. Laterite Soil of underground
water.
It is found in the lower region and hilly regions of Tamilnadu, Kurg district of
Karanataka, coastal region of Kerala, Ratnagiri district of Maharashtra, in between the
basalt and granite hills of West Bengal, upper part of plateaus and valley of Orissa. This
soil in suitable for rice, cotton, wheat, cereals, millets, cinchona, tea, coffee etc.
Desert Soil - This soil consists of coarse sand particles. Soil from Rann of Kutch
is deposited in the western dry region by south-west monsoon. It contains a large amount
of soluble salt content. Moisture and humus is low but irrigation makes it fertile. Wheat,
Sugarcane, Cotton, Jawar, Bajra and vegetables are grown in this soil. Due to lack of
irrigation facilities it becomes fallow or waste land. This type of soil is found in the dry
regions especially western Rajasthan, Gujarat, southern Punjab, southern Haryana and
western Uttar Pradesh.
Mountain Soil- This type of soil is found on Himalayan ranges. Generally it is
fine, marshy and porous. Its depth is more on river valley slopes and mountain slopes.
This deposition is seen on the southern steep slopes of Himalayas.Soil of tertiary period
is found in the foothills of mountain slopes which is slightly sandy, porous and contain
less humus. Good quality of sandy soil is found on the slopes of western Himalayas and
fertile soil which is rich in humus is found in middle Himalayas. Good quality of tea is
produced in this soil in the valley of Doon and Kangra if the rainfall is sufficient.
Fine clay soil is found in southern part of Himalayas, Assam and Darjeeling which
is good for tea and potato. It contains a large number of small boulders owing to the

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deficiency of humus, lime and Iron. Soil formed by the lime and dolomite rocks is found
near Nainital, Masoorie and Chakarata in which pine and sal trees are found. Granite,
dolomite and igneous rocks are found in the region of volcanic erruption in Himalayas.
Soil Erosion - Land is adversely affected by erosion. Soil without vegetation is
affected more by erosional process. Fertility of soils of India is decreasing every year
due to rapid erosion. Soil erosion is a serious problem
for our country. Soil erosion not only affects the land Causes of soil erosion
but also the human beings as it reduces the production. ● Deforestation
Harmful effects of soil erosion - ● Overgrazing

National planning committee has given the following ● Shifting cultivation

● Wind erosion
effects of soil erosion :
● Non scientific methods
1. Long duration of dry season due to loss of
of agriculture.
vegetation
2. Adverse effect on the sources of water and problems of irrigation.
3. Silting of streams and water courses
4. Deterioration of high quality land and adverse effect on agriculture.
5. Reduction in agricultural land
Soil conservation-
The ever increasing population resulted in the destruction of natural resources.
Therefore, to prevent destructions, soil conservation is necessary. There are various
methods of soil conservation.
1. Contour farming in mountanious region
2. To prevent gully erosion by making field ridge
3. Prevention of soil erosion by planting trees as breakers to wind in deserts
which check the velocity of wind. By doing plantation on the follow land and
mountain slopes and by controlling grazing
4. By collecting the running water in mountain slopes and uneven areas
5. By developing grazing land in the rural areas
1.3 Water - Sources, types, distribution and water conservation
Water is a valuable resource. It fulfills our basic needs. It is essential for life on
the earth. Water is the main part of the bodies of plants and animals. Human body
consists of 70% water.
There are four major sources of water. 1.Surface water 2.Ground water 3.Atmospheric
water 4.Oceanic water. The water on the earth surface is derived from precipitation that
comes in the form of rain and snowfall. Most of it flows as runoff to ponds and lakes.
Large amount of water flows to rivers from where it flows into the seas and the oceans.

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Some of it percolates into the ground as subsurface water. It is also known as ground
water. Some of it is lost by evaporation in the atmosphere which is known as Atmospheric
water.
Surface water - The surface water
is available in rivers, ponds and lakes.
Rivers are the main source of surface Major rivers of India
water in India. Rivers and its tributaries River Length River Length
are found in each and every part of India. (in Kms) (in Kms)
Three main rivers the Indus, the Ganga and Indus 1134 Krishna 1400
the Brahmaputra carry nearly 60 percent Godavari 1465 Yamuna 1376
of the total surface water in India. Among Narmada 1382 Chinab 1180
the major rivers of the world, the Ghagra 1080 Pennar 597
Brahmaputra and the Ganga are at eighth Ganga 2725
and tenth places respectively.
Ground Water - Some part of rain water is soaked by the land. Only 60 percent
reaches the upper layer of the soil, which is very useful for agriculture and vegetation
to grow. Rest of the water percolates and is collected below the surface as ground water.
It is obtained on the surface through wells and tubewells and is used by human beings for
irrigation purposes, gardening and industrial purposes.
In our country distribution of underground water is very uneven. Distribution of
ground water resources is largely affected by geological structure, physiography and
hydrology. The potential of ground water is high in plain areas. Contrary to it, seepage
of water in the rocky lands of peninsular India is slow resulting in low ground water
potential in southern states like Maharashtra, Madhya Pradesh, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka.
Atmospheric Water - This is in the form of water vapour therefore, it is not used.
Ocean water - This type of water is mainly used for transport and fishing industry.
Arabian Sea, Bay of Bengal and Indian Ocean are in the West, East and south of India
respectively.
Uses of water - Water is used for drinking, irrigation, power generation, transport,
domestic purposes, recreation etc. Major use of water is for irrigation. We are using
water for irrigation since ancient times. There are three major sources of irrigation-
1.Canals 2. Wells and Tubewells 3. Tanks.
Problems and conservation of water resources
Water resource problems are multifaceted. They pertain to availability, use, quality
and management. At the time of independence, sufficient water was available for
irrigation and industries but now due to population growth it is insufficient. Southern
India experiences water scarcity in summers whereas it is not so in rainy season. The
availability of water resources depends on power supply in the region which are irrigated
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by tubewells. Therefore, ralional utilization, conservation and management of water
resources has become necessary.
In view of the limited availability of water, its water increasing demand and its
uneven availability it has become imperative to conserve the water resources. Following
three steps are essential in this direction :
1. To collect the rainwater and stop it from draining off.
2. Scientific management of the water resources of all the river watersheds -
minor to major.
3. Prevention of water resources from pollution.
1.4 Forest and wild life - uses and conservation -
The large areas of the earth surface with dominance of trees in the form of natural
vegetation are known as forests. Forests are the valuable gift of nature. They are the
important natural resource. It is estimated that originally one-fourth part of the earth
(25percent) was covered by forests, but these forest coverings have been recklessly
destroyed by man for agriculture, settlement and industries. Therefore, now only 15
percent area of the earth surface is covered by forests.
Natural vegetation depends on the location of an area, climate and soil. Distribution
of natural vegetation is uneven because location, edaphic and climatic conditions are not
same. Variety of forests are found in India due to varied climatic conditions and uneven
topography.
According to Botanical Survey of India about 47,000 species of plants are found.
Out of which 5000 species are found only in India. On the basis of distribution there are
following types of Indian forests-
1. Tropical Evergreen Forests
2. Monsoon Forests- (a) Wet Monsoon Forests (b)Dry Monsoon Forests
3. Dry Tropical Forests
4. Forests of delta Region
5. Himalayan Forests.
You have studied about description of these forests and wild life in the previous
class.
Importance of Forest to National Economy
Forests are national wealth. In India about 20.64 percent of total geographical area
is under forests. This is 1.7% of the world's forest area. The country possesses an
average of 0.11 hectare per person area under forest. Variety of unevenly distributed
forests are found here. Majority of hard wood trees are found in these forests.
According to P.H. Chatarvak- "Forests are the national wealth and are very necessary

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for civilization. They not only provide wood, but also provide variety of raw material,
fodder and generate national income. Their indirect benefits are very important."
According to naturalist Wacon - "We get Oxygen, water, wood and capacity to
prevent soil erosion from forests. Plantation is not only economically useful, but also
important for clean environment."
Forests contribute directly and indirectly to the national economy.
Direct benefits from the forests-
● Forest provides wood - Wood from forests is an important source of fuel.
Wood and cow dung produce 34.6 percent of total power resources. Forests provide us
Teak, Sal, Shisham, Pine, Abnoos, Sandle wood and Deodar. Wood is also used for
making furniture.
● Forests provide minor forest produce - Forests provide a large number of
minor produce which are essential for industries such as lac, tanning materials, gum,
honey, katha, wax , resins, bamboo, medicinal herbs, horns and hides of animals etc.
● Forests provide materials for basic industries - wood is useful raw
material for several industries like paper, match, lac, leather, oil and herbal medicines.
● Grazing land for animals - Forests provide natural pastures for grazing
animals.
● Employment - About 7.8 crore people depend on forests for their livelihood.
Many industries are based on raw materials from forests giving employment to crores
of people.
● Foreign exchange - Forest provide us lac, turpentine oil, sandle wood oil and
artistic things made up of wood which are exported to get foreign exchange.
● Helps in Small Scale Industries - Small Scale Industries are developed
from the minor forest provide like Tendupatta, Cane, Honey, Wax etc.
● Revenue generation - Govt. receive crores of rupees from the forest as
revenue and royalty. Presently this revenue is 670 crore rupees per annum.
Indirect benefits from the forests -
Accordingly to J.S. Collins-"trees hold the mountains, supress the stormy rainfall,
regulate rivers, maintain the streams and animals survive on them."
Indirect benifits from the forests are as follows -
● Control soil erosion - Trees firmly enclose and considerably reduces soil
erosion. Trees hold the fertile top layer of the soil.
● Control the climate - Forest act as speed breakers to wind which check the
velocity of hot and cold wind. The climate of forest area remains temperate.
● Check floods - Speed of water is reduced by the existence of forests. Water

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is absorbed by the trees. The force of water is reduced by the extensive forest cover.
● Control expansion of desert areas - Sardar Patel said - "If expansion of
deserts are to be controlled and human civilization is to be prevented then the destruction
of forest wealth is to be prevented."
● Rain bearers - Forests are considered as rain bearers.
● Increases water level - Water level in ponds, tanks, river and streams is
maintained by them.
● Increases soil fertility - Leaves of the trees fall in the forest area, decompose
and make the soil fertile.
● Natural beauty - Forests attract tourists, as they increase the natural beauty.

Conservation of forests in India

British Government made forest policy
in 1894 in India. They established forest
department in every state for the protection Problems of forest resources
and development of forests. There were two
● Decline in forest area
main objectives of this policy - Revenue
● Forests are on high mountains and
collection and Conservation of forests.
hills
1. In 1950 after Independence Central ● Uneven distribution of forest
Forest Board was established. New forest policy ● Transportation problem
was made. Its four main points were- 1. Forest ● Traditional techniques
area should be increased to 33.3 percent. 2. ● Decline in forest area due to
Forestation 3. Protection of forests 4. Forestry urbanisation
research ● Forest fire
2. The policy was revised on 7th
December 1988. The main aim of the forest
policy of 1988 is protection, conservation and development of forests. The Policy holds
the following objectives-
❒ Maintenance of environmental stability through preservation and restoration
of ecological balance.
❒ Conservation of natural heritage.
❒ Check on soil erosion and denudation in catchment areas of river, lakes and
reservoirs.
❒ Check on extension of sand dunes in desert areas of Rajasthan and along
coastal tracks.
❒ Substantial increase in forest tree cover through massive offorestation and
Social forestry programmes.

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 ❒ Steps to meet requirements of fuel wood, fodder and minor forest produce
and timber for tribal and rural populations.
❒ Increase in productivity of forest to meet the national needs.
❒ Encouragement of efficient utilisation of forest produce and optimum
substitution of wood.
❒ Steps to create massive people's movement with involvement of women to
achieve the objective and minimise pressure on existing forests.
3. In 1990, a 20 year National Forestry Action programme was launched to
make National Forest Policy of 1988 functional. For the development of the forests
following programmes have been launched-
➨ Establishment of Central Forest Commission - In 1965 Central Government
established a Central Forest Commission. Its functions are to collect information and
data, to broadcast technical informations, market study and to coordinate the institutions
engaged in forest development programmes.
➨ Indian Forest Survey Organisation - This organisation was established in
1971 to know about the forest products.
➨ Council of Forestry Research and Education - It was established at Dehradun.
Forestry Research Institutes and centres under the council are responsible for undertaking
research in their respective eco-climatic zone. Its four Regional Centres are at Bangalore,
Coimbatore, Jabalpur and Burnihat.
➨ Establishment of Wood Craft training center - In 1965 a "Wood Craft
Training Centre" was established in Dehradun to train the forest officers and employees
of state forest department.
➨ State Forest Development Corporations - Cutting of forests in the states
was done by contractors. To prevent this practice these Corporations were established in
19 States.
➨ Indian Institute of Forest Management - This institute is established in
Ahemdabad in 1978 in collaboration with a Swedish Company. Central Government has
also established Indian Institute of Forest Management in Bhopal for training research
and consultancy.
➨ Forest Conservation Act - In 1980 Central Government passed forest
conservation act according to which forest land can not be converted into agricultural
land without the permission of the government. Government has classified forests into
four categories - 1. Protected forests 2. National forests 3. Village forests 4. Tree
groups. From the management point of view forests are categorised into three groups-
(i) reserved forests (52 percent), (ii) Protected forests (32 percent), (iii) unclassified
forests (16 percent).

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 ➨ Vanmahotsav - In 1950 K. M. Munshi, the then Agriculture minister had
started Vanmahotsav -"Plant more trees movement" to increase the forest area and to
motivate people for plantation. Vanmashotsava is celebrated from 1st to 7th July every
year in our country.
➨ Social Forestry - This programme of plantation is started in association with
World Bank. It aims to plant useful trees in waste lands, road side and canal embankments
near villages.
➨ 'One tree for every child' this slogan is developed in schools and colleges.
People's participation is increased by publicising Vanmahostava and by farm forestry, by
planting trees on road side, railway side and canal embankments. Cutting of green trees
is prevented by the effective implementation of forest acts. Cutting trees and animal
grazing is prevented in Himalayan region.
➨ Joint forest management - This programme is being practised in 21 states of
the country. About 70 lakh hectare of degraded forests in the country are being managed
and protected through some 35,000 village Forest Protection Committees.
➨ Forest Fire control Project - Fire is one of the major factors responsible
for destruction of forests in the country. Several appropriate measures have been
undertaken to reduce the incidents of fire in forests. The UNDP assisted Modern Forest
Fire Control Project in Chandrapur ( Maharashtra) and Haldwani and Nainital (Uttar
Pradesh) is in operation in ten states of the Country.
1.5 Wild life and Endangered Species -
Animals and Wild life are one of the important forest resources because they
provide many useful products and an
important source of Government revenue. Factors responsible for wild life
destruction
Man has destroyed wild life along with
forests recklessly due to which existence ● Destruction of forests on large scale
of wild life is in danger. Population of ● Hunting animals for varied reasons
lion, tiger, elephants, rhinoceros etc. is ● Environmental pollution
decreasing. It seems that in next few years ● People are not kind towards animals
some species of animals are threatened ● Raw material for industries
with extinction. They have to be saved for ● Ignorance of animals by human beings
ecological balance.
Conservation of wild life - Following efforts can be made to protect the wild life.
● Safeguarding the national habitat of the wild animals.
● Poaching should be restricted.
● Establishing Biosphere Reserves in forest areas.
● Educating public for envionmental protection at levels of education.

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 ● Implementation of wild life management programmes.
Rare species of National Parks/Sanctuaries
National Park/ State/Area Rare Species
Sanctuaries
1. Manas wild life Assam- Barpeta Elephant, Rhinoceros, wild
Sanctuary Buffalo, Indian Bison (Gaur), Pig,
Golden Langur, Tiger, Leopard,
Bear, Aligator, Python, giant
Squirrel, Pigmy hog, hrispid hare.
2. Kaziranga National Assam - Jorhat One-horn Rhinoceros.
Park
3. Dhragandhara Gujarat 'Ghurkahr' extinct species of wild
Sanctuary asses.
4. Keibul-Lamjao Manipur Brow antlered deer, water fowl.
National Park
5. Gir National Park Gujarat Asiatic Lion
6. Desert Sanctuary Rajasthan Black buck, Chinkara, Godavan
(Jaiselmer, Barmer)
7. Kanchanjunga Sikkim Red Panda, Snow Leopard,
National Park Clouded Leopard, Thar Musk
Deer.
8. Vedanthangal water Tamilnadu Many species of water birds
bird Sanctuary
9. Simplipal National Orissa-Mayurbhanj Tiger, Gaur, Cheetal, Leopard,
Park flying Squirrel, Crocodile.
10. Bhitarkanika wild Orissa-Baleshwar Salt water Crocodile, Monitor
life Sanctuary lizards, Leopards, water birds,
Ridley Turtle, sea fishing cat
11. Dachigam National Jammu & Leopard, Black Bear, Brown
ParK Kashmir (Srinagar) Bear, Serav, Muskdeer, Hangul
12. Dudhwa National Lakhimpur Khiri Tiger, Leopard, Sloth bear,
Park (Uttar Pradesh) Swamp deer, Sambhar, Cheetal,
wild Cock, Titar
13. Keoladeo Ghana Rajasthan Siberian Creanes, Storks, Sambar,
National Park (Bharatpur) Cheetal, Black buck, Civet Cat.

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 14. Pinvalley National Himachal Pradesh Snow Leopard, Wild goat, Ibex.
Park
15. Jim Corbett Uttranchal Panda, Tiger, Elephant etc.
National Park
Tiger and Elephant Project -
Tiger project was started in 1973 in the country. Its main objective is to protect and
conserve the tiger. There are 27 tiger reserves in the country. To protect and conserve
elephants, elephant project was started 14 elephant projects are running in the country.
Biosphere Reserves -
Biosphere reserves are established in the country to conserve the ecosystem and
preserve the biological diversity. 14 Biosphere reserves have been established in the
country.

Terms
Humus - Decomposed organic matter of plants and animals is called humus.
It is found in the top soil and makes the soil fertile.
Soil Profile - A vertical section of soil showing the sequence of horizons
downwards from the surface to the parent material
Soil Depletion - Deterioration in the fertility of soil is called soil depletion
Soil Erosion - Draining of soil due to running water or wind is called soil erosion
Soil Conservation- Prevention of soil erosion or deplition is called soil conservation.
Weathering - Disintegration of rocks on the earth surface due to weather
Surface Water - Water available on the earth surface
Ridge - To form a raised line of soil to prevent soil erosion
Permeable Rocks - A rock that allows free passage of surface water through it owing
to its property.
Impermeable Rocks - A rock which does not allow surface water to soak into and
through it because it is non porous.
Watershed - Areas filled with water

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 Exercise
Choose the correct option :
1. Which factor does not help in the formation of the soil?
(i) Wind and water (ii) Decomposed plants and animals
(iii) Rocks and temperature (iv) Water accumulation
2. Which soil is generally found in the delta region of Andhra Pradesh and
Orissa and the plains of Ganges?
(i) Red Soil (ii) Alluvial soil
(iii) Black soil (iv) Laterite soil
3. In which region is the method of making contour bunds used for soil
conservation?
(i) Delta region (ii) Plateau Region
(iii) Hills (iv) Plains
4. Man uses ------- the most.
(i) Underground water (ii) oceanic water
(iii) Surface water (iv) Atmospheric water
5. Which of the following states is known as Tiger state?
(i) Rajasthan (ii) Madhya Pradesh
(iii) Uttarakhand (iv) Assam
6. The founder of Vanmahotsava was-
(i) Mahatma Gandhi (ii) Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru
(ii) K.M.Munshi (iv) Acharya Vinoba Bhawe
7. Most forested state is-
(i) Madhya Pradesh (ii) Uttar Pradesh
(iii) Assam (iv) Tamil Nadu
8. Ghana Bird Sanctuary is located in -
(i) Kerala (ii) Rajasthan
(iii) West Bengal (iv) Madhya Pradesh
Fill in the blanks :
1. ------------ has an important place in Joint Forest Management System.
2. Social Forestry Scheme is getting financial assistance from -------
3. Forest Fire Control Project is working in association with --------
4. ----------- and --------- are established to protect and conserve wild life.

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Match the column :
1. Corbett - Uttara Khand
2. Dachigam - Assam
3. Manas - Jammu and Kashmir
4. Periyar - Chandrapur
4. Forest Fire control Project - Kerala
Very short answer type questions
1. What is meant by soil erosion?
2. What do you mean by soil conservation?
3. What are the sources of underground water?
4. What is the basis of modified forest policy of 1988?
5. What is the basis of the success of social forestry?
6. Why has Indian Institute of Forest Management been established?
Short answer type Questions-
1. What is meant by soil profile? Explain.
2. What is the importance of soil in human life? Explain.
3. Differentiate between Red Soil and Laterite Soil.
4. What are the measures of water conservation?
5. Rain water harvesting is important. Why?
6. Conservation of forests is necessary. Why?
7. Explain forest based Industries.
8. How does forest control the climate?
9. Write down the chief characteristics of the Forest Policy of December 1988.
10. What is Social Forestry Scheme?
Long answer type questions
1. What is soil? Describe different types of soil, their characteristics and
distribution.
2. What is Soil Erosion? Explain the causes of soil erosion and methods of
conservation of soil.
3. Explain the agents of soil formation and draw a labelled diagram of soil
profile.
4. What are the main sources of water resource? What is the importance of
water resource in human life?

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 5. Describe the methods of water conservation. Why is it necessary?
6. Describe direct and indirect advantages of forests.
7. Describe the role of government agencies in forest conservation.
8. Why is wild life conservation necessary? What are the measures of the wild
life conservation?
Project work-
● Prepare a plan for a geographical tour of your area and collect the following
information-
❖ Type of soil in your region and its characteristics
❖ Causes of soil erosion in the area
❖ What could be the measures to prevent soil erosion in that area
❖ Characteristics of soil on the basis of crops grown in that area
● Prepare a map of India and show the following.
Kaziranga, Gir, Gim, Keoladeo, Simlipal National Park, Sunderban,
Ranthambore, Savisca, Manas, Corbett tiger project, Nilgiri, Nandadevi, Great
Nicobar, Pachmarhi Biosphere Reserve.
● Visit a National Park and prepare a report on the following points.
1. Wild life
2. Habitat of wild animals
3. Their food and methods of hunting
4. Forest produce collected from that park

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-2
Resources of India (II)
(Agricultural Crops, Minerals and Power Resources)
Presently the term agriculture is used
We shall learn  in a broad sense. It not only includes
2.1 Role of agriculture in Indian cultivation but also forest, fisheries, animal
economy rearing and dairying in it. India is an
2.2 Major Crops of India and their agricultural country. Geographical diversities
distribution in India create favourable climatic conditions
2.3 Role of government agencies in for the production of different types of crops.
agricultural development Eleven percent of the total area of the
2.4 Medicinal and Horticultural world is cultivable. India has 51 percent area
Crops- Methods, utility and under cultivation. Only one crop is grown in
security many countries of the world but in India two
2.5 Minerals : Types, distribution, or three crops are grown in some areas. Total
Importance and Conservation area which could be irrigated in India is equal
2.6 Power resources: Types, to total cultivable area of China. 58.2 percent
distribution, uses and labourers of India depend on agriculture for
conservation their livelihood, 66 percent of the agricultural
land is used for growing food crops and 34
percent for commercial crops. Agriculture contributes 56.1 percent in Gross National
Product.
2.1 Role of Agriculture in Indian Economy
Agriculture is our primary occupation. It includes both cultivation of crops and
animal rearing. Contribution and importance of agriculture can be seen in Indian
economy as follow-
● 17 percent population of the world survives on Indian agriculture, 2/3rd
population of India depends on agriculture for their livelihood.
● Two third labour power of the country is engaged in Indian agriculture. Many
people get their employment indirectly also. Either they are engaged in handicrafts or in
small industries based on agricultural products in rural areas. Agriculture can give
employment to large number of people.
● Agriculture gives raw material for clothing. Cloth is made from cotton, jute,
silk, wool and wood pulp. Leather industry is also based on agriculture. It is the basis of
all the industries using agricultural products as raw material. Cotton industry, jute

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Industry, edible oil industry, Sugar and Tobacco all these industries are based on
agricultural products. Agriculture contributes about 34 percent to the income from
agricultural products.
● Indian agriculture is sustaining the increasing population. Agricultural products
gives carbohydrates, proteins, fats and vitamins from food products. Mahatma Gandhi
says- "Life depends on agriculture. Where agriculture is not beneficial, life itself could
not be beneficial there."
Indian agriculture is the foundation stone of our country's economy. Its success
or failure directly affects the food problem, internal and external trade, means of
transport and the national income. Therefore, it is said that importance of agriculture in
the economy of India is same as the importance of soul in human body.
2.2 Important Crops of India and their distribution

Distribution of Crops in India

According to season According to study

Kharif Crops Rabi Crops Zaid Crops Food Crops Cash and
Commercial
Crops
● Kharif Crops - The crops which are sown in the beginning of rainy season
(June- July) and ready to reap by the end of spring season after Dusherra (October-
November) are called Kharif crops. Rice, jawar, bajra, maize, soyabean, sugarcane,
cotton, groundnut, sesamum are the chief kharif crops.
● Rabi Crops - The crops, which are sown in October-November after Dussera
and are ready to reap by the beginning of summer season in March-April are called Rabi
crops. Wheat, gram, barely, mustard, tobacco are the main Rabi Crops.
● Zaid Crops - The crops grown in summer especially vegetables and green
fodder are called Zaid crops.
● Food Crops - By food crops we mean the crops which are the main
component of food. Rice, wheat, jawar, maize, bajra, gram, tur and other pulses are
included in food crops.
● Cash and Commercial Crops - Cash and commercial crop means the crops
which are not used as food directly but they are sold to generate cash. These crops
include cotton, jute, tea, coffee, soyabean, oil seed, sugarcane, tobacco, rubber etc.

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 The table given below shows the position of India in the world in production of
some crops and their main producing states.
The main crops of India and the distribution of their producing areas is given here.
● Wheat - Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, West Bengal,
Uttarkhand and Gujrat. Position of India in the production of crops
● Rice - West Bengal, Crops Position of Highest producing
U.P., Punjab, Andhra Pradesh, India in world State in India
Chhattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Wheat Fourth Uttar Pradesh
Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Orissa and Rice Second West Bengal
Assam. Jawar First Maharashtra
● Bajra - Rajasthan, Maize Tenth Uttar Pradesh
Maharashtra, Tamil Nadu, Cotton Fifth Maharashtra
Punjab. Jute Second West Bengal
Sugarcane First Uttar Pradesh
● Barley - Uttar
Tea First Assam
Pradesh, Rajasthan, Bihar and
Soyabean First Madhya Pradesh
Punjab
● Gram and Pulses - Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Rajasthan,
Maharashtra, Punjab and Karnataka
● Maize - Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh,
Bihar and Punjab
● Oil Seed - Rajasthan, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh,
Bihar, Orissa, Uttar Pradesh and West Bengal
● Groundnut - Gujarat, Andhra Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Maharashtra,
Madhya Pradesh. India ranks first in world in the production of groundnut.
● Rapseed and Mustard - Rajasthan, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana
● Soyabean - Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan
● Sunflower - Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra
● Tea - Assam, West Bengal, Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Tripura, Himachal Pradesh and
Uttar Pradesh
● Coffee - Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala
● Tobacco - Andhra Pradesh, Gujrat, Bihar, Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra, West
Bengal, Tamil Nadu and Karnataka
● Sugarcane - Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra
Pradesh, Haryana, Punjab, Bihar and Gujarat
● Cotton - Gujrat, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Haryana, Madhya Pradesh,

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Punjab, Karnataka, Rajasthan and Tamil Nadu
● Jute - West Bengal, Bihar, Assam, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, Meghalaya
and Orissa
● Opium - Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Punjab, Himachal Pradesh and
Jammu and Kashmir
● Rubber - Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Andman-Nicobar islands. 90 percent
rubber of India is produced in Kerala.
● Spices - (Black Pepper) In Kerala and Tamil Nadu, (Red chillies) - Andhra
Pradesh, Karnataka, Tamil Nadu, Maharashtra and Bihar, (Cardamom) - Kerala, Karnataka
and Tamil Nadu, (Cloves) - Tamil Nadu, Kerala, Turmeric - Andhra Pradesh, Orissa, Tamil
Nadu and Maharashtra, (Arecanut) - Karnataka, Kerala, Assam and West Bengal
● Cashewnut - Kerala, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Goa, Orissa
● Flax (San) - Andhra Pradesh, Bihar, Karnataka, Maharashtra and Uttar Pradesh.
● Silk - Karnataka, Kashmir, Assam, West Bengal
● Potato - Uttar Pradesh, West Bengal, Bihar
Rice is the main food crop of India and wheat ranks second. In the total production
of food grains wheat contributes 12.7% Rice 40.5%, Millets 30.3% and Pulses 16.5%
2.3 Role of Government agencies in agricultural development
In 1966-67 a new era was started due to a technological change by green revolution
for the improvement in agriculture in India.
❒ Green Revolution - Green revolution means rapid increase in agricultural
production by the use of seeds of high yielding variety, chemical fertilizers and new
technology. The impact of Green Revolution in India is visible in the form of increased
food grain production. Adoption of high yielding variety of seeds is increasing in Indian
agriculture. Increase in production of Wheat and rice in Punjab, Haryana, Uttar Pradesh,
Gujarat, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh is due to the adoption of seeds of H.Y.V.
characteristics of Green Revolution are as follows-
❖ Use of high yielding variety seeds
❖ Use of chemical fertilizers
❖ Use of pesticides
❖ Extension of agricultural machinery, tools and implements
❖ Extension of small and medium irrigation projects
❖ Use of new techniques for soil conservation
❖ Fixation of support price of agricultural products
❖ Encouragement to agricultural research and soil testing

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 ❖ To improve good facilities for agricultural marketing.
❖ Extention of finance and loan facilities for agriculture
❒ White Revolution - White revolution is closely related to animal rearing.
White revolution means increase in milk production with the help of dairy development
programmes in rural areas. This is also known as operation flood. Government has
developed new species by interbreeding local cows and cows of foreign race. They are
producing more milk. Dairy cooperative societies were organised in rural areas. These
societies collect the milk from milk producers and help them in marketing. Loan and
medical facilities for animals are also given by these societies. This mission was started
from Khera district of Gujarat and covered other states like Maharashtra, Andhra
Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh. In 1999-2000 total milk production
in the country was 781 lakh tonnes which has increased to 850 Lakh tonnes in 2001-02.
❒ Yellow Revolution - The strategy of research and development in the field
of production of crops for edible oil and oil seeds is known as yellow revolution. India
was self-sufficient till sixties in oilseed production but due to decreased area of oil seed
crops in total cultivable land, negligible use of manures and fertilizer, limited irrigation
facilities, increasing population, crop security and no use of scientific technology has
reduced the production in the country. Various efforts have been made to increase
oilseed production. Technology mission was started in 1987-88 by Government of India
in which oilseed production achieved a major break through with the help of societies
organised at national, state and local level, agricultural research institutions and loan
providing agencies. Government has increased the facilities of storage, distribution and
declaration of support price of oil seeds.
❒ Blue Revolution - Progress in production and productivity in fisheries
sector in the country is called Blue Revolution. India is the world's third largest producer
of fish. A project is launched in five states in collaboration with World Bank to increase
fish production in the country. It helps in augmenting food supply, raising nutritional
level, generating employment and earning foreign exchange. In the year 2006-07 the
country produced 63.99 lakh tonnes of fish and exported worth Rs.5739 crores.
❒ Pink Revolution - Natural minerals and vitamins play an important role to
enhance resistance capacity in the body. Emphasis is given on growing fruits in tropical
and temperate climate (Apple, Mango, Banana, Coconut, Pineapple, Cashewnut, Oranges,
Lemon, Almond) using the soil and varied climate of our country, this is named as pink
revolution.
2.4 Medicinal and Horticultural Crops - Method, utility and security
India has a great potential of producing horticultural crops like fruits, vegetables,
herbs, aromatic plants, spices due to large veriety of soil and and varied climate. India
is the world's second largest producer of vegetables and fruits. Area under fruit
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cultivation is 48.1 lakh hectares and 63 lakh hectares under vegetable cultivation. India
produces 10% of fruits and 13.28% of the total world's production. Following horticultural
crops may be grown in India.
● Fruits - The fruits of tropical areas like mango, banana, lemon, pineapple,
papaya, guava, chickoo, jack fruit, litchi, grapes, fruits of temperate areas like apple,
pears, apricots, almond, walnuts and fruits of dry areas like amla, ber, pomegranate, fig
are produced in India. India leads the world in the production of mango, banana, chikoo
and lemon. India produces 39% of Mango and 23% of banana of the total world's
production.
● Vegetable - Vegetables like tomato, onion, brinjal, cabbage, cauliflower, peas,
potato and cucumber are grown in India. India ranks second after China in the production
of vegetables. India ranks first in the production of cauliflower, second in onion and third
in cabbage production.
● Flowers - Traditional techniques of cultivation of flowers are in practice in
India. Production of rose tuberose, has increased. Approximately 1.14 lakh hectare land
is under flower cultivation.
● Spices - India is known as the house of spices. Black pepper, cardamom,
ginger, garlic, turmeric, chilies etc. are produced here. India is the largest producer,
consumer and exporter of spices. spices are grown on 25.6 lakh hectare area.
● Medicinal and Aromatic plants - These plants are used in India from
ancient times. About 2000 indigenous species are identified as medicinal plants, 1300
species as aromatic plants. There is great demand of these plants and herbs in Indian
system of medicine such as Ayurveda, Unani and Siddha. Looking to the demand of these
plants the systematic cultivation of these indigenous species has been started. Ministry
of Forest and Environment has identified 9500 species of plants which are used as
medicine. Out of them 65 species are in great demand in the world market. India ranks
sixth in the production of valuable herbs and medicinal plants.
Horticulture Development Programme - National Horticulture Mission and
National Horticalture centre are the sponsored programme of Central Government which
was started in 2005. These programmes include the production and marketing of
horticultural products.
Provisions
● To establish graft bank to increase the production of quality plants and fulfill
its demand
● To increase the production and productivity of horticultural crops
● For testing soil and leaves facilities of laboratories, nurseries, pali house and
green house has to be increased
● Production of high quality horticultural crops has to be increased for export.

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 ● To increase the production of high quality hybrid products
● To enhance the basic amenities for marketing and export
Achievements
● 97503 hectare additional area was found under horticultural crops.
● To include 50667 hectare 16252 hectare and 20262 hectares area under
fruits, vegetables and spices respectively
● 5858 hectare area has been included for high price value crops like medicinal
and aromatic plants and flowers.
Horticulture Development Programme has been implemented in Jammu and Kashmir,
Himachal Pradesh and Uttaranchal. Increase in production and protection of fruits,
flowers and vegetables is important. For the development of horticulture fertility of the
soil should be maintained by continuous use of manures and chemical fertilizers in
appropriate quantity. Means of irrigation should be sufficient. Boundary of gardens
(protective circle) should be strong so that unwanted elements may not damage the crop.
Weather forecasting should be done by radio etc. so that products could be protected
from extreme weather. Market and export system should be decided by the state and the
central government. Loan should be made available to horticulturists by the banks and the
other loan giving agencies liberally. Agriculture Research Institutions should develop
high yielding species of fruits, flowers and vegetables and motivate producers to adopt
such varieties. In this way progress in the field of horticulture is possible in the country.
2.5 Minerals - Types, Distribution, Importance and Conservation
Substances which are extracted by digging the earth surface deeply are called
mineral substances. Sometimes they are found near the earth surface due to soil erosion.
Nature has deposited them very deep in the earth. Most minerals are found in the old
rocks.
Minerals are the basis of modern industrial development. Machines in the industries,
ships, high buildings, different types of weapons, coins and other metallic things we use,
all are the gift of mineral substances. Minerals are the basis of industrial development
in the country. There would have been no industrial production and development if we
were not having metals and minerals. In ancient times when man was not aware of metals
and power resources, he use to make use of stones and other hard substances for him.
Later on he identified iron and coal and made use of these. Today man is aware of many
minerals. Every country is importing the minerals important for their economic
development.
Minerals are classified into two categories -
1. Metallic Minerals - Minerals which contain metals in sufficient quantity are
called metallic minerals. Metallic minerals are subdivided into ferrous and non-ferrous.
Some common ferrous minerals are ironore, manganeseore, chromite, pyrite, tungston.

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Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

Some non ferrous metals are gold, silver, copper, lead, tin, zinc and bauxite etc.
2. Non-Metallic Minerals - These are the minerals in which metals are not
present. Some of the common non-metallic minerals are diamond, mica, coal, salt,
gypsum, limestone etc.
India has reserves of mineral wealth. Variety of minerals are found in our country.
Chota Nagpur plateau contains rich deposits of minerals and is known as Mineral wonder

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of world. India's 40 percent minerals are found here. India is independent in some
minerals and some minerals are exported after fulfilling our requirement. In the
production of minerals, Bihar and Jharkhand contributes 37 percent, West Bengal 22
percent and Madhya Pradesh and Chhatisgarh 16 per cent.
❒ Iron Ore - Iron ore is the backbone of modern industrial civilization. India
ranks eighth in iron producing country of the world but with regard to high grade iron
ore it ranks second. There are four varieties of iron ore Haematite, Magnetite, Limonite
and Siderite.
Haematite - It is red and brown in colour, contains 60 to 70 percent of iron. This
is the best quality iron ore found in abundance in India. It is found in aqueous rocks.
Magnatite - It is a black coloured oxide of magnetie iron, containing 72 percent
of iron. It is found in igneous rocks. Mainly found in Karnataka and Tamilnadu.
Limonite - It is formed by the combination of oxygen, water and iron. It contains
10 to 40 percent of iron. It is yellow in colour and found in sedimentary rocks.
Siderite - This is also known as iron carbonate formed by the combination of iron
and carbon. It is brown in colour. 10 to 48 percent of iron is present in it.
Mines of iron ore be divided into following regions :
North Eastern Region - The main iron reserves of Singhbhum district of
Jharkhand State are Manoharpur, Pansiraburu, Budaburu, Gua, Noamandi. In Orissa iron
reserves are located in Gorumahisani, Sulaipat and Badampahar in Mayurbhanj district.
Central India Region - In this region iron reserves are located in Goa, in Jabalpur,
Mandla and Balaghat districts of Madhya Pradesh, in Durg, Raigarh and Bilaspur districts
of Chhattisgarh and in Chanda and Ratnagiri districts of Maharashtra. Important mines of
Durg districts are Dhalli, Rajhara and Bailadila of Bastar.
Peninsular region - In Karnataka deposits occur in Chikmangalur, Bellary, North
Kannad and Chitradurga districts, in Tiruchirapalli, Salem, South Arcadu districts of
Tamil Nadu and in Andhra Pradesh ores are scattered through Anantapur, Kurnool and
Nellore districts.
Other Regions - Small deposits of the ore are found in Mahendragarh district of
Haryana, Mandi district of Himachal Pradesh, Garhwal, Almora and Nainital districts of
Uttaranchal,Kozhikode district of Kerala, Jammu and Udhampur districts of Jammu and
Kashmir and in Nagaland.
❒ Manganese Ore - Manganese has variety of uses therefore it is known as
jack of trades. India stands second in the production of manganese in the world. 19
percent of the total production of the world is extracted from here. Metal which contain
manganese and iron both in excess is known as ferro-manganese alloy and when it is less

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than 5 percent it is called Ferro alloy.
Manganese ore is used in Iron and Steel industry. When it is mixed with iron strong
steel is manufactured. It is also used to clean glass, to manufacture bleaching powder,
paints, batteries, insecticides, and other chemical substances.
Manganese deposits in India are divided into three regions, (See the given map)
Central India Region - This region contributes 50 percent of the total manganese
produced in India. The deposits in Maharashtra are located in Bhandara, Ratnagiri and
Nagpur districts. Balaghat, Chhindwara, Seoni, Mandla, Dhar and Jhabua districts of
Madhya Pradesh, Bastar district of Chattisgarh, Kheda and Panchmahal districts of
Gujarat and Udaipur and Banswada districts of Rajasthan.
Peninsular Region - The deposits of Manganese ore in Karnataka are in North
Kanara, Chitradurga, Chikmagalur, Shimoga, Bellary and Tumkur districts. In Andhra
Pradesh it occurs in Visakhapatnam, Cuddapah and Srikakulam districts.
North Eastern Region - In this region deposits of magnanese ore are located in
Singbhum district of Jharkhand and Keonjhar, Ganjam, Sundragarh and Belagiri districts
of Orissa
❒ Mica - It is found in old metamorphic rock. It is layered, lighter and
bright. It has insulating properties. It is used in many industries like pharmaceuticals,
electric appliances, telephone, radio, aircraft, motor vehicles etc. India ranks second in
the world in the production of mica. India contributes 26 percent of the world production.
In India mica reserves are confined to Bihar, Tamil Nadu, Andhra Pradesh, Rajasthan
and Karnataka. Bihar and Jharkhand contribute 60 percent of the total production in India.
Deposites of mica occur in Gaya, Monghyr and Hazaribagh districts of Bihar. The world
famous high quality bright white mica is found in Bihar, therefore the mica of Bihar is
known as Ruby Mica. Mica is found in Nilgiri, Madurai, Coimbatore and Salem districts
of Tamil Nadu, Nellore, Guntur, Visakhapatnam and Western Godavari districts of Andhra
Pradesh. Here the colour of the mica is green and is easily identified. In Rajasthan it is
found in Bhilwara, Jaipur, Udaipur, Tonk, Sikar and Ajmer districts, Gwalior districts of
Madhya Pradesh, Bastar district of Chhattisgarh, Hassan district of Karnataka, Punnallore
district of Kerala, Mahendragarh and Gurgaon districts of Haryana and Kinnaur district
of Himachal Pradesh also have deposits of mica.
❒ Copper Ore - Copper is found in metamorphic rocks. Other metals like
Silver, Tin, Lead, Gold etc. are also mixed with copper.
Copper + Zinc = Brass
Copper is very flexible. It is red-brown in colour. It is
Copper + Lead = Bronze
a good conductor of electricity and ductile. Other
Copper + Gold = Rolled Gold
metals when mixed with copper forms a new metal.
Therefore, copper is considered as key metal. Copper is used in India from ancient
times. It is used in manufacturing electric cables, telphone and telegraphic instruments,
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utensils and coins.
India ranks third among the copper producing countries of the world. Major
deposits are located in Singhbhum district of Jharkhand, Alwar, Jhunjunu, Banswara and
Jhalawar districts of Rajasthan, Darjeeling district of West Bengal, Guntur district of
Andhra Pradesh, Sikkim, Chitradurg district of Karnataka, Garhwal, Almorha and Dehradoon
districts of Uttarkhand, in Kullu and Kangra valley of Himacha and Balaghat district of
Madhya Pradesh.
❒ Bauxite - Bauxite is a non-metallic mineral. It is used in preparing
aluminium. India plays an important role in world reserves, but in production India ranks
ninth. In India it is found in Ranchi and Palamu of Jharkhand, Balaghat, Jabalpur and
Mandla districts of Madhya Pradesh, Kolhapur, Thane, Beed, Ratnagiri, Satara and Colaba
districts of Maharashtra, Salem district of Tamil Nadu, Banda district of Uttar Pradesh
and Durg district of Chhattisgarh.
❒ Gold - It is a precious metal and is used in manufacturing coins, jewellery,
medicines and in chemical industries. India produces only 2 per cent of the world's total
gold. There are two sources of gold in India - auriferous lode deposits and alluvial or
detrital gold or placer deposits. In Karnataka it is found in the Dharwar rocks of Kolar
district. The place is called Kolar gold fields. It is one of the deepest mines of the world
and is 2736 metres deep. Kolar gold field produces 99 percent gold of the country. Gold
fields also are in Ramgiri in Andhra Pradesh, Wynad in Kerala and Salem in Tamil Nadu.
Placer deposits occur in Jharkhand and Arunachal Pradesh. Gold is produced from the
sand of rivers Subarana Rekha (Jharkhand) and Subansri (Arunachal Pradesh).
❒ Diamond - It is a very precious element. It was initially found in India.
Kohinoor diamond of India is world known. In India, diamond mines are in Panna, Satna
and Chhattarpur districts of Madhya Pradesh. Madhya Pradesh ranks first in the production
of diamond in India. It is also found in Anantpur, Guntur, Cuddapah, Kurnool, Krishna and
Godavari. Janpad of Andhra Pradesh and Bellary district of Karnataka. It is also found
in Chanda district of Maharashtra, Sambalpur district of Orissa and Banda and Mirzapur
districts of Uttar Pradesh.
Other minerals found in India are Silver, Limestone, Asbestos, Chromite, Magnesite,
Elmanite, Gypsum, Zinc, Kyanite, Monozite, Salt and Lead.
Minerals are a valuable gift of nature. They are formed in crores of years and are
limited. Man is exploiting nature for development, due to which quantity of minerals is
decreasing. Its ill effects can be seen by the end of 21st century. Competition for
exploiting valuable and useful minerals has increased so much that one country may
invade the other. Natural balance is disturbing due to exploitation of minerals. Overuse
of these mineral substances is polluting the environment. It is necessary to conserve
mineral substances for the future generations.

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Conservation of minerals
Conservation of minerals can be done by the following methods.
1. Every country should realize that this wealth of nature is also for future
generations. Therefore the exploitation of minerals in the race of economic
development should be limited so that a balance between man and nature is
maintained. Human qualities should not be deteriorated due to competition.
Each country should try to find the substitute of these minerals
2. Materials polluting the environment should not be used.
3. Substitute of mineral substances should be searched.
4. U.N. should monitor the exploitation and use of minerals by the countries.
2.6 Power Resources - Types, Distribution, Uses and Conservation
Man is an active being, he uses power to perform each activity. In ancient times his
activities were limited, slowly he started using power resources like animals, wood, air
and water with the development of civilization. But now basic resources like coal,
mineral oil and electricity are used for operating machines and transportation in this
time of industrial development. Availability and use of these power resources both are
necessary for economic development. So we can say that the sources of power which are
used by man for his different activities are known as power resources. Power resources
may be classified into two categories. 1. Exhaustible resources 2. Renewable resources.
Exhaustible resources are those resources which are limited and exhaust with the
use e.g. Coal, Petroleum, Natural gas etc. Renewable resources do not exhaust e.g.
Electricity, Wind energy, Solar energy etc.
Now a days power resources are the basis of overall development. Different
activities like agriculture, industries, transportation and other commercial activities are
based on the availability of these power resources. Exhaustible resources are considered
important because of their utility, at the same time they become more important because
of the doubt that they will be exhausted. Renewable resources can be replenished and
will be available in future. The availability of these resources has become very important
because man is very much dependent on them.
After independence power resources have increased rapidly in India. Government
is also making continuous efforts to empower the country regarding power resources
without which industrial development and national security is impossible. Ministry of
Steel, Mining and Fuel are working in this direction. Present status of power resources
in India is as follows.
1. Conventional Sources of energy - Coal, Petroleum, Natural Gas and
Electricity.
2. Non Conventional sources of energy - Solar energy, Wind energy, Bio-
energy, Geo-thermal energy etc.

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 ❒ Coal - Coal is the basis of development of modern industrialization. It is called
the Mother of Industries. It is a metamorphosed form of vegetation lying buried under
the rocks for ages. It is found in sedimentary rocks.
It has become more important in the world after the industrial revolution. It is used
as domestic fuel in industries, in producing electricity and making different things like
cosmetics, nylon, button etc. It is a basic fuel in many industries due to its three
characteristics - produces water vapour, gives heat and melts metals. Carbon is the main
inflammable element in coal. Based on the quantity of carbon four types of coal is found
in India.
1. Anthracite - It is the best quality coal. 85 to 95 percent of carbon is present in
this type of coal. It is bright and very hard. When burnt it gives more heat and is
smokeless.
2. Bituminous - It is second grade coal containing 70 to 80 percent of carbon.
It is black in colour and gives less smoke when burnt.
3. Brown or lignite - This is a poor quality coal. 40 to 55 percent of carbon is
present in this coal. It gives more smoke when burnt.
4. Peat - This is the primary form of coal. It is deposited in the shallow pits due
to the disintegration of vegetation. Carbon content is 20 percent and contains 80 percent
humidity.
Coal production and coal reserves in India
India ranks third in world in the production of coal. It is placed after China and
United States of America. Coal production in India started in 1774. India is producing
4.7 percent of total world's production. Coal contributes 67 percent of the commercial
energy used in the country and 70 percent in the production of electricity. It ranks
seventh in coal reserves in the world. Total estimated coal reserve is 2,53,301 million
tonnes. Coal reserves are found in Jharkhand, Orissa, and Chhattisgarh.
Coal producing areas - Coal in India occurs in the rocks of Gondwana period and the
Tertiary period. On the basis of this there are two main coal producing regions in India.
(i) Gondwana coal fields - Most of the coal in the country occurs in these rocks.
96 percent coal reserves of India are located in this region which produces 99 percent
of total production. Coal fields of Jharkhand, West Bangal, Orissa, Chhattisgarh, Madhya
Pradesh, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra are of Gondwana period. Good quality bituminous
coal is found in this region.
(ii) Tertiary - Coal - field - One percent of the total production of coal in India
is obtained from this coal field. The states of Assam Rajasthan, Gujrat and Tamilnadu etc.
are situated in this region. Here 'Lignite' the inferior type of coal is found.
Main coal fields of India are shown in the map of India. They are 1. Raniganj 2.
Jharia 3. Chandrapur 4. Bokaro 5. Karanpura 6. Korba 7. Singrauli 8. Tatapani 9. Talcher

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Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

10. Himgir 11. Sigraini 12. Peraghati 13. Katapalli 14. Makum 15. Kampati 16. Venala
17. Palana 18. Kareva 19. Pandho
❏ Mineral oil - Oil extracted from the interior of the earth is known as
saline mineral oil. It is also know as Petroleum. In the interior of the earth it is found
with saline water and gases in layer. Water is present in the lower most layer, then oil
and the gases in the upper most layer. It is found in sedimentary rocks. It consists of 90
to 98 percent hydrocarbons and remaining part consists of oxygen, nitrogen, sulphur and

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organic substances.
Main causes of increasing use
Use of mineral oil is increasing with the
and importance of mineral oil
development of science and technology. It is used
● Its transportation is easy.
as fuel in diesel engines, aeroplanes and motor ● Every part of it is useful.
vehicle. It is also used in agriculture and industries ● Gives more power than coal.
and for heat and light. ● Less effort is required when it
Petrol, diesel, kerosene, gas etc. are is used.
manufactured by refining the mineral oil in oil
refineries.
Mineral oil producing areas of India : Mineral oil was explored in India in 1890
and its drilling in Assam was started in 1899. At present there are three main mineral oil
producing areas in the country.
Assam oilfields - It is the oldest mineral oil field of India. Here Digboi oil field
is the main oil field having 800 oil wells. The main oil producing areas in Surma valley
of Assam are Badarpur, Masimpur and Pathari. Naharkatia oil field is located on the bank
of Dihang river. Hugarijan - Moran oil fields are located 40 Kms. South-West of
Naharkatia. Natural gas is also produced here. About 50 lakh tonnes of mineral oil is
produced from Assam every year.
Gujarat oil fields - The oil belt in Gujrat extends from Surat to Rajkot, Vadodara,
Bharuch, Surat, Kheda and Mehsana are the main oil producing districts. Maximum oil
is extracted from Ankaleshwar in Gujarat. Oil field near Gulf of Cambay is known as
Lunej. Kalol near Ahmedabad is also a major producer. Gujarat produces about 50 lakh
tonnes of mineral oil every year.
Offshore areas - Oil is also found in the offshore areas. Oil is found at Bombay
High located in the Arabian sea, 176 Kms. northwest of Mumbai. About 200 lakh tonnes
of mineral oil is produced every year from here. Other major offshore oil producing
areas are Bassein, Cambay Basin, Cavery Basin and Godavari Basin.
Oil Reserves and Production : Oil production in India is very less than its
requirement. Continuous
Oil Refineries of India
progress in the country
1. Digboi (Assam) 2. Vishakha Patnam (A. P.)
is seen after 3. Barauni (Bihar) 4. Koyali (Gujarat)
independence but only 30 5. Haldia (West Bengal) 6. Mathura (Uttar Pradesh)
percent of total 7. Mangalore (Karnataka) 8. Bhatinda (Punjab)
requirement is fulfilled 9. Numaligarh (Assam) 10. Trombay (Maharahstra)
by the domestic 11. Noonmati 12. Kochi (Kerala)
production, rest is 13. Chennai (Tamilnadu) 14. Bongaigaon (Assam)
fulfilled by importing the 15. Panipat (Haryana) 16. Jamnagur (Gujarat)
oil. According to 17. Narimanam (Tamil Nadu) 18. Tatipaka (Andhra Pradesh)

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International Geological Survey 620 Crore tonnes of oil reserves are available in India.
Oil Refineries - Digboi refinery was the only refinery in India before independence.
At present there are 19 oil refineries in the country majority of them are in public sector
and some of them are in combined and private sectors.
❏ Natural Gas - Natural gas is a useful resource of energy. Its demand is
increasing day by day. The reasons for its increasing demand are as follows
1. Its production and distribution is easy and less expensive and needs less space
for storage.
2. It is combustible, odourless and smokeless. Therefore it is the best fuel for
cooking and heating the houses.
3. There is no ash or dust after used.
4. It is combustible in its natural form.
Apart from its use in the houses as source of energy, it is also used in petro
chemical industries and industries producing fertilizers and electricity, 60 percent of it
is used in fertilizer industries, 20 percent in the production of electricity, 15 percent in
internal uses and 5 percent is used in other activities.
Natural Gas - Producing areas and production - In India natural gas in found
along with mineral oil or petroleum. In our country the reserves of natural gas are
estimated at 750 crore cubic meters. Gas reserves are found near Tripura, Gujarat and
western coast in India. Gas reserves are estimated in Cavery and Godawari regions.
Production of natural gas the country is less as compare to reserves. Total natural gas
production in India in 2005-06 was 31 billion cubic metres. Natural gas imported and
produced in the country is transported through pipelines.
❏ Electricity - Electricity due to its several characterstics is more useful
power resource as compared to other primary sources of energy like coal, mineral oil
and natural gas. Its chief characteristics are low cost of production, easy to distribute,
easy to use, low maintenance cost and pollution free. Due to these characteristics it has
become the basic necessity of a common man. Its demand as energy is increasing rapidly
in agriculture, industry, transport as well as domestic sector. There are four sources of
electricity 1. Thermal electricity 2. Hydro electricity 3. Nuclear electricity 4. Gas and
Mineral oil electricity.
Apart from this electricity is generated from solar energy, biogas, sea waves and
geothermal energy. From commercial point of view generation of thermal electricity,
hydroelectric power and nuclear electricity has increased in India. These sources
contribute 82 percent, 14 percent and 4 percent respectively in the generation of
electricity, In India, 25 percent is used in domestic sector, 25 percent in agriculture
sector and 33 percent in industrial sector and remaining is used for commercial,
transport and other purposes.

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 Production of electricity - In India production of electricity increased rapidly
after independence. Coal and natural gas is used for the generation of thermal electricity.
Earlier the production of thermal and hydro electricity was almost equal. But from
1980-81 the production of thermal electricity increased rapidly. Whereas the production
of hydro electricity was not stable and the production of nuclear electricity was slow.
Production status of electricity is given in the following table.

Production of electricity in India (10 lakh Kilowatt)

Year Thermal Hydro Nuclear Total
electricity electricity electricity production
1950-51 26 25 - 51
1960-61 91 78 - 169
1970-71 282 252 24 558
1980-81 613 465 30 1108
1990-91 1865 717 61 2643
2000-01 4081 745 169 4996
2001-02 4220 740 190 5153
Thermal electricity - National Thermal Power Corporation (N.T.P.C.) was setup
in 1975 for the development of thermal power of central region. Presently N.T.P.C. has
to its credit 13 coal based thermal power projects and seven gas based projects. Thermal
power projects are as follows -
1. Singrauli (Uttar Pradesh) 2. Korba (Chhatisgarh) 3. Ramagundum (Andhra
Pradesh) 4. Farakka (West Bengal) 5. Vindhyachal (Madhya Pradesh) 6. Rihand ( Uttar
Pradesh) 7. Dadri (Uttar Pradesh) 8. Kahalgaon (Bihar) 9. Talchar (Orissa) 10.
Unchahar (Uttar Pradesh) 11. Badarpur (Delhi)
Hydroelectricity - Hydroelectricity is the permanent source of power. Hydro
electricity will be produced till there is water on the earth. It is produced from the
running water by turbines. It is produced from the natural waterfalls or artificial falls are
made by constructing a dam. The geographical conditions necessary for the production
of hydro electricity are perennial rivers, regular flow of water throughout the year.
Rivers should have natural waterfalls or should be favorable for the construcion of dams,
quantity of debries should be less in the rivers, availability of transport facilities,
sufficient capital, trained staff and availability of machines, areas of consumption should
be near the production units because transmission of power to long distances causes loss
of electricity. The conditions of the production of hydroelectricity are favourable in
India.
Hydroelectricity Producing areas - First hydel power station in India was
established in 1902 at Shivasamudram in Karnataka. India is divided into five regions on

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the basis of hydel power production, Important hydro electric projects of India
Northern region contributes 35 Punjab - Bhakar (Right) 600 MW
percent, Western region 12 percent, Dehar 990
Southern region 44 percent, Eastern Pong 360
Himachal Pradesh Baria Siul 180
region 7 percent and North Eastern
Jammu and Kashmir Lower Jhelum 905
region 2 percent in the total hydel Salal 345
power production of the country. Hydel Rajasthan Rana Pratap Sagar 174
Power in the country is produced by Uttar Pradesh Rihand 300
National Hydro Electric Power Yamuna Stage II 240
Chilka 144
Corporation (NHPC) which was
Obera 99
established in 1975. It has completed Ramganga 198
construction of 8 hydro electric Gujarat Ukai 300
projects till 2006. Viz. Baira Siul Madhya Pradesh Gandhi Sagar 115
(Himachal Pradesh), Loktak Maharashtra Koyna 880
(Manipur), Salal stage I and II (Jammu Andhra Pradesh Lower Sileru 400
Nagarjun Sagar 510
Kashmir). Tankpur (Uttara Khand), Srisailam 330
Chamera Stage-I (Himachal Pradesh), Karnataka Saravati 891
Uri (Jammu and Kashmir), Rangit stage Kalinadi 810
II (Sikkim). Important hydroelectric Kerala Iddikki 390
projects in different states of the Sabarigiri 300
Tamilnadu Kunda 1-5 335
country are given in the table.
Mettur 240
Nuclear electricity - Use of Periyar 140
nuclear electricity was started from Jharkhand Subarnarekha 130
1969. Uranium, thorium, Verilium and Orissa Balimela 360
Zirconium minerals are used to Hirakund 270
West Bengal Damodar 162
produce nuclear energy. India Manipur Loktak 105
possesses the largest reserves of these
minerals. Therefore, nuclear electricity can be easily Nuclear Power Projects
produced in India. In India atomic energy commission 1. Tarapur (Maharashtra)
was incorporated in 1945 and in 1954 Government of 2. Kota (Rajashtan)
India has established Atomic energy Institutes. Presently 3. Kalpakkam (Tamil Nadu)
five projects are working in the country which are 4. Naraura (Uttar Pradesh)
mentioned in the block. 5. Kakrapar (Gujrat)
Apart from this Kaiga (Karnataka), Ravat Bhata
(Rajashtan) are also working.
Non conventional sources of energy
● Solar energy - Energy received from sunlight is known as solar energy.
It can be used directly and can also be used by converting it into electricity. Solar energy

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is used in heating water, cooking, space heating , drying, water purification, power
generation, ripening of crops, as light and in running of machines.
Solar energy is converted into solar thermal energy with the help of solar
collectors and receivers, whereas solar energy is converted into electricity by solar
photo-voltaic cell technology. Electricity generated by solar energy commercial purposes.
In the distance villages of India where electricity is not available, solar energy is used
for different purposes. More than 9,80,000 solar electricity producing units have been
installed in the country aggregating to capacity of 96 Mega Watts (96 MW).
● Wind energy - Energy generated by fast moving winds is called wind energy.
Man has been using speed of wind for agriculture and transportation from the beginning
of civilization. Wind energy is also used to get underground water through windmills.
Potential of wind energy in India is estimated to be 45000 Megawatt. Presently it has
the capacity of producing 1340MW of electricity. The centre for wind energy has been
established in Tamil Nadu and Kerala in Southern India and in Gujrat in Western India.
Continuity of wind speed is good at sea coasts therefore coastal areas are suitable for
the production of wind energy.
● Biomass energy- Energy produced from the residues of agriculture, forest,
animals, industries and other wastes is called biomass energy. It is produced in both the
forms, gas and electricity. Cowdung, human excreta and other organic wastes are used to
produce gas. These wastes are kept in anaerobic atmosphere to produce methane gas.
This is the cheap and pollution free source of energy. This is called biogas. Waste left
after the production of gas is used as organic manure for plants.
The estimated capacity of electricity produced by biomass is 19500 Megawatt and
presently the total production is 292 Megawatt. Megacities have been identified for the
production of this energy as tonnes of waste per day is generated here.
● Geothermal energy - The interior of the earth is very hot. Energy generated
from this heat is called geothermal energy. Production of this energy depends on
springs of hot water and water bodies. There are about 340 water bodies in different parts
of our country. The important water bodies which produces electricity are situated in
North -west Himachal and West Coast. Pooga in Jammu and Kashmir, mountain valleys
of Himachal Pradesh and Western Coastal areas are producing geothermal energy. A
plant to produce 300 KW electricity is developing in Tatapani (Chhattisgarh). The
production of electricity from geothermal energy is controlled by National Geothermal
Research Institute, Hyderabad.
Apart from the above non conventional sources of energy, tidal energy is also
produced in India.
● Conservation of power resources - Power resources are very important for
the present economy. It is the basis of the present economy. As human body can not
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survive without oxygen similarly different components of economy - agriculture,
industries, transportation, trade etc. can not survive without power resources. Therefore,
conservation of power resources available in the country is very important so that future
needs can be fulfilled by optimum utilization of power resources and we can get energy
in future without polluting the environment.
Following measures can be done for the conservation of power resources.
1. Production of energy from degradable sources should be limited.
2. Renewable sources of energy should be developed rapidly.
3. The energy generated in the country should be transmitted properly so that
there is no energy loss during transmission.
4. Energy resources should be fully utilized for which public awareness
programmes should be conducted.
5. Energy should be produced by pollution free energy sources.
Conservation of energy resources is important as they are not only the means of
fulfillment of our necessity but are the basis of the overall development of a nation.
Exercise
Choose the correct answer :
1. Largest producer of Rubber in India is -
(a) Kerala (b) Tamil Nadu
(c) Assam (d) Karnataka
2. Blue revolution is related to -
(a) Fruit production (b) Fish production
(c) Sheep rearing (d) Milk production
3. Which of the following is not a type of an Iron Ore?
(a) Haematite (b) Magnetite
(c) Siderite (d) Bauxite
4. Madhya Pradesh ranks first in the production of which of the following
minerals?
(a) Iron (b) Mica
(c) Gold (d) Diamond
Fill in the blanks :
1. Yellow revolution is related to …….. .
2. White revolution propagated ………in India.
3. ……….. state has the highest yield per hectare of wheat.
4. ……….. state of India ranks first in the production of soyabean.
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Match the column :
1. Maize West Bengal
2. Tea Uttar Pradesh
3. Cotton Andhra Pradesh
4. Rice Maharashtra
5. Tobacco Assam
Short answer type questions
1. What are food crops? Differentiate between Kharif and Rabi crops.
2. What do you mean by green revolution?
3. Differentiate White and Yellow revolution.
4. What are the main components of Medicinal Gardening method?
5. State the main provisions of Horticulture Development Programme.
6. What is the importance of minerals?
7. What are the different types of metallic minerals?
8. What is the importance of iron in modern context?
Long answer type questions
1. Explain the contribution of agriculture to Indian economy.
2. Describe the main agricultural crops of India and efforts made by the
government for the development of agriculture.
3. Describe the distribution of iron-ore or manganese producing areas in India.
4. Why is Jharkhand called the mineral wonder of world? Explain.
5. Describe the use of iron and its producing areas in India.
6. What are the uses of Mica? Where is Mica found in India?

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-3
Industries in India
For fulfillment of his needs man gets
We shall learn  certain things from nature directly, certain things
3.1 Types of industries in India are produced by him with the nature's help
3.2 Specific industries of India while some other things he/she manufactures
and their distribution or makes using the natural resources. This work
3.3 Contribution of Industries to of making or manufacturing things is called
the nation's economy industry. In the process of manufacturing or
making things man uses raw material and
3.4 Industrial pollution and its
converts it into finished goods with the help of
effects on human life
labour, energy and technology. By transformation
3.5 Steps to control pollution of raw material into finished goods the man
gets different things of his/her use like earthen
or metallic utensils made of metal or clay, sugar or jaggery out of sugar cane etc. In
India, cottage industries were in developed stage in olden days but during the British rule
these industries suffered a great set back. After independence the new policy of
industrial development in India was declared. As a result industries were developed in
public and private sectors. Government made suitable changes in the industrial policy
from time to time. The latest economic policy of 'Liberalisation' has opened doors for
Indian and foreign investors to set up industries in India. Consequently the participation
of multi national companies in the industrial sector in India has increased and India is
coming up as an industrial country in the world economy.
In the textile industry some units only spin yarn, some weave cloth while some
others are doing both the processes.
In modern times the economic development is dependent only on industrial
development. Economic development brings about improvement in the standard of living,
which makes the nation strong. For industrial development of the country following
conditions are available:
1. Topography is favourable for setting up of industries
2. Climatic conditions are normal in most of the states
3. Cheap labour is available in the country
4. Adequate raw materials are available for minral, agro and forest based
industries
5. Good network of communication facilities are available
6. Due to dense population, wide market is available
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 The main hindarances in the way of industrial development of India are that the
country is not so developed technologically and inadequate availability of capital
resources. Government of India is constantly taking suitable measures for the industrial
development of the country.
3.1 Types of industries in India
On the basis of ownership, utility, size, raw material and nature of finished goods
produced, types of industries can be classified as under.
1. According to the criterion of ownership - industries can be categorised
into four types:
a. Private industries:which are owned by an individual or by a group.
b. Government industries : which are owned by Government,
c. Cooperative industries: which are owned by cooperative organisations.
d. Mixed industries : which are owned by two or more owners of the above
types.
2. On the basis of utility industries are of two types:
a. Basic industries - Such industries which provide basis for other industries.
The products of such industries are used for setting up and running other
industrial units like Iron and steel industry.
a. Consumer industries - Such industries which produce consumer goods
like textiles, sugar, paper etc.
3. On the basis of size, industries can be classified into four types:
a. Large scale industries - Industrial units where capital investment is 10
crores or more e.g., Tata Iron and Steel Co.
b. Medium industries - Where capital investment is between 5 and 10
crores - e.g. Leather industry.
c. Small scale industries - Such industries in which capital investment is 2
to 5 crores e.g. lac industry.
d. Cottage industries - Where capital investment is nominal and which are
run with the help of the family members.
If such industries are located in a village they are called village or rural
industries and if they are located in a town they are known as urban
cottage industry.
4. On the basis of the type of finished goods, industries can be classified into
two types-
a. Heavy industries: where heavy machines, articles etc. are produced e.g.
tractor manufacturing units.
b. Light industries - where small articles of daily use are manufactured e.g.
toys etc.
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 5. On the basis of raw material industrial units can be divided into three
types-
a. Agro based industry - where raw material is agricultural products e.g.
cotton textile industry.
b. Mineral based industries - such units which use mineral as raw material
e.g., Iron-Steel industry
c. Forest based industries - where raw material are forest products e.g., paper
industry.
3.2 Characteristic industries in India and their distribution
Classification of industries is easy. They are identified on the basis of raw material

Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

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used because raw material is a necessity for every industry. Raw material is also called
food for the industries. Given below are some main industries classified according to the
type of raw material used by them.
India is an agricultural country. Wheat, rice, maize, sugarcane, cotton etc. are used
as raw material in certain industries like sugarcane in sugar industry, cotton in the textile
industry etc.
Cotton textile industry - Cotton textile industry is highly organised and also most
important in India. There are 1866 cotton textile mills, out of these 82% mills are owned
by private entrepreneurs. 10% mills are under government control and 8% percent mills
are in the cooperative sector.
The first modern textile mill was established in Calcutta in the year 1818 but it was
a failure. The first modern successful mill was set up in 1851 in Mumbai by Shri
Nanabhai Dabur. Since the first cotton textile mill was set up in Mumbai it was known
as the capital of textile industry. Subsequently this industry was localised in Ahmadabad
and therefore Ahmadabad was named the 'Manchester' of India.
After independence the production of cotton textiles increased appreciably; where
as the production of cotton cloth was 421.5 crore meters in 1950-51 it rose to 4957.7
crore meters in 2005-06.
Dispersal of cotton textile industry
Cotton is used as raw material in the cotton textile industry. Cotton growing areas
are therefore useful for setting up this industry. Besides, humid climate is useful.
Therefore, most of the units are localised closer to the sea shore or cotton growing
areas. Main producing states are as under:
● Maharashtra - In the sector of cotton textiles Maharashtra ranks first in
India, here there are 119 mills, out of these 101 units are such where both spinning and
weaving is done. Remaining18 mills are engaged only in spinning. Mumbai is the main
industrial centre; there are 54 cotton textile mills. Other centres of cotton textiles in the
state are Solapur, Pune, Nagpur, Wardha, Amraoti, Akola, Aurangabad etc.
● Gujrat - Gujrat is the second biggest centre. There are 118 mills out of
which 24 are spinning and weaving mills and 24 are only spinning mills. Ahmadabad is
the leading centre of cotton textiles not only in Gujrat but in the whole country; where
there are 69 mills. Other cotton textile centres are Vadodra, Bharuch, Surat, Bhavnagar,
Rajkot etc.
● Tamilnadu - The state ranks third in the country. Here there are 439 small
units. Most of the mills do spinning only. The credit of setting up of this industry in the
state goes to the electricity production. Coimbatur is the main centre of this industry,
it is called 'Manchester' of the south. Other centres are Madurai, Chennai, Tirunaveli,
Salem, Parembadur etc.
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 Besides, Howra and Srirampur in West Bengal are other important centres. Kanpur
is the biggest cotton textile centre of Uttar Pradesh and it is called 'Manchester' of the
North India. Other centres are Varanasi, Agra, Hathras, Moradbad, Rampur Lucknow etc.,
The centres of cotton textiles in Madhya Pradesh are, Gwalior, Indore, Ujjain, Satna,
Jabalpur, Bhopal, Ratlam and Dewas. In Karnataka, Mysore, Banagore, Manglore, Bellari
and Chitradurg; and in Andhra Pradesh, Hyderabad, Warangal, Guntru, Sikandarabad. In
Kerala - Kannur, Tiruvanantapuram, Anantpur and in Rajasthan - Jaipur, Kishangarh,
Bhilwara, Ajmer are the main centres of this industry. Major cotton textiles centres can
be seen in the map.
❒ Mineral based industries -
Main mineral based, industries are iron and steel Industry, cement metal etc. In the whole
industrial set up iron and steel industry is known as the basic industry. We shall therefore
study specifically the iron and steel industry.
❒ Iron and steel industry -
Iron and steel industry is the back bone of the whole industrial world of modern times.
Right from needle, nails and pins to big things like cars, machinery for industries etc.
Cannot possibly be manufactured without iron and steel. It is therefore, the most
important industry on which the nation's economic development is dependent.
In olden times this industry was in the form of a small scale industry. The 1500
year old iron pillar in Mehrauli near Kutub Minar, (Delhi) is the proof of the antiquity
of this industry.
The first modern iron and steel plant was set up in a place 'Portonovo' in the State
of Tamilnadu (India) in the year 1830. The first large scale plant of iron and steel was
set up in 'Sakchi', a place in Jharkhand State, in the year 1907 by Jamshedji Tata. This
place is now known as Jamshedpur. After independence the Government, through its five
year plans, made gradual effort for speedy development of this industry. This industry
developed both in public and private sectors. To ensure coordination in the industry the
government of India set up the steel Authority of India (SAIL) which is the largest
industrial institution in the world. This institution does the work of planning and
coordination in the sector of production of iron and steel in the country.
Localisation of industry -
The iron and steel industry in India is localised in the areas where raw material is
available. Main reason of localisation of this industry in these areas is that the raw
materials used in this industry are heavy, cheap and full of impurities. (It is uneconomical
to transport heavy raw material full of impurities to other places, therefore the
production units themselves are set up there.) The raw material used in this industry are
iron ore, coal, manganese, lime stone, dolomite etc.
In our country, besides raw material transportation facilities have also affected the
localisation of this industry. The places where rail transport facilities are available near

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 Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008
coal and ironore mines were preferred for setting up this industry. Due to cheap
transportation facilities this industry is localised in coastal areas also.
The industry is mainly localised in four regions:
a. Industries located in coal belt - Burnpur, Hirapur, Kulti, Durgapur and
Bokaro.
b. Industries located in iron-ore belt- Bhilai, Rourkela, Bhadravati, Salem,
Vijay Nagar, Chandrapur.

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 c. Steel industries located in areas between coal and iron ore belt which
have transport facilities - Jamshedpur
d. Iron and steel industry located in coastal areas - Vishakhapattanam.
The Iron and Steel industry located in Jamshedpur is known as 'Tata Iron and Steel
Co.' (TISCO). This is the largest steel plant not only in India but in the whole of Asia.
Here besides steel, girders, rods, sheets, rails and based wire is produced.
Iron and Steel Plants
Name of the Plant Location State Remarks
1. Tata Iron and Steel Co., Jamshedpur Jharkhand Biggest plant
2. *Indian Iron and Steel Co. Burnpur West Bengal two branches at
Kulti and Hirapur
3. Vishvesariah Iron and Steel Co., Bhadravati Karnataka -
4. Hindustan Steel Ltd., Rourkela Orissa Set up with the
assistance of
Germany
5. Bhilai Steel Plant Bhilai (Durg) Chhatisgarh set up with Russian
collaboration
6. Durgapur Steel Plant Durgapur W. Bengal set up with the help
of Britain
7. Iron & Steel Industry Salem Tamil Nadu
8. Vishakha Pattanam Vishakha Andhra Joint venture of
Steel Plant Pattanam Pradesh State and the Centre
9. Bokaro Steel Plant Bokaro Jharkhand Most modern, Its
R.C.C Chimney is
the bigggest in Asia
10. Vijai Nagar Steel Hospet Karnataka Wholy based on
plant Indian technology
*The plants of Hirapur, Kulti and Burnpur are included in the Indian Iron and Steel Company.
Poduction of iron and steel - The systematic development of Iron and steel
Industry of India after independence has resulted into sustained increase in the production
during last few decades. During 1970-71 the production was 70 lakh tones which
increased to 492 lakh tones in the year 2005-06.
From the standpoint of steel production, India's place is nineth in the world. The
industry is giving direct employment to more than 5 lakh persons in India.
❒ Forest based industries-
Forests are an invaluable gift of nature which give us several things like wood, lac,

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resins, gum, barks, leaves, fruits and medicinal plants and herbs etc. These things serve
as a raw material for many industries. The paper, furniture, rubber, silk are forest based
industries. As a specific example of forest based industry, a detailed account of paper
industry is given here:
Paper industry - Paper industry is the basis of modern civilization. Therefore
paper industry is considered to be most important forest based industry. The art of
preparing paper by hand developed in India in the 8th century. Before the British rule,
making paper was a cottage industry in India, Kalpi and Mathura were its main centres.
The first successful paper mill was set up in India in the year 1716 in Trankubar in
Tamilnadu. At the time of Independence there were more than 100 paper mills in the
country.
Paper is prepared out of the pulp made of bamboo, rubber wood and grass. Colour
and 'Sares' (an adhesive) are also used for paper making. In India there is shortage of
wood used for making pulp, therefore we have to import pulp. These days rags, jute,
bagasse are also used as raw material in paper industry. The raw material used in Indian
paper industry is as follows:
● Raw material from forest - 53%
● Raw material from agricultural produce - 23%
● Waste paper - 15%
● Other raw material - 9%
Localisation of the industry - On an average 2.38 tons of bamboo is needed to
manufacture 1 ton of paper. Therefore paper industry in the country has been localised
in places where, besides raw material, other geographical factors like plain land,
transportation facilities, skilled labour and power are available. Important Centres of
paper production have been shown in the map.(Agro based industries) Main paper
producing states in the country are Karnataka, Kerala, Bihar, Jharkhand etc. In Hoshangabad
of Madhya Pradesh the security paper mill is situated.
Production of paper - India ranks 20th in the world in respect of paper production.
After independence paper production has increased thirty times. Out of the total
production of paper in the country 53% is writing and printing paper, 22% is packing
paper 16% card board and 6% is news print and remaining paper is of other special
variety. Production of all varieties of paper in India in the year 1950-51 was 116
thousand tons, which rose to 3090 thousand tons in 2000-01.

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 Production of paper
S. State Main production centres Percentage of
No. share in national
production
1. West Bengal Titagarh, Ranigarh, Naihati, Kolkata, 40%
Kakinada, Bada Nagar, Shivraphooti ect.
2. Andhra Pradesh Sirpur, Rajmahendri, Kagaz Nagar, 12%
Hospet etc.
3. Maharashtra Poona, Mumbai, Ballarpur, Kolaba, 11%
Kamti, Kalyan, Wadavali, Ongelwadi etc.
4. Orissa Brijrajnagar, Chowdwar, Raigarh etc. 11%
5. Madhya Indore, Bhopal, Sehore, Nepanagar, 10%
Pradesh Hoshangabad etc.
6. Haryana Faridabad, Yamunanagar, Chandigarh etc. Less than 10%
7. Tamilnadu Pallipalayam, Charan mahadevi, Less than 10%
Udmalvet etc.
8. Uttar Pradesh Saharanpur, Lucknow, Meruth, Less than 5%
Pipraich, Modi nagar etc.
9. Gujrat Vadodra, Pilomoria, Rajkot, Uturan, Less that 5%
Udawada, Warjod, Gondal etc.
There are more than 600 paper and straw based mills in the country which give
direct employment to approximately 3 lakh people. In our country the demand for paper
is more that the production therefore, this industry needs concentrated efforts to speed
up the development.
3.3 Contribution of industries in the national economy -
According to the Industrial Commission India was an industrial country even before
the Christian era. The Muslin, silk cloth, ornaments etc. produced in India were exported
to other countries but the traditional cottage industries of India got a set back due to the
industrial revolution that took place in Europe in the mid 18th century. The place of
industries in the national economy of India gradually became secondary and agriculture
became prominent.
After independence the need for industrial development was felt for the economic
development of the country .In the year 1950 the 'National Planning Commission' was
set up. Through five year plans targets for industrial development were set. Consequently,
due to increasing contribution of industries to national economy, achievement of
following objectives could become possible.

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 1. Increase in the production due to industrialisation; per capita income increases
and consequently the standard of living improves.
2. Increase in employment opportunities and the human resource strengthened.
3. Rise in the national income and capital formation.
4. Due to increased contribution of industries, other constituent units of the
economy viz. agriculture, mineral, transportation etc. are also progressive.
5. Research is strengthened and the technology also develops.
In the Gross Domestic Product (GDP) of India the growth rate has recorded a rise
which is as follows:
Growth rate of Gross Domestic Product
(On resources basis) - Percentages
Sectors 2001-02 2002-03 2003-04 2004-05 2005-06
Agriculture and 6.2 6.9 10.00 0.7 2.3
allied sector
Industry 2.7 7.00 7.6 8.6 9.00
Service sector 7.1 7.3 8.2 9.9 9.8
Gross domestic 5.8 3.8 8.5 7.5 8.1
product

From the above table it is evident that there is continuity in the industrial growth
which is indicative of growing importance of industries in the Indian economy. Industrial
development is essential for economic development of the country and participation of
industries in the national economy can bring all round prosperity to the people of the
country.
3.4 Industrial pollution
Occurance of any undesirable change in air water or land due to physical, chemical
or biological reason which adversly affects the health, safty and welfare of all living
beings is called pollution. Man set up industries for his various basic requirements. The
industrial development has, on the one hand, played an importantrole in developing the
economy, while it has adversely affected the environment and it is assuming vast
proportions day by day. Environmentalists feel that the whole atmosphere is getting
polluted due to the solid waste, polluted water and poisonous gases emitted by the
industries, the balance of eco-system is getting disturbed to such an extent that the life
on the earth itself is in grave danger. Main types of industrial pollution are as under:
1. Air pollution
2. Water pollution

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 3. Land pollution
4. Noise pollution
There are other factors also responsible for atmosphere pollution but here we shall
study this problem with regard to industrialisation.
Air pollution - The poisonous gases and smoke emitted by the industrial plants are
main cause of air pollution. The nature and quantum of industrial pollution depends on
the type of industry, raw material used and manufacturing technique and process. From
this point of view textile industry, chemical industries, metal industry, oil refineries and
sugar industry cause more pollution as compared to some other industries. These
industries emit harmful poisonous gases like carbon dioxide, carban monoxide
sulpherdioxide, dust particles etc., in the atmosphere and pollute the air.
Water pollution - Water is necessary for life. Undesirable elements when get
mixed up with water, they pollute the water. Water is used for production by industries.
During the manufacturing processes harmful matter, salts, acids and chemicals etc get
mixed up with the water; this water then flows into rivers and water reservoirs. Use of
this water is harmful for all living creatures and the vegetation. It pollutes the sea and
ocean water also.
Land pollution - The supply of land is limited. Misuse of this resource can have
serious effects. Disposal of industrial waste on the surface of the earth is known as land
pollution. These waste matters are not natural and they do not get absorbed in the natural
cycle (i.e. they are not bio-degradable); this adversely affects the quality of land, this is
known as land pollution. The industrial waste which is full of chemical odorous,
inflammable poisonous matter etc. harm the environment. Land pollution is also called
soil pollution.
Sound pollution- Any sound in the air which is irritating and hampers the
functioning of mind properly i.e., noise, is the main form of sound pollution. A variety
of machines are used in industries which produce constant noise. Generators also make
constant noise. Consequently the workers working here become victims of deafness and
many mental problems.
Effects of pollution on human life-
Polluted atmosphere harms the complete eco-system. The bad effects of these are
as follows:
● Polluted air harms the respiratory system of human beings. Polluted air
causes diseases like asthma, pneumonia, throat pain, cough and some times
even fatal diseases like cancer, diabetes, heart trouble etc. Disproportionately
high quantity of harmful gases in the atmosphere gives rise to severe tragedy
which even cause deaths. The Bhopal gas tragedy was the result of this type
of tragedy when poisonous gas had leaked in the atmosphere.
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 ● Polluted water, germs and viruses of many types spread diseases. Polluted
water, causes many diseases like dysentery, cholera, diarrhea, typhoid, skin
diseases, cough, colds, paralysis, blindness, hepatitis and other stomach
disorders.
● Mosquitoes, flies and worms breed in dirty places and polluted things. In dirty
atmosphere many diseases like stomach disorder, diseases of the eye etc.
several bacterias get breeded which cause.
● The hearing ability is highly affected by sound pollution. Excessive noise
causes deafness. Besides, diseases like blood pressure, heart problem,
headache, restlessness etc. also develop.
Increasing pollution due to industrialisation and presence of carbondioxide and
carbon monoxide has given rise to the effect of 'green house'. Due to solar heat getting
arrested in the atmosphere itself, the average temperature of earth is increasing and there
is danger of global warming. The bad effects of these things are manifesting in natural
calamities.
3.5 Steps to control pollution -
The environmentalists are drawing attention towards the future dangers which are
caused by pollution. How to control pollution has become the cause of concern for
every citizen. There are many factors responsible for environment pollution,
industrialisation is the main cause. We shall therefore study here about the steps which
can be taken to control industrial pollution; following steps need to be taken –
Steps to control air pollution -
● Height of chimneys of the factories be increased to reduce the effect of harmful
gases.
● Such technology should be adopted in industries which spread less pollution.
● Pollution control devices should be installed in industries.
● Well before setting up of the plant, trees and greenery should be developed there.
● Such sources of energy, like solar energy, should be used in factories which cause
minimum pollution.
Steps to control water pollution
● Chemical industries which pollute the water most, should be set up away from
rivers and water reservoirs.
● Wastewater of industries should not be directly disposed off in rivers or sources
of water, instead this water should be treated and used for irrigation etc.
● Water treatment arrangements should be made at the time of setting up of the plant
itself.

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● Trees should be planted on road side and open land around the plant.
● The industrialists should be advised regularly to control water pollution and
government should keep a watch on the industrial waste.
Steps to control land pollution -
● Industrial waste should not be thrown in the open, proper arrangements should be
made for their disposal.
● The waste should be burnt by modern methods and the heat so generated can be
utilized as energy. Due to this about 80% waste is burnt and the air pollution caused
by burning can be controlled.
● Bio degradable waste can be used for preparing compost manure.
● The industrial units should be prohibited to dispose off industrial waste without
treatment.
● Technology should be developed to recycle the industrial waste.
Steps to control noise pollution -
● Industries should be set up away from the cities.
● Modern technology should be used to reduce noise and noise absorbing walls can
be constructed.
● Proper maintenance of machinery should be done, this reduces noise, old ill
maintained machines also produce more noise.
● The workers should compulsorily use ear-plugging device in plants which make
excessive noise.
● Anti sound pollution machines should be installed in the plants.
Industries are necessary for economic development; it is not possible to have
pollution-less industries therefore, only steps to control and minimise pollution can be
taken.

Terms
Liberalisation - Liberal policy for setting up and expansion of industry and
investment
Investor - Person or institution who invests capital in the industry.
Materialistic culture - More use of articles of consumption is made and people are
keen to earn more for getting such articles.
Localisation - location of a particular industry at a particular place or in a

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 particular region.
Waste - Solid waste or chemical/liquid wastes which remains after
the use of that material in the industry.
Disposition of waste - Storing or throwing waste on the land.
EXERCISES
Choose the right option :
1. In which year the Industrial Policy of India was declared?
(i) 1947 (ii) 1951
(iii) 1948 (iv) 1972
2. The capital of cotton textile industry of India is ..............
(i) Ahmadabad (ii) Mumbai
(iii) Allahabad (iv) Indore
3. Where is the Security Paper Mill located in India?
(i) Nepanagar (ii) Titagarh
(iii) Saharanpur (iv) Hoshangabad
4. What is the share of industries in the national economy?
(i) 23.8% (ii) 23.00%
(iii) 53.2% (iv) 35.50%
5. In which of the following industries, air pollution is maximum?
(i) match sticks industry (ii) Paper industry
(iii) Chemical industry (iv) Furniture industry
Very short answer type questions :
1. What is an industry?
2. What is the raw material used in paper industry?
3. Which is the biggest iron and steel plant of India?
4. What do you mean by pollution?
Short answer type questions :
1. In how many types can the industries be classified on the basis of ownership?
2. How many types of industries are there on the basis of raw material used?
3. Why is iron and steel industry called 'basic industry'?
4. Where are paper units set up in West Bengal?

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Long answer type questions :
1. How many types of industries are there in India? Describe.
2. Describe the production and distribution details of the Iron and steel Industry
of India.
3. Describe the production and distribution details of the paper industry of India.
4. Describe the contribution of industries in the national economy.
5. Throw light on 'industrial pollution'.
6. Indicate measures which can be taken to control industrial pollution.

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-4
Transport Communication and Foreign Trade
Transport may be explained as an activity
We shall learn & of taking people, other living beings and things
4.1 Importance and utility of from one place to another.
transport 4.1 Importance and utility of Transport
4.2 Means of transport - Land,
Means of transport and communication
water and air transport
have become a great necessity for the modern
4.3 Pipeline, ship and ports
industrial world. With the advancement of
4.4 Means of communication civilisation, transport has become symbolic of
and their importance human civilisation. Transport can also be called
4.5 Foreign trade and its as the guiding factor for civilisation.
contribution in the
Roads, railway, air and sea routes and the
economic development
means of transportation facilitate transportation
4.6 Foreign trade of India,
of agricultural commodities to markets, raw
exports and imports
material to industries, consumer goods to the
consumers and goods from far-off places are reached to the godowns and shops of
businessmen. Our daily requirements are made available to us easily by these
transportation facilities.
l The means of transport play an important role in providing a strong base to the
economy, and promote sense of brotherhood and good feelings for the people of
our country living in different regions, so also these means promote unity in the
country. India is a vast country with diverse culture, different languages and social
diversity therefore, there is always a threat to the national unity. Transport facilities
bring the people of different regions close to each other; thus national integration
is promoted since the efficient transportation system facilitates travelling from
one region to the other and develop a sense of understanding between people of
different regions. This helps in reducing differences at cultural and mental levels.
l Means of transportation facilitate quick transport of goods and passengers regularly
and reliably.
l The world has become small due to easy approachability and linking of countries
through their respective markets.
l Means of transport are of a great help at the time of natural calamities like famines,
flood, epidemics, earthquakes and shortage/excess of rains, reaching necessary
help like food, clothes and other articles, medicines and volunteers has been very
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 convenient.
4.2 Means of transportation
Roads as a means of transport are known to India since ancient times. In the initial
phase of human civilisation, when man started going and coming from one place to the
other for fulfilling his/her daily needs, foot marks were made on the land. Regular use
of the same track by people, leave foot marks on ground; these foot marks were
transformed into paths and in due course these paths were converted into pucca roads.
Means of Transport

Land Transport Water Transport Air Transport

Road Railways Inland International

Airways Airways

International Inland water routes/ Shore side

sea routes routes
water/sea
routes
Rivers, Canals, Lakes

Road transport is the one, which is within reach of most of the people of the
country. Road transport is important(and useful) for short and medium distances. This
mode of transport is also supplemental to rail, water and air transport system. Road
transport facilities are multi purpose, cheap and reach to your door. It is only through
road transport that the agricultural fields are connected to markets, factories and the
consumers. It is also possible to load goods from desired place and pick up from and
drop passengers at the desired places. Through road transport education, thoughts, skills
and knowledge can be reached to remote areas and villages. Roads help to transport, all
sorts of assistance during war time and at the times of famines, epidemics wars etc.
From the point of view of the type of construction and durability, roads in India can
be divided into two: VIZ. Kaccha roads and pucca roads. Kaccha roads get damaged
during monsoons but pucca roads allow transportation round the year (in all seasons.)
The roads in India can be classified into three types on the basis of importance and
management:
1. National high ways - These are constructed and maintained by the central
Public Works Department (PWD) Government of India. These pucca roads join the

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Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

capitals of different states of the country, big business and industrial centres, main ports
and roads of the adjoining countries. The total length of National highway in India is
58,112 Kilometers. The share of National highways of India in terms of length is only
2% of the total length of roads of India but their share in the total transportation is 45
percent. To boost up the economic development of the country the 'National Highways

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Development Policy 1999 ' was formulated, according to which a target of construction
of about 14,000 Kilometers, 4/6 lane National highways by 2007 was set. Some National
highways of India are as follows:
National Highways
No. No. of From - to Length in K.M.
National
Highway
1. 1 Amritsar-Ambala-Jalandhar-Delhi 465 Kms.
2. 1A Jalandhar-Madhopur-Jammu-Banihal, 663 Kms.
Srinagar-Baramula-Uri
3. 1B Batot-Doda-Kishtwar 109 Kms.
4. 2 Delihi-Mathura-Agra-Kanpur-Allahabad 1490 Kms.
5. 3 Agra-Gwalior-Indore-Nasik-Bombay 1161 Kms.
6. 4 Thane-Pune-Belgaon-Bengaluru-Chennai 1235 Kms.
7. 4A Belgaon-Anmod-Ponda-Panji 153 Kms
8. 5 Bahargoda-Cuttak-Visha-Khapatnam- 1533 Kms.
Vijaiwada- Chennai
9. 5A Haridaspur-Paradweep 77 Kms
10. 6 Dhule-Nagpur-Raipur-Smbalpur-Kolkata 1645Kms.
State highways - The construction and maintenance of these highways is looked
after by state Governments and Union Territories. These highways join the district
headquarters to the state capital. The total length of these roads is about 99000
Kilometers.
District and rural roads - These kuccha and pucca roads join town and villages
to the adjoining pucca roads and the villages and towns of the district to the district head
quarters. These roads are constructed and maintained by the Zilla Parishads under the
directions of State Government and Union territories. To provide transport facilities to
towns and villages is the objective of these roads. The total length of these roads in India
is about 8 lakh Kilometers.
Construction of roads is being done from the olden times. The Muslim rulers had
paid special attention towards construction of roads, Shershah Suri constructed a
highway from Kolkata to Peshawar which is known by the name 'Grand Trunk Road'. By
the year ending 31 March 1997 total length of roads in India became 24,65,877
Kilometers; out of these, length of pucca roads was 13.94 lakh Kilometers and that of
kacchha roads was 10.71 lakh Kilometers. The road network in India developed as per
the needs of the concerned region and facilities available for road construction. About
50% of the roads in India are in the peninsular India.
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 Longest network of pucca roads is in Goa which is 153.83 Kilometers per 100
Square Kilometers. Next in order are - the states of Kerala, Tamilnadu and Punjab. In
respect of length of pucca roads Maharashtra is first, Uttar Pradesh is second and the
third in order is Tamilnadu. In centrally administered areas in respect of road length the
places are Delhi, Pondicherry and Chandigarh respectively. The road length is less in the
states of Sikkim, Mizoram, Meghalaya, Manipur, Arunachal Pradesh, Daman Div and
Lakshadweep due to hilly and forest areas.
In rural areas under the Prime minister's village roads development scheme, roads
are being developed. The objective of this scheme is to connect all the villages having
a population upto 500, to all weather roads. For the development of roads of strategic
importance in North and Northeast areas, a separate organisation VIZ. Border Roads
Organisation was set up in May 1960. This organisation has constructed the road from
Manali (Himachal Pradesh) to Leh (Laddakh of Jammu area); this road is highest in the
world, the average height is 4270 meters. Right from the time of setting up of this
organisation to date this organisation has constructed 31061 Kilometers long roads,
37077 Kilometers roads have been made pucca and construction of 19544 meters long
permanent bridges have been completed.
Railway track -
Railways play an important role in the sector of transportation of goods and
passengers.The need for railways tracks is of great importance due to following reasons
- Railways tracks can be used for travelling and transportation of goods easily to the
fertile and densely populated areas. Ports can be linked with the cities, agricultureal
areas and industries for the distribution of produced and imported goods. In time of
crisis railways have proved its importance in transporting goods and passengers.
The Indian railways have a very good net work in the country; this railway network
is the fourth biggest railway system in the world.
Railways in India ply on tracks of three different widths, VIZ. the broad gauge,
meter gauge and narrow gauge. The width (distance between two rails) of broad gauge is
1676 mm, meter gauge is 1000 mm and that of narrow gauge between 762 to 610 mm.
There is a Railway Board for management and control of railways in India. The rail
network of India has been divided into 16 zones for efficient management, they are:
S.No. Railway zone Zone headquarter
1. Central Railway Bombay (Central)
2. Eastern Railway Kolkata
3. Northern Railway New Delhi
4. North-Eastern Railway Gorakhpur
5. North Eastern Border Railway Malegaon (Gohati)

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 6. Southern Railway Chennai
7. South Central Railway Sikandarabad
8. South Eastern Railway Kolkata
9. Western Railways Bombay(Churchgate)
10. East Central Railways Hajipur
11. Eastern Coastal Railways Bhuwaneshwar
12. North Central Railways Allahabad
13. North Western Railways Jaipur
14. South-east Central Railway Bilaspur
15. South Western Railway Hubli
16. West Central Railway Jabalpur
Dispersal of Rail routes - The rail routes in India have developed mostly in those
areas which are economically more developed. This distribution is highly imbalanced.
More dense rail route Areas - This area is spread over the Northern India in
Sutlaj-Ganges plains upto West Bengal. Important railway stations on this rail route are
Ludiana, Delhi. Kanpur, Lucknow, Allahabad, Varanasi, Asansol, Howrah etc.
Dense rail route areas - The peninsular plains and Southern plateau are included
in this area. Main stations on this route are Ahmedabad, Vadodra, Chennai etc.
Less dense areas - These areas comprise the hilly, plateau, desert and marshy
areas, forest and economically backward areas, sparsely populated areas etc. Here the
transportation facilities are negligible. Rail routes have not been developed. In this
category, the areas of Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Sikkim, Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,
Nagaland, Mizoram, Tripura, Meghalaya, Bastar area of Chhattisgarh and most parts of
Orissa are included.
The Eastern and Western coastal area of India, are rugged and narrow therefore, the
rail routes could not be developed adequately. On the eastern coast from Kanya Kumari
coast to Howrah, the rail route is developed. On Western coastal area, Kokan Railway
corporation has been developed. On the Western Coastal area, with the setting up of
Kokan Railways Corporation, 837 Kilometers of rail track has been developed.
The possibilities of developing railways are limited in metro cities where sizeable
population is concentrated. Therefore in metro cities there is a plan to develop metro
railways. In India, the work of metro railways has been completed in Kolkata, Bombay,
and Delhi. India has made good progress in the sector of railways and trains with a speed
of more than 100 Kilometers per hour have been started. Gohati-Trivendrum Express
train which covers a distance of 3974 Kilometers is the longest distance train. 8 express
trains are such which cover a distance of 2000 to 3000 Kilometers. Due to variation in
the gauge of rails, old railways tracks, uneven surface, non electrified rail routes are
some of the problems of railway sector.

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 Water transport (Shipping transport)- India is bound by sea from three sides
and those river which have water throughout the year are the base for developing water
transport. Shipping transport is the cheapest transportation system as compared to other
modes of transportation. The ships that transport passengers are called louders. Ships
that transport goods are called tramps, while ships used for transporting oil are called
tankers. Perishable commodities like milk products, fruits, vegetables etc. are transported
by refrigerated ships.
For water transport, there is no need of construction and maintenance of roots.
Water transport system of India needs to be developed in view of the long coastal area.
Islands located in Arabian Sea and Bay of Bengal, so also mineral oil areas located in the
deep seas-away from the shores also need to be protected. Similarly protection of
fishing areas and waters upto 12 nautical miles of our seas also need to be guarded; for
this water transport system needs development.
Water transport system in India are of three types:-
Inland water transport- In India internal water transport system is a state subject.
The medium of inland water transport are rivers, canal and lakes. Important rivers of India
are the Ganga, Bramhapurta, Godavari, Krishna, Mahanadi, Narmada and Tapti and its
3700 Kilometers long routes are fit for mechanised boats but only 2000 Kilometers
distance is used. Similarly 4300 Kilometers length of the canals can be used for
mechanical boats but only 900 Kilometers length is only put to use.
In view of the growing population and increasing pressure on the railways and road
transport, development of internal water transport system has become necessary. Therefore
an 'Indian inland water transport Authority' has been set up for the main ten rivers of India.
Coastal water transport - India's coastline is about 7600 Kilometers. Presently
there are 13 large and 187 small and medium sized ports.
Sea Transport - India ranks 19th in the world in respect of transportation of goods
by ships. India has the largest fleet of merchant ships in comparison to other developing
countries. In India about 140 merchant shipping companies are working. Out of these
107 companies are engaged in coastal trade, 23 in foreign trade and 10 companies are
engaged in both coastal trade and foreign trade. The public Sector Company, "Shipping
Corporation of India" is the largest shipping company owing a fleet of 88 ships.
Following international sea routes pass through India.
1. Singapore route - This route is from Kolkata to shores of United States of
America via Japan.
2. Australia route - Chennai to Australia and Newzeland via Singapore
3. Suez route - Mumbai to Port Said and London
4. Cape of Good hope route - Mumbai, Mombasa to Europe and America

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Air transport International Airports of India
As compared to other 1. Santacruz(Sahar) - Mumbai (Maharashtra)
means of transport Air 2. Damdam - Kolkata (West Bengal)
transport is the costliest but at 3. Palam (Indira Gandhi - New Delhi
the same time the fastest International Airport)
means. Air routes are mostly 4. Meenamvakkam - Chennai (Tamil Nadu)
engaged in transporting 5. Tiruvanantpuram - Kerala
passengers. Besides, they 6. Ahmadabad - Gujrat
transport goods and mail too.
The first flight in India frights between Allahabad and Naini which was only for
demonstration purpose.
For improvement and development of Air transport after Independence, the Airlines
were nationalised on 13 August 1953. Two organisations were set up in the public
sector-
1. Air India- Air India was set up to provide International air transport.
Presently its services are available for flights to America, Europe, Africa, Australia and
East and West Asia.
2. Indian Airlines - Indian Airlines provide air transport services within the
country. Besides transporting passengers and goods and providing postal services it
organises flights to 17 International air ports VIZ. Bangkok, Singapore, Kualalumpur,
Rangoon, Kathmandu, Colombo, Dhaka, Maley, Karachi, Kuwait, Sharjah, Dubai, Fujaira,
Ras al Khaimar, Muskat, Doha and Beharain. The headquarters of this organisation is
Delhi. This airline is now known as 'Indian'.
3. Such areas where services of Indian Airlines are not available for trade and
commerce, to provide facilities to tourists and to connect the people of the North East
a service VIZ. 'Vaydoot' has been started since 20th January 1981.
4. Pavanhans- To provide helicopter services to the Oil and Natural Gas
Commission (ONGC) for its activities relating to discovering oil etc. from the sea and
coastal areas, 'Pavanhans' has been set up since 15th October 1985. This provides regular
and special services to the difficult areas of the country. At present this is the biggest
helicopter service in Asia. 'The Indian Airport Authority' (Bharatiya Vimanpattan
Pradhikaran) looks after the maintenance/upkeep of the domestic airports and civil air
lines areas.
4.3 Pipeline and Ports-
The manner in which liquid, solid and dry goods are transported by road, railways,
ships and airways in the similar way liquid and gas products are transported by pipelines.
A network of pipe lines is laid for transporting raw oil, petroleum products and gas
products. These days pipelines are very useful and popular because use of energy is
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minimum in this mode of transport. Pipelines can be laid in uneven surfaces, through
forests and under water. There is only one time expenditure on pipeline laying then the
cost of operation is not much. Due to pipelines, setting up of gas based electricity plants
in remote areas has become possible.
Important pipe lines
l Hajira Jagdishpur gas pipeline - This pipe line has been laid on the
Western Coast from Hajira (Gujrat) to Jagdishpur (Uttar Pradesh) via Vijaipur (Madhya
Pradesh). Length of ths pipline is 1750 Kilometers. Gas is supplied to fertiliser plants
of Savai Madhopur (Rajasthan) Oraiyya, Aonla, Shahjehanpur (Uttar Pradesh) through this
pipeline.
l Naharkatia-Barauni oil pipeline - This oil pipeline has been laid from
Naharkatia (Assam) to Barauni in the state of Bihar. It passes through Nuna mati, Gauhati,
Siligudi (West Bengal). Subsequently it was extended up to Kanpur. Its length is about
1160 Kilometers.
l Barauni - Haldia oil pipeline - This pipeline has been laid between Barauni
(Bihar) to Haldia in West Bangal to reach raw oil to the oil refinery of Haldia.
l Barauni-Jalandhar oil pipeline - The Barauni-Kanpur pipeline has been
extended upto Jalandhar via Delhi, Ambala.
l Salaya, Ankleshwar Mathura oil pipeline - This oil pipeline has been laid
from Salaya (near Kandla) upto Mathura (Uttar Pradesh); approximate length of this
pipeline is 1256 Kilometers.
l Kundremukh-Manglore iron ore pipeline- Iron ore is transformed into
viscous and is transported through this pipeline from Kundermukh mine (Karnataka) to
Mangalore port.
l Anand - Ahmadabad - Milk is sent through this pipeline from Anand to
Ahmadabad.
There are some drawbacks also of this mode of transportation. It is difficult to
trace the leakage in the pipeline. The repair of underground pipelines is not only difficult
but expensive also.
Transportation by sea
Ports and Docks are the centres of shipping transport. There is difference between
a port and a dock. Ports are meant for coming and going of ships, their stay, and there
are resting facilities on the ports, where as docks are meant for loading in and unloading
of goods from the ships.
Ports are the locations where there is land and sea. There are 13 major and 184
small ports in India on the 5717 Kilometers long coast line. Over 93% of the trade in
India is carried out form these ports. They are main centres of trade and therefore called
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the Gateway of trade and commerce.
l Ports of Western coast - Kandla, Bombay, Nhavasheva, Marmagoa, New
Manglore and Cochin.
l North Eastern Ports - Tuticorin, Innaur, Chennai, Vishakhapatanam, Paradwip,
Kolkata and Haldia.
l Mumbai - After Kolkata the second important and largest natural port is
Mumbai. This port is located on the sea route between Suez and Cape of Good Hope.
Here petrol and petroleum products, machinery, scientific tools and machines, other
machinery, paper, medicines and food articles are imported. Cotton cloth, oil seeds,
manganese, leather, medicines, hosiery, oils, soaps and tobacco are exported from here.
Located on the Western coast it is also called the Gate way of India.
l Kolkata - This is the biggest free trade centre not only of India but the whole
of Asia. The areas served by it are West Bengal, Orissa, Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Assam
Bihar and Uttar Pradesh.
l Haldia - This port is about 128 Kilometers away from Kolkata (West
Bangal). This port has been developed to reduce the pressure on Kolkata Port.
l NhavaSheva - This port has been developed on the Western Coast of New
Mumbai. This is the most modern port of India and has been developed to reduce the load
on Bombay port. It has been named Jawaharlal Nehru Port.
l Kandla - Located in the Bay of Kutcha this is the most important port of
Gujrat. The hinterland of this port are Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana,
Rajasthan and Gujrat. This port was developed after partition of the country to make good
the loss of Karachi port which went to Pakistan. This port has been developed as a centre
for free trade, Mica, edible oils, petroleum products, food grains, salt, sugar, fertilizers
and cement are transported from here.
l Marmagao - This port is in Goa. It is a natural port on the Western Coast
of India. The mineral rich areas of Maharashtra and Karnataka are its hinterlands. It
exports iron ore, manganese, coconut, oil, groundnut, Cashew nuts, coffee and imports
machines, mineral oil and fertilizers.
l New Manglore - It is the exporting port of Karnataka. Its hinterlands are
Kerala and Karnataka. Iron ore, granite, manganese, petroleum products, molasses,
fertilizers, fish are transported from here.
l Kocchi - This natural port on the Malabar Coast in Kerala is near Palghat, it
is also of strategic importance. Its hinterlands are horticultural areas of Kerala and Tamil
Nadu and industrial area of Coimbatore.

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 l Tuticorin - This port on the eastern coast is situated on the southern part of
Tamilnadu. Its hinterlands are districts of South Tamil Nadu. Tea, Cotton, hides skins,
Cardamom, Cotton cloth, are exported and fertilizers, Chemical, machinery and coal are
imported here.
l Chennai- It is an old and man made port on the eastern coast of Tamilnadu.
It is mainly a port for importing goods.
l Innore - It is a new dock. It has been developed to reduce the pressure on
Chennai port and is located North of Chennai about 25 Kilometers away.
l Vishakhapattanam- This is the deepest and most safe port situated on the
east coast on the coast of Coromandal of Andhra Pradesh. This dockyard is a centre for
construction and maintenance of ships. Iron ore is exported form here.
l Paradweep - Situated on the east coast, in the state of Orissa and in between
Kolkata and Vishakhapattanam it is deep, lagoon like-safe port. Its hinterlands viz.
Jharkhand, Orissa and Chhatisgarh are rich in minerals and forest wealth.
4.4 Means of communication and their importance
Communication system includes exchange of information and broadcasting. Man is
a social animal. Men therefore need a communication system for their individual, family
and social needs. In earlier times man himself did the work of delivering information and
messages from one place to another. Therefore, horses and camels were used for riding
and then the man used to deliver messages. Pigeons were also used. Now a days means
of communication have become very important because of following reasons:-
1. For nation building and bringing about awareness among people with regard
to policies and development programmes implemented in the country.
2. To encourage economic development of the country, develop social relations
and cultural unity;
3. To bring together people from different walks of life at the international
level.
4. To know about important events of the world through print and electronic
media.
5. To communicate with friends and relatives living in different parts of the
world.
6. To provide information regarding war, accidents earth quake or any other type
of emergency so that immediate help and relief can be arranged.
7. To assist in transporting system.
8. To assist in the business sector by providing market information.

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Means of communication-
The beginning of means of communication for the people was made from the year
1837. Following are the means of communication.
1. Post offices - Post offices play an important role in the communication
system. There are presently about 1,56,000 post offices in the country. On an average
a post office serves an area of 21 Square Kilometers and a population of about 6600
people. To provide efficient services in big cities the dak distribution system has been
classified as follwos.
l Capital channel - All the state capitals have been connected by this service.
Under the system yellow coloured letterboxes are put at selected places in the state
capital and letter posted in these are reached from one capital place to another in
minimum time.
l Metro channel - Light blue coloured letter boxes have been put in 6
metropolitan cities (Kolkata, Chennai, Delhi, Mumbai, Bangalore and Hyderabad) for
speedy postal services between these places.
l Green Channel - In big cities, for speedy delivery of the local letters, green
letter boxes have been put in big cities.
l Business channels - Under this system big business houses and companies
hand over their letters directly on the window of the post offices and these letters are
then reach to their destinations.
l Bulk Dak channel - 250 insured and money registered letters which are
more than 2000 are sorted out by the sending organisation and deposited in the post
office directly.
l Periodical channel - This channel is meant for speedy delivery of newspapers,
magazines etc.
l Speed post - This service is just like private courier. There is also express
parcel service to deliver parcels from one place to the other.
l E-post - For consumers, who do not have computer or Internet of their own,
this service, has been started.
l E-bill post - Payment facilities at one place for different services are
provided here.
2. Telegrams - American scientist Tomas Alva Edison invented telegraph; sending
messages speedily became possible by telegrams. For this, telegram lines were installed
on pillars. Messages were sent through these lines, with the help of electricity and code
machines. All the countries use the technique of sending messages by 'Morse code',

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using code language.
3. Telecommunication - Invention of telephone is a very important event in the
communication system. This system enables a person to convey message immediately to
the other person in his own voice. Today, the two departments providing services in the
telecommunication sector (VIZ. The Telecommunication Services and Telephone
Communication Department) have been formed into a corporation in the public sector
viz. 'Bharat Sanchar Nigam Ltd.' On the basis of the number of telephones India ranks
10th in the world. In respect of telecommunicaiton till March 2004, rural public
telephones (V.P.T.) have been installed in 5.22 lakh villages. S.T.D. facilities to talk
directly to persons of other places in the country and I.S.D. facility to talk to persons
living in other countries are available today.
4. Internet - Internet is the short form of the word International Network. With
the help of this service a person can see an event happening in any country, contact
persons and get desired information. Information and data can be obtained through lakhs
of computer information centres in ones' own language.
India ranks fourth in the world in respect of this facility. 4.5% of the country's total
population have access to the internet.
5. Mobile or cellular phone- It is phone like a wireless set and is called
mobile phone or cellular phone. You can carry it in your pocket and talk to anyone from
there itself and receive outstation phone calls also. Upto the year 2006, the number of
persons using this service was about 3.1 crores.
6. Fax - Fax is a means of sending and receiving written messages. For this a fax
machine is needed, which is connected to a telephone and the message is put into the
machine. This machine prints that message on a paper at the receiving end. It also prints
senders telephone number, address and time of the message.
7. E-Mail - This is the age of computer. Computer plays an important role in
sending messages. Under the system, the computer is connected to a telephone then the
message is typed on the computer which can be read on the computer at the place where
the message has been sent.
8. Radio - Radio is another important means of communication Through this
news, important event, sports, agricultural information, talks, weather reports, music,
education and entertainment programmes are broadcasted. The beginning of radio
broadcasting was made in the year 1927 through two private transmitting stations one in
Mumbai and the other in Kolkata. In the year 1930 both the transmitting station were
merged into one and Indian Broadcasting Service was set up, it was in the hands of the
Government.
Its name was changed and was renamed All India Radio. From 1957 it was called

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"Akashvani". There are 208 radio stations and 327 transmeters in India; in these there
are 149 medium wave and 55 short wave, and 123 F.M. transmeters. This has enabled
98.8% people of the country linking in 83.78% area to listen to the radio programmes.
Now broadcasting in the private sector has also started.
9. Television - The telecasting service on regular basis was started in India in
the year 1965. In the year 1976 it was separated from 'Akashvani' and a separate
organisation, 'Doordarshan' was set up. Now about more than 87% people of the country
through 1042 transmitting stations can watch the programmes. Number of centres
preparing programmes is 20. During 1976 the advertisement service was started, and
from 1982 telecasting of coloured programmes was started. D.D.1 and D.D.2 were
started from Delhi. Thereafter, satellite channels in 11 regional languages were started.
From February 1987 morning service of 'Doordarshan' and from 26th January 1989
afternoon service of the 'Doordarshan' have started to cater to the needs of all classes
of viewers. For sports related activities 'D.D.Sports' channel and for quality education,
an educational channel VIZ. 'D.D.Gnyan Darshan' has been started.
'D.D.India' channel has also been started for viewers at international level so that
they can know about India, its society, culture, economy and politics. There are many
private channels also.
10. Cinema - Cinema is an important medium of communication which
provides entertainment facilities to crores of people of the country.
11. Print media - News papers, Weekly and monthly magazines are the medium
of print media. They are spread in the whole country. According to an estimate there are
about 37254 news papers and magazines published in India. The number of daily
newspapers is approximately 4236, and the Hindi daily newspapers are about 1877.
12. Satellite communication - Scientists have prepared mechanized satellites
for the benefit of the society and they have been launched in the space with the help of
rockets. These artificial satellites move around the Earth and transmit, through pictures
and maps, information regarding weather, natural resources, army activities etc. Aryabhatt,
Apple, Inset, IRS man made Satellites are examples of efforts made in this direction.
4.5 Foreign trade and its contribution in the economic development-
Trade and commerce is the symbol of our progress. In olden days man used barter
system for fulfilling his needs. With the passage of time his needs increased and
consequently dependence on others (inter dependence) also increased. Today no country
is totally self-dependent. Therefore, every country buys foreign goods and sells the
domestic products to foreign countries. This mutual exchange (of goods and services)
is called 'Trade'. Business between two or more countries is called International Trade,
and the purchase and sale carried out with other countries is called Foreign trade.
International trade has assumed great importance in present times. No country can
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progress without increasing its foreign trade. Infact international trade of a country is the
indicator of its economic progress. That country is considered 'developed' which has a
sizeable share, per capita, at the international level. Those countries whose per capita
trade is less are considered economically backward. The contribution of foreign trade in
the economic development can be enumerated as under:
l Foreign trade makes a country self dependent. Those commodities which are
not available in the country due to unsuitable weather conditions, quality of
land and other factors they can be made available through foreign trade.
l This promotes industrialisation. Raw material and sources of energy can be
imported.
l Foreign trade increase possibilities of agricultural development, improved
technology and seeds promote agricultural development.
l Foreign exchange is earned which is utilised for economic development.
l Foreign trade increases avenues of employment in industry and agricultural
sector.
l It enables consumers to see a variety of things; and improve their living
standard (by buying such things).
l It is possible to provide immediate relief to victims of floods, famine
epidemics, earth quake etc. and save their lives by importing things of their
requirement.
l Inflation can be controlled. Division of labour can be promoted, which is an
indicator of economic development.
Factors affecting International Trade -
International trade is affected by many natural, economic, political and social
reasons, main factors affecting International trade are as under:
l Location - those countries which are located on the International trade
routes, commercially they progress easily.
l Rugged Sea Coast - The countries where sea coast is rugged there the ports
are very developed and they have adventurous and good sailors.
l Natural resources - The trade of a country is affected by the diversity of its
natural resources. They include the climate, forests, cultivable land, agricultural crops,
minerals etc. The production depends on these resources.
l Economic development - The level of economic development of different
countries is not similar. Countries which are economically advanced their trade is more
developed.
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 l Cultural diversity - Culturally all the countries of the world are different
from each other. The religious beliefs, life style, customs and traditions and tastes of the
people of every country are different. Demand and production of every country are
therefore different because of these diversities.
l Unequality in the density of population - unequal density of population
also affects the trade of a country There is a great demand for commodities of
necessities and less for articles of comfort and luxury in countries where density of
population is more and the standard of living of the people there is not very high; in
countries where density of population is low, and the standard of living of the people is
high, there the demand for articles of comfort and necessities is more.
l Development of means of transport and communication - There is close
relationship between trade and commerce and the means of transport and communication.
Availability of cheap and fast means of transport and communication makes transportation
of goods to far off places easy. It is possible to give worldwide publicity to the products
through radio, newspapers and other means of communication. It is therefore, necessary
to develop means of transport and communication of the country to develop trade and
commerce of the country.
l Business policy - The business policies of different countries are different
because of different political and economic reason. The business policies affect the
business of a country. If all the countries adopt the policy of free trade, then the
international trade will further develop. It is necessary for every country to give
protection to its industries. Therefore, duties are imposed on the imports from other
countries.
l Peace - The international trade can develop only during peace time. Wars and
disturbances in the country adversely affect the trade.
l Political ideology - The business with countries having similar political
ideology is well developed. The ideological difference between capitalist and communist
countries is the main cause for less business among countries with different ideology.
l Cheap rates - Business between two countries develops fast if both the
countries make available commodities at cheaper rates.
4.6 Foreign Trade and imports and exports of India -
Exchange of commodities with another country or countries is called foreign trade.
It includes imports and exports of commodities. When commodities are brought from
other countries it is called import and when commodities are sent to other countries it
is called export.
In olden days India had trade relations with countries of West Asia and European

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countries. The special feature of India's foreign trade has been surplus exports, that is
why India was called 'Golden Sparrow', but this situation did not continue for long. The
British Government, on the basis of its political power totally changed this scenario. The
British Government adopted a dual policy in respect of trade relations with India.
Accordingly goods made in England were imported in India without any restrictions and
import of Indian goods in England was discouraged.
This policy not only harmed the Indian industries, but it made Indian economy as
a means to serve the British ends. Till the attainment of Independence, India's, foreign
trade was merely meant to serve the interest of the Colonial rulers. The foreign trade of
India was mostly with Britain and the Common wealth Countries. The exports from India
were mainly jute, tea, cotton textiles, spices, mica, manganese etc. and imports primarily
included finished goods.
Progress after independence -
After the partition of the country in 1947 the jute, rice and cotton producing areas
went to Pakistan. As a result, India started importing these commodities. This disturbed
the balance of trade of the country. After independence many changes occurred in the
Indian trade. Before 1947 India exported only 50 types of commodities now the country
exports about 7500 types of commodities. The number of commodities being imported
has also increased as per the needs of a developing country. During the past few years
the balance of trade is adversely affected due to rise in prices.
India's import structure -
Three types of articles are included in the imports;
1. Capital goods - Machinery, metals goods other than Iron, means of
transportation
2. Raw material - Mineral oil, cotton, jute and chemical goods
3. Consumer goods - Food items, electrical equipments, medicines, cloth,
paper etc.
The export structure -
The items which are exported from India could be divided into four categories -
Food stuffs - Food grains, tea, tobacco, coffee, cashewnuts, spices etc.
Raw material - Hides and skins, leather, wool, cotton, iron ore, manganese,
minerals, dimond precious stones jem etc.
Finished goods - Jute articles ready made garments, cloth, leather goods, silk
cloth, cement, chemical goods, sports material and shoes
Capital goods - Machinery, transport equipments, iron and steel, engineering
goods, sewing machines

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 The 11 trade partner countries are mainly, United states of America, United
Kingdom, Belgium, Germany, Japan, Switzerland, Hongkong, United Arab Emirates,
China, Singapore and Malaysia with whom about 48% of the foreign trade is done. From
2005-06 China has emerged as the second largest trade partner of India. This increase
in the trade with China is because of export of alloys, metals, import of machinery,
chemicals etc., United Arab Emirats and Singapore are other important partner countries.
Singapore exports precious stones, minerals,, mineral oil, ships and boats and other
machines to India and imports machines, electrical machinery, bio-chemicals, books,
news paper and manuscripts, aeroplanes and satellites form India.
Export promotion and import substitution -
After achievement of independence, the quantum of imports in India have
considerably increased but exports have not increased to expected extent. As a result, the
position of balance of payments was adversely affected. The increasing deficits in the
foreign trade on the one hand necessitated an increase in the exports and on the other
hand a necessity was felt to reduce imports. Therefore, the policy of export promotion
and import substitution was adopted to improve the balance of payment position.
Export promotion - Under this, old and new exporters are encouraged to
export more and more goods.
Import substitution - It is a process inwhich, instead of importing goods from
other countries, their substitute goods are produced in the country itself.
Government efforts for export promotion
l Setting up of different organisations - Government of India has set up Foreign
Trade Institute, Export Import Advisory Council, State Trading Corporatio, Export
Promotion Council, Cotton Textiles Corporation, Jute Corporation, Import Export Bank
to open new markets for export, for publicity of domestic goods in foreign countries and
to extend facilities to exporters.
l Trade promotion institute - To ensure coordination between different
institutions engaged in exports promotion and to provide necessary services to them a
Trade Development Organisation has been set up.
l Establishment of state Trading Corporation - This corporation has been set
up to export a variety of things, expand the existing market, and provide necessary
facilities to the exporters.
l Establishment of Export houses - This organisation has been set up to provide
financial assistance to recognised organisations from the marketing development fund.
There are seven export resource centers viz. Kandla(Gujrat), Santacruz (Maharashtra),

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Kocchi (Kerala), Chennai (Tamilnadu), Noida (Uttar Pradesh), Phalta (West Bengal),
Vishakhapattanam (Andhra Pradesh).
Custom clearance facilities are available here.
l Indian Import-Export Bank - This bank has been set up to promote imports
and exports.
l Green Card - To accelerate the pace of exports the Government had issued
green cards to institutions which are engaged in cent per cent exports.
l Liberal license system - The government have declared a new import- export
policy and made the licensing system very liberal, this has encouraged free trade.
Import substitution -
Indian economy is a developing economy. Efforts are being made to find out
substitutes of imported goods and reduce dependence on foreign countries. This results
in reduction of import bills and thus foreign exchange is saved, industrialisation is
encouraged, employment opportunities are created and unemployment is reduced. Thus
the country advances towards economic self-dependence.
Indian foreign trade (in crore rupees)
S.No. Name of the country Exports ( April to March) Imports ( April to March)
2004-05 2005-06 2004-05 2005-06
1. Western Europe 19501.20 24,563,.10 25428.45 29,834.80
2. Eastern Europe 178.98 159.56 193.09 311.24
3. C.I.S. and Baltic countries 1088.61 1232.42 1960.07 2886.52
4. Russia 631.26 729.89 1322.74 1992.01
5. Asia and Oceana 39994.39 48222.08 39707.72 49297.49
6. Africa 5572.00 7138.66 4008.65 4683.93
7. America 16812.43 21193.20 9810.28 11064.54
8. Countries of Latin America 2160.63 2955.96 2119.33 2372.12

Terms
Internal trade - Trade between Port Trusts located on one shore is called
internal trade.
Coastal trade - Trade between one shore region and another shore region.

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Re-export trade - Importing foreign goods and exporting them again to the
neighbouring countries
Import - To buy goods form other countries
Export - To sell goods to other countries
Export promotion - The system of encouraging old exporters to export more and
new exporters are also encouraged to export
Exercises
Choose the right option :
1. How many railway zones are there in India?
(i) 9 (ii) 16
(iii) 14 (iv) 15
2. The distance between two rails of the broad guage is-
(i) 1676 mm (ii) 1000 mm
(iii) 792 mm (iv) 1560 mm
3. The place associated with metro rails -
(i) Bengluru (ii) Ahmadabad
(iii) Kolkata (iv)) Bhopal
4. The main gas pipeline transport is -
(i) Barauni-Haldia (ii) Barauni-Jalandhar Oil - Pipe line
(iii) Naharkatia-Barauni oil pipeline (iv) Hajira - Jagdishpur Gas pipe line
5. The port to reduce pressure on Bombay Port is -
(i) Paradweep (ii) Haldia
(iii) Nhava Sheva (iv) Kandla
6. The communication facility in India for talking to people living abroad
(foreign countries)
(i) B.P.T. (ii) I.S.D.
(iii) S.T.D. (iv) W.L.L.
7. Those consumers who do not have computer or Internet, for them this
communication system has been developed-
(i) Business mail (ii) Speed post
(iii) E-Post (iv) E-Bill post
Fill in the blanks :
1. The most safe and deed port on the Koromandal coast in Andhra Pradesh
is ………..................
2. The letter boxes installed in big cities for local letters are called ..................

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 3. The useful channel for sorting and sending the dak, available in the capital
places of all the state capitals is ……..
4. The short name of International network is …….
5. Foreign trade means ……….. of goods.
6. At the time of independence India's foreign trade was having …….. position.
7. The import-export policy declared in 1992 made …….. very liberal.
Make right pairs :
1. D.D.1 and D.D.2 D.D. Sports channel
2. Telecasting of sports activities 1957
3. Akashvani News paper
4. Print media Man made satellite
5. I.R.S. Delhi
Very short answer type questions :
1. Which port has been developed 125 Kilometers away from Kolkata?
2. Where is head quarter of Indian Airlines?
3. What is main objective of the Prime Minister's village roads scheme in India?
4. What do you mean by transport and communication?
5. When was the commercial (advertisements) service of Doordarshan started?
6. On which channel information about Indian social, cultural and economic
sectors is shown to international viewers?
7. What is the present name of the radio broadcasting service?
8. By what name is the educational channel of the 'Doodarshan' mainly known?
9. Name the main international naval routes of India.
Short answer type questions :
1. What is meant by metro rail service?
2. Which are main hinderances of the internal navigational transport?
3. What is difference between a dock and a port?
4. What is cellular phone?
5. What is the difference between telegram and fax?
6. What is meant by Internet?
7. Describe the Indian Doordarshan service.
8. What is meant by satellite communication service?
9. What is meant by foreign or international trade?
10. How is business affected by cultural diversity?
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 11. What is meant by infrastructure of foreign trade?
12. Explain the difference between export promotion and import substitution.
13. Explain the re-export business.
14. What are main five items which are imported and five items which are
exported?
Long answer type questions :
1. How are the means of transport guiding factors for the progress of human
civilisation?
2. Describe the main National highways of India.
3. 'The distribution of rail routes in India is unequal'- explain.
4. How are the means of communication very important in modern times?
explain.
5. 'Doordarshan' is the most useful medium of communication - explain it.
6. Explain the contribution of foreign trade in the economic development and
discribe the factors that affect the international trade?
7. Describe the measures adopted to promote exports in India.
8. Indicate the following in the map of India Hajira-Jagdishpur gas pipeline,
Vishakhapattanam Milk pipeline, any two internal water transport routes, Area
of the Border roads development Board.

❖❖❖

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Map Reading and Depiction
We shall learn
5.1 Meaning of weather map
5.2 Need and importance of
studying weather map
5.3 Conventional signs for
weather conditions
5.4 Interpretation of weather
maps
Chapter-5
We have studied in the previous classes
 the meaning of a map and importance of map in
the geographical study of any area. Maps are of
different types physical, political, distribution
maps and study of maps developed for particular
purposes. In this chapter we shall study about
the weather maps of any specific area. These
maps show the special features and diversity of
weather conditions and their effects.

5.1 Meaning of weather map -

These are maps, which show the weather conditions of any area on earth (e.g.
temperature, air pressure, rains, speed and direction of winds, condition of clouds etc.)
and these are depicted on the map through conventional signs which are accepted at the
international level.
Weather maps can be studied on the basis of following features:
1. The weather features are indicated on the map through standard signs.
2. For preparing weather maps informations are obtained through observatories,
pilots of areoplanes, balloon, ships.
3. Following informations are collected in the observatories regarding the
weather conditions:
Temperature, rains, speed of winds the directions of wind, humidity, duration of sun
light, conditions of the sea, previous and present weather condition etc.
4. Every developed country publishes weather maps.
5. In India, publication of weather maps started from the year 1875. Presently
these maps are published from Pune.
6. The weather conditions and informations obtained from weather map are
published in news papers and broadcasted through radio and television.
7. For preparing weather map weather conditions/observation of facts and
documentation is done in the observatories in the morning at 8.30 am and in
the evening 5.30.
8. The information for this map is sent through code numbers which indicate a
particular feature.
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 The Meteorological Department in India was set up in the year 1864 in Bengal on
the recommendation of the Asiatic Society. In the beginning its office was in Simla.
After the Second World War the head office and observatory was set up in Delhi. This
department does the work of studying changes in the weather conditions in various parts
of the country on daily basis, observation, documentation, collection of data and
observation of weather conditions of neighbouring countries, their analysis and forecasting
in advance.
The meteorological Department in India has been divided into five regions, The
head office is in Delhi. Nagpur, Mumbai, Chennai and Kolkata or other offices. There
are1142 observatories, 2500 rain gauges and 22 centres for measuring the intensity of
earthquake, in India.
5.2 Need and importance of the study of weather map -
● With the help of weather maps it is possible to know in advance the weather
conditions, these forecasts are published in news papers and broadcasted
though 'Akashvani'. Through these forecasts efforts are made to provide safety
and security to the people in times of natural calamities like excessive rains,
(and consequently floods etc.), inadequate rains (and draught conditions as a
consequence) earth quake, hailstorm, cyclones, snow fall etc.
● The forecasts made on the basis of weather map help in taking suitable safety
measures at the time of navigation safe aeroplane flights, and drought conditions
and their ill effects and properly carrying out the agricultural operations.
5.3 Conventional signs for weather conditions -
The facts and information received from observatories are indicated in the map
with the help of figures, signs and symbols which are accepted internationally. These are
also called international weather indicators. These were given recognition in the
International Meteorological meet (conference) held in Warsa (Italy) in the year 1935.
Format of interpretation of weather map
Study of the indications/information on the Indian weather maps is done under
following headings:
1. Introduction - Day, date and time
2. Variation in temperature - How much temprature variation has occurred in is
indicated with the help of Isotherms on the weather map. This variation i.e. more or less
than the normal temperature is indicated in terms of difference of every 2 degrees. This
helps in knowing about cold wave or heat wave.
On the basis of the temperature variation map we can explain the position of
temperature variation. From the map it is seen that the temperature in the five regions
of India VIZ. North Gujrat, West Madhya Pradesh, middle Rajasthan, Jharkhand and Uttar
Pradesh was 2°c. more than the normal.

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 Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

2. Variation in air pressure - Wind pressure is also indicated to know, how much
it is on the higher or lower side of the normal pressure on surface. In the weather map
the air pressure is shown with the help of Isobar. This is normally indicated by the
difference between two milibars. The higher number shows high air pressure and the
lower number shows low air pressure.
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 Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

Sometimes low pressure is indicated by writing L and high pressure by H. This is

read like contour lines.
The air always blows towards low pressure area from the high pressure area.
a. Normal distribution of air pressure -High and low pressure zone
b. Speed of cyclones
With the help of Isobar, we can explain the conditions of air pressure in the
atmosphere. From the map given we see that the air pressure was 2 milibar less than the
normal. Only in two zones the pressure was normal. The mountain region of North Bihar,
Andaman and Nicobar and Eastern Mynamar the air pressure was normal.
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Cyclone and Anti-cyclone
In cyclone when the Isobars form concentric closed circles, the smallest circle in
the centre indicates a low pressure centre. Air moves from a high pressure area to a low
pressure area. In the Northern Hemisphere the wind blows in a counter clock-wise
direction in a cyclone. In the southern Hemisphere, the wind blows in a clock-wise
direction. These cyclones moves in the direction of pressure centres. Air pressure in the
centre of shallow depression is little but it is very little in deep depression. Deep
depression is surrounded by more than one isobar and shallow depression area is
surrounded by single isobar and partially surrounded by other isobars. Isobars are
depicted in a dispersed way in shallow depression and the isobars are shown close in
depression. Under this condition the air
mass rises above and takes the form of
clouds and rains. Thus the weather
conditions are rough in the cyclonic area.
The Anti-cyclone is opposite of
cyclone. Anti cyclone have high pressure
in the centre and they are surrounded by
low pressure. The centre of high pressure
is called 'Highs'. This is the point of
intersection of two wedge lines. The isobar is usually circular and the winds blow in
clock-wise direction in the northern Hemisphere and counter clock-wise in the southern
Hemisphere. The winds blow outwards from the centre in such condition. Anti cyclone
are weak and stay at one place for quite some times. The wind is slow and keep varying.
Anti Cyclone do not move in a definite direction and the centre is calm. In the front the
winds blow in a definite direction ; the sun is bright and sky is clear and dry. Some times
there are drizzing rains.
Trough of low pressure and 'V' shaped depression - This is the condition of low
pressure which is a triangular form. The low pressure is less towards the base and high
towards the peak of the trough. The line joining the
centre point of the base and the peak is called trough
line. This line is at a place where the pressure is
symmetrical and curved like as a cyclone.
Low pressure trough line are 'V' shaped. These
are related with the warm and cold part of the cyclone.
If it is related with the warm part there are constant
rain when it is related with the cold part the rains are Trough of Low Pressure

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very moderate, the sky are clear and weather become cool.
There is great variation in the temperature of the front and rear part of the trough.
The isobar are closed and speed of wind is very high.
Cyclone and anti-cyclone are formed due to the contact of two different types of
wind. The contact point is known as a surface of separation. When the isobar on the
surface are 'V' shaped, it is called 'V' shaped depression.
Wedge
It is a triangular high pressure area. The isobars are 'V' shaped with rounded peak.
The peak indicates towards the low pressure area. In the centre of the wedge the air
pressure is the highest and it goes on diminishing towards the peak and edge. It advances
along with the cyclone. The line joining the highest
pressure point and the peak point is called Crest line.
In the picture P F is the Crest Line. In its centre there
is a high pressure and the weather is pleasant.
Wedge Line
The isobar are dispersed and the weather is pleasant
and clear. When the wedge advances towards the north
than the winds blow from the north in the front area and
from the south in the rear area. In the front area the sky Wedge
is clear and blue and the rear area it is cloudy and starts
drizzling.
Indicators of air speed
The system of measuring the wind speed was pioneered by the British naval chief
Beaufort in 1805, that system is being used even today with some modifications in the
Indian weather maps. Wind indicator which are being used are different from the one
developed by Beaufort.
This wind indicator shows the speed through its
5 Knots
rear wings and the front end indicates the direction.
10 Knots
Through these wings any speed can be indicated.
15 Knots
Normally by changing half of the wind a difference of
five knots occurs. 1 knot means - 1.85 Kilometer per 50 Knots
hour or 1 Knot to one nautical mile.
Signs to measure speed of the wind
Beaufort Name of sign Speed Effect of
Scale the wind (in miles) the wind
0 Calm 0-1 The smoke rises straight
1. Light air 1-3 We can know about the wind by
the leaving of smoke and not by
wind indication apparatus.

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2. Pleasant 'breeze' 4-7 The effect of wind can be
experienced on the body, leaves
of trees shake. We can know from
the wind indication apparatus.
3. Steady breeze 8-12 Branches and leaves always shake
and flag flies slowly.
4. Weak breeze 13-18 dust rises and small branches of
trees also shake

5. Fresh breeze 19-24 Small trees shake and therefore

waves rise in still water 1 large
branches of trees also shake.

6. Strong breeze 25-31 Sound in telegraph line (wire) can

be experienced. Difficulty faced
in opening umbrella.

7. High wind 32-38 Whole tree shakes, difficulty

experienced in moving against the
direction of the wind.

8. Gale 39-46 The branches of tree break and

movement become difficult.

9. Strong Gale 47-54 The chimneys of the mills are

harmed and some harm caused to
buildings

10. Gale wind 55-63 Trees are uprooted. Buildings are

harmed considerably
11. Storm 64-75 Widespread loss is caused
12. Hurricane more than 75 Heavy losses caused
Indicators of cloud
The shadow in circle is indicated for cloud. In the Indian maps clouds with only low
and medium height are shown.
The level of clouds is shown by different types of circles. In India only low and
medium height clouds are shown. The percentage of cloud is indicated on the 8th part
of the circle.

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Indicators of the level of cloud Indicators of oceanic waves
The direction of oceanic wave
is indicated by letters
Amount Low level High level W direction of wave

1/8 Cm (Clm)
Sm (Smooth)
1/4 (2/8) SL (Slight)

3/8 Mod (Moderate)

1/2 (4/8) Ro (Rough)

5/8 V. Ro (Very rough)

3/4 (6/8) Hi (High)

7/8 V. Hi (Very High)

Full (8/8) Pr (Precipitous)

Conf. (Confused)

Sun light Ph. (Phenomenal)

Some others signs of weather map
Some others signs of weather maping are given below
Haze Mist
Fog Shallow Fog

+ Drizzle Rain

/ Snow Hail

Distantlightining Thunder Storm

● Conditions of the ocean - We can also know the condition of ocean from
the weather map.
● Weather forecast - On the basis of 2-3 weather maps forecast can be
described during the interpretation of map.
5.4 Interpretation of Indian weather map
● Introduction - The weather map given below is of 16th August 2007. This

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 describes the weather conditions at 8.30 am. This is the monsoon month in
India.
● Description of air pressure - The map given is of minimum air pressure.
The air pressure zones are as follows:-
1. The first zone is encircled by normal pressure line of 998 milibars. In this
zone are included the areas of Pakistan and from Western Uttar Pradesh to
Kashmir of India.
2. The second zone is that of Eastern Orissa and West Bengal. This zone has
been encircled by normal pressure line of 1000 milibars. The air pressure has
been gradually increasing.
3. The high pressure zone is on the South of Sri Lanka which is encircled by
normal pressure line of 1010 milibar. This area extends from West to East.
This is a large area of high pressure. The pressure gradient is normal in this
zone. Pressure is increasing from North to South. Tamilnadu is air pressure
prone zone.
● Direction and speed of wind - In most part of the map the wind speed is 5
and more than 5 knaut. On the West Coast the wind speed is about 10 knaut. In the
southern India the wind is blowing from West to East. In India in the state of Kashmir
the direction of the wind is from North to south and in Madhya Pradesh it is from West
to East. In Assam the direction of the wind is from East-West and South-West.
● Condition of sky, rainfall and position of clouds - In the Western India the
sky is cloudy. The skies of Bangladesh, Assam, Agartala, Manipur and Dibrugarh are also
cloudy. The skies of Jalpaigudi of West Bengal, Daltenganj and Darbhanga of Bihar,
Gorakhpur of Uttar Pradesh, Bhopal and Madhya Pradesh, Jabalpur and Indore are also
cloudy. The northwestern India is comperatively less cloudy. In the ocenic regions the
skies are clear. In most parts of India the skies are cloudy. From the map it is clear that
the month of August is of heavy rains. In the two regions of India VIZ. Western Ghats
of Maharashtra and Assam and the states of Northeast. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Eastern
Madhya Pradesh, Gujrat and Chhota Nagpur area will have normal rains. The areas of
North /west India will have less than normal rains. The rainfall in important places is as
follows-
Jalpaigudi 2.2 cm. Siligudi 1.4 Cm. Mahabaleshwar 9.4 Cm. Indore 8.1 Cm.
Cherapunji 7 Cm. Pachmadhi 6 Cm. Ratnagiri 5.3 Cm. Kalim pong 5.1 Cm.
● Condition of the sea - The condition of the sea can be known from the
weather map. On the Western coast of Gujrat condition of the sea is calm. Near Ratnagiri
it is Smooth, on the coast of Kerala it is Smooth and Rough and near Minicoy the sea
is 'Slight'. The sea has been calm in Sri Lanka and Middle India; near Vishakhapattanam
and Andaman and Nicobar the condition of the sea is the same.
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 Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008
● Weather forecast - There are fairly good possibilities of rains in the
whole of the country. In the North-West India there are less possibilities of rains.
Western coast and Eastern India are covered with dense clouds; therefore there are

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possibilities of heavy rains. In the North-Eastern India and Central India there are
possibilities of good rainfall.
On the basis of the above points weather map can be interpreted.

Terms
One Knot - A unit to measure the speed of wind, one knot is equal to 1.85
Kilometer. It means that the wind is blowing at a speed of 1.85
Kilometers per hour.
Storm - Blowing sudden heavy winds which subsides after some time.
Observatory - A centre where weather conditions, observation of facts and
documentation of data is done for preparing weather maps.
Exercises
Choose the correct option-
1. Publication of weather maps in India commenced from the year -
(i) 1853 (ii) 1947 (iii) 1950 (iv) 1875
2. In India weather maps are published in -
(i) Kolkata (ii) Delhi (iii) Pune (iv) Hyderabad
3. The Meteorological Department in India is divided into-
(i) 6 zones (ii) 4 zones (iii) 5 zones (iv) 8 zones
Fill in the blanks.
1. The International weather indicators (signs) were recognised in the year
1935 by the Meteorological Union/Federation at ……….. (name the place).
2. Beaufort was associated with ……… Navy.
3. Measurement of the speed of wind was for the first time planned in……
Match the following -
A B
1. Wind blowing at high speed Hurricane
2. Calm Wind speed 4-7 miles
3. Strong breeze Calm
4. Cool breeze wind speed 25-31 miles
Very short answer type questions -
1. What is Knot?
2. How many centres of Seismology are there in India?

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Short answer type questions -
1. What is meant by weather signs?
2. How is weather information collected for preparing Weather map?
3. How are weather conditions depicted in wheather map?
4. Identify the follwoing wind measuring signs name them and write their speed.
1. 2. 3.

4. 5.
5. Identify the cloud condition and describe their intensity and level.
1. 2. 3.

4. 5. 6.

7. 8. 9.
6. Describe the atmosphere conditions on the basis of following isobar.

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Long answer type questions :
1. Describe the importance of weather maps. Where can we use the information
of weather forecast which is shown in weather map?
2. Draw symbol/signs to show the following weather conditions :
Fog, Hail, Snow, Rain
3. Explain follwoing points in the given weather map -
Cyclone and Anti-cyclone, Wedge

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-6
Natural Disasters and Disaster Management
In the last century drastic
We shall learn  changes in the social and
6.1 Meaning and types of disaster economic sector occurred in the
6.2 Natural disasters world. The world population
● Drought-Meaning, causes responsible, increased phenomenally.
drought affected areas, effects of Appreciable progress was made
drought and steps to minimise the in the areas of industry and
problem technology. The man adopted -
● Floods - Meaning, causes, flood affected
materialistic attitude toward life
areas, action plan to help the affected
and exploited the resources very
people and the area
irrationally. This affects the
● Earthquakes - Causes of occurrence,
biological and non-bio
Earthquake prone zones, disastors
resources-adversely resulting
consequences action plan to solve the
into many types of calamities,
problem
both natural and which occurred
● Land slides - causes, main areas, effects

of land slides and steps to solve the due to human folly. Now a sense
problems of the affected people and the of insecurity among human
area beings is developed.
● Tsunami - Causes, effects, steps to save 5.1 Meaning and types of
affected people disasters-
6.3 Disasters caused by human folly - atomic, Disaster is a calamity either
biological and chemical explosions and natural or which occurs due to
steps to prevent them human mistake. This results into
6.4 Common disasters - Fire, air and road loss of lives and natural
accidents and epidemics resources, and ultimately the
6.5 Disaster management - necessary steps and people suffer.
of disaster management.
● A disaster hampers the
normal routine of the whole society and offects a large section of the population.
● These is a widespread loss of lives and property.
● Disaster affects the society adversely and external assistance is needed to solve the
problems caused by the disaster.
● Thus it can be said that disaster is the consequence of materialistic economy,
increasing population and unnecessary interference in the nature's system.

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● Every disaster has its specific effects.
All such incidents that put the human society into trouble and human beings feel insecure
are called disasters. Earthquakes, terrorism, floods, storms, drought, land slides, fire,
nuclear disaster, chemical disaster, environmental disaster are all the examples of
this.
Why are disasters a danger?
Disasters are a grave danger to mankind and environment. The capacity to harm is
measured (separate unit is used for different disasters) and that (measurement) is the
extent of gravity of that disaster.
Excessively unsafe conditions are related with very dangerous disasters. Conversely,
if the conditions are less unsafe and less dangerous then the danger of disaster is also
less. The dangers relating to disasters are deaths, injury, loss of property, difficulty in
carrying livelihood and adverse effect on economic activities.
Problem × unsafe conditions
Danger = __________________________
capacity
For example coastal Orissa is one of the most storm prone area in India. On 29
October 1999 a disasterous storm occurred in densely populated coastal districts of
Orissa at a speed of 300 Kilometers per hour. For more than two days there was a heavy
downpour of rains.
Ten meters high stormy waves came in the sea and entered the internal areas upto
20 Kilometers. As a result a large area was inundated, men, cattle, houses, trees, crops,
etc. were destroyed; electricity supply failed and roads were washed off.
The disasters harm the development process; all the resources and money is
diverted to relief measures and real development process lags behind by many years.
In a developing country like India, the harm and difficulties caused by disasters to
life, sources of livelihood and property are much more in comparison to developed
countries.
Main types of disasters-
In India we come across many calamities which are a cause of worry for us. They
may be classified as under:
● Disasters that appear abruptly - Earthquake, Tsunami, eruption of volcano,
land slide, flood, Tornado, (Whirl wind), avalanche, cloud burst etc.
● Disasters that appear gradually - Droguht, hailstorm, environment deterioration,
transormation of land into deserts etc.
● Epidemics - food /water borne diseases, infections diseases etc.
● Industrial/Technological accidents - system related problems/failure; fire,
explosion, chemical leakage etc.
● War.

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 The classification of disaster is very vast. Here we will study about only two main
types of disaster :-
1. Natural disasters- Draught, flood, earth quake, Land slide and Tsunami etc.
all these incidents happen in the nature and their effects are disastourous.
2. Disasters related with human follies - Atomic, biological and chemical
bomb explosion are not natural disasters. Distresses relating to human mistakes mainly
occur due to over ambitious efforts whose results are devastating.
6.2 Natural Disasters -
❒ Drought - Perennial drought conditions is one disaster which has been a
cause of concerns for both, the people and administration. In our country there are a few
areas which never face the problem of drought. Any area which gets 25% or less average
rainfall is called drought condition. When the rainfall is less than 50% of the average
rainfall or when the area does not get rains for two consecutive years, it is called
situation of grave drought condition.
As per the Irrigation Commission's report of 1972 those areas are called 'drought
prone', which receive average annual rainfall, less than 75 cm. So also if there is a
variation of 25% in the annual average rainfall then that area is called drought affected
area.
Human factors responsible for drought- The drought comes gradually and it is
difficult to decide the duration of its beginning and end. Scanty rains, diminishing ground
water level, dry wells, rivers and reservoirs and weak crop give a warning of the imminent
danger of drought. Although drought is a natural calamity but the main factor responsible
for it are as follows-
● Ignoring land management
● Ignoring traditional sources of irrigation viz tanks, wells, reservoirs etc.
● Destruction of community forests
● Natural water resources get dried due to destruction of forest, due to
insufficient rains the ground water level goes down; water level in rivers also
goes down.
● Fodder shortage for cattle
● Drastic changes in rotation of crops
● Imbalanced relationship with atmosphere (ecology) results in excessive
demand for water in the agriculture, industry and cottage industry
● Faulty management of water resource
Drought prone areas in India- The drought prone areas of India are mainly -
1. The dry and semi dry regions of Rajasthan where every two years drought
conditions occur.
2. Gujrat, Punjab, Western Uttar Pradesh, Tamil Nadu, Rayal seema of Telangna

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 Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

areas, witness drought every three years.

3. Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Southern Karnataka and Vidarbha areas where once in
every four years drought occurs.
4. West Bengal, Madhya Pradesh, Chattisgarh, Coastal Andhra Pradesh Central
Maharashtra, Kerala, Bihar and Orissa where drought occurs once in five years.
Effects of drought -
The effect of drought is first seen on the kharif crops (rain based crops) and then
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on the irrigated crops (rabi crops). Such areas where dependence on rains for agriculture
is very much i.e. alternative source of irrigation is not available nor other employment
avenues (except agriculture) are available, are most drought prone. The worst hit by
drought are crores of landless agricultural labourers, village artisans, marginal farmers,
women, children and cattle.
Unlike other natural disasters, no harm is caused to the infrastructure in drought.
People are forced to travel long distances for fetching drinking water. Failure of crops
is a normal consequence of drought but other vegetation is also harmed. Other bad
effects of drought are failure of crops, adverse effect on milk production, shortage of
fuel, shortage of electricity generation and its more demand, increase in unemployment,
scarcity of water, biological diversity is adversely affected, natural beauty affected, fall
in ground water level, diseases, increase in death rate, increase in poverty, low standard
of living, social disturbance and migration.
Steps to minimise the ill effects of drought -
➨ The situation of drought should be closely watched, i.e. condition of
rainfall, reservoirs, lakes, rivers etc. should be closely watched with the intention to
conserve water and for making water available, demand for water in different areas and
supply should be monitored and water conservation and storage should be encouraged.
➨ Efforts to increase water supply, storing water in homes and agricultural
fields increases the availability of water. The water which drains away should be stored
at one place and through bunds it should be allowed to go into the soil. Contour bunding,
improved plantation of seeds in beds, etc. help in increasing availability of water.
➨ Extension of irrigation facilities minimise the ill effects of drought.
➨ For providing employment, alternative avenues other than agriculture
should be opened for employment. Besides, collection of forest produce other than
wood, goat rearing, carpentry etc. should be encouraged.
❒ Flood disaster Causes responsible for floods
Accumulation of large quantity of water ● Dams, Bunds, Barrages etc. are
on a big area which causes loss to the lives harmed (cracks in them).
and property is called flood. Floods are caused ● Increase of silt and soil in rivers.
due to increase in the level of water in water ● Land slides.
reservoirs beyond limit, due to heavy rains ● Hindrance in draining of water due
the water overflows in rivers, storms and to roads or other construction
tornado occur and due to cracks or breaking work.
● Sedimentation in dams built on
of dams, a very large area is inundated.
rivers.
Causes responsible for floods -
● Destruction of environment, soil
India is a large country and there are erosion and soil draining.

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great physical diversities therefore, floods are a common feature here. 80% of the total
rains of the country are from monsoons. Shortage or excess of monsoons result in either
drought or flood. Tempering with the environment or causing harm to it is the main cause
of floods. This disaster is gathering vast proportions year after year.
Main reasons of floods in India are leakage or cracking of bunds, dams etc. and
releasing excess water from barrages. The danger of floods is also increasing because
of defective construction of bunds, old dams etc. The waters that are flowing from
Himalayan rivers bring with them large quantities of soil and this is deposited on the land
and areas near the sea coast. According to an estimate, every year 10 lakh cubic feet of
soil gets mixed up with the waters of rivers Gandak and Sarayu flowing from the
Himalayas. This soil is deposited on the plains of Uttar Pradesh. Consequently the
bottom of the rivers and their water surface is coming up. Thus every year the flow of
these river is taking the form of floods.
In the mountainous regions, the river flow gets blocked due to landslides and water
reservoirs are formed; then suddenly they crack and floods occur. In the Himalayan
region land slides are common. In the mountainous regions the land has become unstable
due to construction of roads, deforestation, uncontrolled cutting of hills etc. In the
Himalayan area on an average 60,000 cubic meter soil is removed in construction of
1km long road. So far 50,000 Kilometers of road has been constructed in the Himalayan
region. This soil accumulation is also a cause of floods.
Flood regions in India
Floods are a regular feature in India. The vast plains and coastal areas suffer from
the devastation of floods. Floods are a regular annual feature in the states of Assam,
Meghalaya, Arunachal Pradesh, Tripura, West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa in the Northeast
India. The consequences of this are suffered by both, the human and cattle population.
Effects of floods - Floods affect the life of human beings in the following manner:
● Physical harm - the flood water harm the buildings, some buildings are
razed to the ground. There is danger to the lives and property. Land slides also occur due
to heavy down pour of rains and flowing water.
● Deaths and public health - People and cattle drown/die in the flood
waters. Epidemic, diarrhea, bacterial infections, malaria etc spread.
● Hindrance in water supply - The water sources get contaminated and
there is problem in supply of potable water.
● Crops and food supply - The fields (crops) are inundated and the grain
godowns are also harmed and damage is caused to food grains.
● Change in the soil structure - The soil is also affected and due to sea
water there is a danger of soil becoming salty.

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Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

The flood of the year 2000 occurred in West Bengal took a toll of 80,000 houses
and a loss to the tune of Rs.295 crores was incurred.
Steps to minimise ill effects of floods-
There is a reasonable period warning for floods other than the sudden floods which
come due to rains or tornado. In India the Central Water Board/commission, Irrigation
and Flood Control Department and Water Resources Department issue warning regarding
floods. The forecasts of Central Water Board are based on the 132 forecast centres

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located on the flood prone rivers of different states. Following efforts can be made to
minimise the risks of flood in the flood affected areas :
➨ Many reservoirs can be made on the upper areas of the rivers.
➨ Small dams should be constructed on the tributaries and brooks so that the
possibilities of floods in the main river can be minimised.
➨ Dense plantation should be done on the upper catchment area of the rivers.
➨ In the plains, water can be stored in reservoirs to be constructed on unused
land.
➨ Attention should be paid towards the safety of bunds constructed on the
coasts.
➨ Total or partial rehabilitation can be provided to the people of the villages
which are surrounded by waters between the bunds.
➨ Encroachment of human settlements on the lands adjacent to the banks of
rivers should be prevented.
➨ Destruction of forests located in the catchment area of rivers should be
controlled.
➨ Land slides can be controlled by using only limited explosives for construction
of roads in the hill area.
Use of land in the coastal areas and areas which are likely to come in the range of
floods should be regulated so that the loss of lives and property can be minimised. In the
flood prone areas big development works should not be permitted. In the flood prone
areas the building construction work should be very durable.
❒ Earthquake - This disaster abruptly crops up. It can come at any place, any
time and without any warning. This incidence creates movements of the earth's crust and
causes shaking of the ground.
As the waves move away from the epicentre of the earthquake, its intensity goes on
diminishing. Earthquake affects in two ways. Firstly, it creates waves around the
epicentre and the effect is widespread. The second effect is on and under surface of the
earth. This effect is perpendicular type, this form of the earth quake is very destructive.
The point from where the earth quake starts is called the epicentre of the earthquake. In
the beginning waves and shaking are experienced; the waves that spread are called
earthquake waves. The intensity and effect of the earthquake is measured on the richter
scale. There are many reasons of earquake.
It is believed that the earth's surface is made of big plates. These plates shift
towards each other due to earth's internal heat. Their shifting or expanding causes
earthquake. Where two plates meet, mountains are formed and where they shift new
surfaces are formed. Volcano explosion is also related with this.
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Earthquake prone areas in India-
India can be divided into five areas on the basis of the effect and dispersal of
earthquakes.
1. Highest earthquake prone areas.
2. More earthquake prone areas.
3. Medium affected areas.
4. Low danger areas
5. Normal areas.

Country Boundary line based on Survey of India Map 2008

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 The areas where the danger is maximum are: The Himalayan region which includes
Himachal Pradesh, Uttara Khand, North Bihar and parts of North East India. Besides,
areas of Kutchha, and coastal Kokan are also more dangerous areas.
Middle India, Rajasthan, Maharashtra, Karnataka, Orissa, Tamilnadu, Andhra Pradesh,
Jharkhand and Chattisgarh are areas less affected by earthquakes. Other areas of the
country are moderate danger areas.
Social and environmental effect of
Effects of Earthquake
earthquake-
● Physical loss
The losses due to earth quake are wide ● Loss of lives and other creatures
spread. If it occurs in a densely populated ● Effect on public health
area then there is a great loss of lives. The ● Water supply is affected
means of transport and communication are ● Obstruction in the transport
destroyed and industry and development works network
are hampered. The roads get blocked and it ● Obstruction in the Electric supply
becomes difficult to reach help to the people. and communication network
Measures to minimise the ill effects of affected
earthquake-
➨ The designs of houses in earthguake prone areas should be prepared in
consultation with the architectural engineers. It is advisable to do testing of the type of
soil before starting construction work. Buildings should not be constructed on soft soil.
If construction is to be done on such surface, the design of the building should be such
which takes care of this problem (i.e. protective measures should be incorporated in the
design)
➨ The Indian Standards Bureau has published building code and guidelines for
construction work in earthquake prone areas.
➨ If suitable measures have not been adopted for protection from earthquakes,
in the existing buildings like hospitals, schools, fire stations etc then such measures
must be taken well in advance.
➨ The architects, builders, contractors, designers, financers and concerned
government officers so also house owners should be sensitised and trained in this
direction and suitable training programme should be designed for this.
❒ Land slides - Rocks, soil or heaps of debris which slide by their own weight
from the slopes of the mountains and come on the ground or on the banks of the rivers
are called land slides.
Causes of land slide - Although land slides happen gradually but sudden land slides
without prior indications, may also occur. There are no definite prior indications of the
land slides. Therefore it is difficult to make forecast of land slides. The high land slide
prone areas can be identified on the basis of the information/ study of geology,
hydrology, density of vegetation and the earlier history of the concerned area. Earthquakes,

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floods, tornado etc. are mainly responsible for land slides. Construction of roads and
preparing fields of vertical slopes for agriculture give rise to landslides.
When tremors of earthquake occur in the mountainous regions then the soil and
rocks of the slopes start sliding. This is very dangerous. Due to floods the grip of soil
on the hills starts sliding. Severe whirlwinds and winds also give rise to land slides.
Areas of land slides -
● Maximum land slide prone areas -
New and unstable Himalayan ranges, Andaman and Nicobar, Areas of Western
Ghats, and Nilgiris which get maximum rains, North Eastern areas, earth quake prone
areas, areas with lot of human activities like road construction, dams etc., are areas
where land slides mostly occur.
● High land slide prone areas -
All the states of Himalayan region and North Eastern parts (except Assam) having
heavy rainfall are also more prone land slide areas.
Medium and minimum prone areas - Himalayan areas where rainfall is less, in
Ladakh and Himachal's 'Spiti area', areas of Aravali mountain ranges getting scantly rains,
Western and Eastern Ghats, Deccan plateau area where land slides occurs. Bhind this
area in Orissa, Chattisgarh, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Karnataka,
Tamilnadu, Goa and Kerala where land slides occur due to sliding of mines and land.
Effects of land slides-
The areas worst hit by land slides are steep slopes, low lying areas of the rivers
flowing from hill slopes and settlements on the areas from where river flows. Following
are the bad effects of land slides-
● Physical harms - Landslides destroy anything which come in their way. Land
slides damage the roads, communication lines, human settlements, agricultural land,
crops etc., The rails break, traffic is disrupted and development activities are affected.
● Loss of lives and property - On the basis of the location of landslide human
life and property is destroyed. Big land slide have sometimes taken toll of thousands of
peoples lives.
Measures to prevent land slides and the losses- Different measures should be
taken in different areas.
➨ First of all the land slide prone areas should be plotted on the map; this will
enable us to know which areas should be excluded while planning for human settlements.
➨ Big construction and development activities should not be taken up in such
areas.
➨ Natural vegetation should be encouraged on mountain/hill slopes. Slopy
regions where vegetation is nil, such areas should be identified for plantation of suitable
varieties of trees.

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 ➨ Care should be taken while constructing roads, canals for irrigation etc, so
that the natural drainage of water is not hampered. It is also useful to construct strong
walls on the sides of the roads in hill areas, set up control centres and ensure that water
drains away in plain areas.
➨ Durable buildings should be constructed on strong plinths and pipelines,
cables etc. should be flexible so that they can stand the pressure of land slides.
➨ In areas where shifting cultivation is done, in such areas step cultivation be
encouraged.
Best way is to do intensive plantation. This allows the upper layer of the soil to get
fixed properly with the lower surface. Vegetation prevents speedy flow of water and soil
erosion.
❒ Tsunami Disaster- Earthquakes, eruption from a volcano cause a sudden
disturbance in the base of the ocean causing abrupt displacement of oceanic water.
Consequently very high waves are produced, these are called Tsunami or earthquake
affected oceanic waves.
Normally only one high wave is produced and in due course chain of waves appear
on the sea. The speed of the waves is slow in shallow sea and is high in deep sea. In the
deep sea, length of the tsunami waves is more and the height is less. On the shallow sea
shores the waves can be 15 meter high or even more. This results into great disaster on
the coastal area.
Causes of Tsunami disaster - The sea-water is never calm. Movements in the sea-
water is a common phenomenon. Earthquake and volcano when appear near the sea area
it cause Tsunami disaster. When the process of volcanic eruption and earthquake takes
place in the base of the sea then the movements in the sea waters increase, as a result
of this high waves are produced in the sea water which are in turn responsible for loss
of lives and property.
Tsunami prone areas - Coastal areas of the world are prone to Tsunami. These
areas are particularly Pacific Ocean coasts (Alaska, Japan, Philipines and Indonesia,
Malaysia, etc of South East Asia) and Indian Ocean coasts (Myanmar, Sri Lanka and
India).
Effects of Tsunami disaster - Tsunami waves on reaching the seacoast release a
very large quantum of energy. Consequently the seawaters enter the coastal areas rapidly
and devastates the ports, cities, towns, buildings and human habitations. Normally the
density of population near sea shores is high and these places are the centres of many
types of human activity. The Tsunamis cause great harm to these areas in comparison to
other disasters. The tsunami waves occurred in December 2004 took a toll of 5 lakh
people. More than 3 lakh people of India alone lost their lives in the Tsunami occurred
on 26th December 2004. As compared to other disasters it is difficult to minimise the
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effect of Tsunami. It is difficult for a country to face a disaster like Tsunami on its own
and efforts at international level are necessary to face such a disaster.
Measures for protection from tsunami - As already said it is a very severe
disaster which occurs rapidly causing harm to lives and property and the whole social
fabric is disturbed. By developing a system of tsunami warning, the fishermen and ships
can be saved.
6.3 Man made disasters-
❏ Atomic, biological and chemical disasters - These are the times of
science and technology. Scientific and technical developments have made the life of man
happy and prosperous.
●Leakage of chemical gas - The Bhopal Gas Tragedy, occurred in the midnight of
2-3 December 1984 is the biggest industrial - chemical tragedy. It was the result of a
technological blunder. In this tragedy hydrogen, Cynide and other products together with
45 tons of mythyl isocynide, (MIC), a highly poisonous gas, leaked from the pesticide
plant of Union Carbide, Bhopal in the midnight. It took a toll of about 3600 lives and
many more developed severe health problems.
●Another severest tragedy of the world was dropping of atomic bombs by America
on Hiroshima and Nagasaki on Japan during the Second World War.
●Attack of pests on crops, diseases caused by insects and bacteria like plague, viral
attack bird flu, dengue, etc. are bio-attacks. Suitable protective measures are necessary
in respect of these diseases also.
●Industrial and chemical disasters are man-related tragedies. These can be caused
abruptly without any warning chemical leakage can be caused by human mistake,
technological follies or nature related.
Effects -
The atomic, biological and chemical disasters may cause harm to the external or
internal parts of the body. These disasters may affect the heart and brain and make the
body disabled permanently.
The chemicals when mix with water, air and land it pollutes the atmosphere and as
a result crops, cattle, fish etc. either die or their development is retarded.
Measures to minimise the ill effects
➨ General public should be educated as to how harmful chemicals should be
used and stored and if by mistake they come in contact with any body part what action
should be taken to nullify that effect.
➨ Human habitations(residential areas) should be located away from industrial
areas, and in between these two areas there should be a green belt.
➨ Mock drills should be organised form time to time to face such calamities
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properly.
➨ Warning system for fire fighting (and other such calamities) should be
improved.
➨ Storage of poisonous chemicals should be done only upto a particular limit.
➨ Industrial insurance and safety laws should be strictly enforced.
❒ Bomb explosion - In many cases explosives are put on roads, public
places, (Government) transport and other such places; these days the mode of car bombs
is used normally. Following safety measures are necessary:
➨ If some packet or thing is found and it appears doubtful then proper care
should be taken and it should not be touched. Matter should be reported to the police
immediately.
➨ One should never go near a thing which arouses doubt and should not allow
others also to do so.
➨ Whenever one comes across any of such situation police should be informed
immediately.
6.4 General human disasters - fire, road, accidents, air crash etc and epidemics
❏ Fire - Fire is very dangerous. Number of deaths caused by fire are much
more than the total number of deaths caused by whirl winds, earthquakes, floods etc.
There are many reasons of occuring fire like, electrical heaters, accidents while cooking
food, wiring (naked electrical wires and short circuit) fires in the garbage, explosives
etc.
Prevention of domestic fire - Some basic tips are as under -
➨ Basic rules to prevent/save from fire and exit doors should always be
remembered and followed.
➨ Do not keep highly inflamable matter in the house.
➨ Always keep a fire extinguisher at home and learn to use it and teach it to
other members of the family also.
➨ When you go out please switch off all the gas and electrical gadgets.
➨ Do not put so many electrical gadgets in one socket.
➨ Keep match boxes out of reach of children and do not allow anyone to smoke
in the house.
➨ Do not block the entrance door of the house by putting almirah or any
furniture against it.
➨ Try to know the reason of fire and take suitable action.
➨ In case of fire call the fire brigade immediately, tell them your address, type
of fire and place.
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 ➨ The passages where smoke is there, try to crawl on the ground because smoke
is always less near the floor.
➨ There should be two exit doors in the house, do an exercise of going out from
these doors twice in an year as per your plan.
➨ Do not store inflammable liquids, gas cylinder and other such risky material
in the house.
❏ Road accidents - Roads are for facilitating easy transportation and
service. But drivers drive at a very high speed and carelessly and as a result the number
of roads accidents is increasing. Following are the reasons of road accidents:
● Violation of traffic rules
● Rash driving
● Driving in drunken state
● Improper maintenance of roads so also vehicles
Safety measures to be adopted -
➨ Start driving only when your are competent to drive.
➨ Follow your lane on the road, this is the best way to be safe on the road.
➨ Know the road signs and follow them.
➨ During rains drive very carefully.
➨ While driving do not increase or decrease the speed of your vehicle abruptly.
➨ Drive at a speed as indicated on the signboards put up on highways and by the
vehicles manufacturer of your vehicle. (read the instruction book which is supplied by
the company along with the vehicle and follow the instructions regarding driving and
upkeep of the vehicle.)
➨ See on both the sides of the road while crossing the road.
➨ Do not try to overtake unnecessarily (and at spots where it is not permitted)
➨ If vehicle is drowned, come out from the window.
➨ In case of fire, come out of the vehicle as soon as possible; do not bother
about the luggage articles.
➨ Do not talk on the cell phone while driving.
➨ While driving two wheeler, always use helmet.
➨ Always use seat belts while driving car or any other four wheeler as required
under rules.
❏ Rail Accidents - Rail accidents usually occur due to lack of maintenance of
railway track, and railway engines, bogies, etc., human errors, and derailment. Derailment
is sometimes caused by harming the rails/other systems (by anti social elements.)
Following steps should be taken to save ourselves from rail accidents-

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 ➨ Always pay attention towards the signals; and swing barrier. When the gate is
closed/barrier is put do not try to cross the railway line from under the barrier.
When crossing a railway line where there is an unmanned level crossing always see
on both the sides of the railway line to be sure that there is no train/engine upto a long
distance.
➨ One should not smoke in the train or carry inflammable material.
➨ While travelling do not stand in the entrance gate or lean out from the window
or door.
➨ Use the emergency window to come out in case of accident; do not pull chain
unnecessarily.
❒ Plane accidents- During air travel the safety of passenger is affected by
many factors. The air travel becomes risky when:
● Fire breaks in the aeroplane.
● If conditions (of plane or weather etc.) are not congenial at the time of
landing or take off.
● Tornado occurring in hilly regions.
● Hijacking and bomb attack.
After boarding a plane following tips should be followed:
➨ Listen carefully to the instructions of the pilot and follow them.
➨ Read the card regarding safety measures carefully.
➨ Find out in advance the nearest emergency exit door and the way it can be
opened.
➨ After sitting tie the seat belt.
➨ When caught in an accident, keep calm, listen carefully to the instructions of
the crew and act only according to their instructions. It is the responsibility of the crew
members to help passengers alight/ come out of the plane safely.
➨ Try to open the emergency door yourself. Look from the windows to check
whether fire is there, outside the plane. If it is there do not open the door otherwise the
flames can reach the cabin. Find out alternative exit way.
➨ Please remember smoke goes upwards therefore, if there is smoke in then
cabin try to be close to the floor. Follow the emergency floor light and reach upto the
emergency gate. Cover your face and nose with handkerchief or any piece of cloth.
❒ Epidemic disaster- An epidemic is a disease or health related problem
which spreads unexpectedly on a large scale.
The condition of epidemic is said to be one when the number of cases (patients)
is more than expected. This requires emergency preventive steps. An epidemic can
spread abruptly. When the number of cases of particular disease increase

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disproportionately that is considered to be warning of an epidemic. In some instances the
breeding places of germs that cause the disease increase or the carriers of germs start
dying (e.g. rats who are carriers of plague germs) an advance warning of the epidemic
is received.
● Causes and effects of the epidemic- Cause of an epidemic are worms,
germs, bacteria, protozoa, fungi polluted water, and food items or increase in the number
of mosquitoes, large crowd of tourists and passangers from outside and effect of natural
calamities on the atmosphere also bring epidemics.
● Epidemics are responsible for diseases and deaths - Epidemics cause
economic loss and disintegration of the society. The people most affected by epidemics
are, the ones suffering from malnutrition, living in unhygienic atmosphere, water supply
system is bad, health facilities are poor and whose immune system is weak.
If a place has been affected by a natural calamity (volcano, flood, whirlwind,
tsunami) earlier, there the epidemics create dangerous conditions.
Possible measures-
➨ It is necessary to extend health facilities from state level to village level. It
is also necessary for the health workers, nurses etc. to do advance planning and
coordinate efforts with other co-workers.
➨ When it is seen that the effect of the epidemic is decreasing then emergency
plan for future action should be prepared and a monitoring system should be developed.
On the basis of available medicines, laboratories, doctors and supporting staff a list of
available personnel should be prepared so that they can be deployed when and where
necessary.
➨ Training should be imparted to concerned staff at all levels with regard to the
epidemic and safety measures, this will help in capacity building of the staff and their
services can be utilised.
➨ Vaccination will help save people and minimise the effect of the disease.
➨ The carriers of disease should be destroyed by improving sanitation, find out
breeding centres of disease-carriers, smoke treatment, spray of insecticides, improvement
in the waste disposal system and keeping the sources of water supply pollution free are
some of the preventive steps.
6.5 Disaster management - stages of disaster management
Disasters are unexpected incidents; occurrence of which is beyond human control.
They occur abruptly and hamper the normal human activities. To meet the challenges of
such disasters much more needs to be done than the minimum emergency services
provided. Disasters are not only the result of natural phenomena but they are closely
related with human activities also. Some human activities are directly related with the
disaster like the Bhopal Gas tragedy, Chernobit atomic tragedy, wars, Chlorofloro
Carbon, releasing gases in the atmosphere, green house gases, noise, air, water, soil and

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environmental pollution. Some human activities indirectly affect the environment e.g.
lands slides and floods due to destruction of forests. It is a fact that during the last so
many years disasters connected with human follies have increased. Efforts to prevent
them were also made. But we have succeded only to a limited extent. It is difficult to
check natural disasters. Therefore, it is better to minimise their effect with a proper
disaster management. Many efforts have been made in this direction. Important steps in
this direction are - setting up of Indian National Disaster Management Institute, The
Summit Conference of May 1994 in Yokohama (Japan) and conferences, seminars etc.
on Disaster management.
Disaster management is a chain of activities which are carried out not only before
and after the disaster but carried out during the period of disaster also. This arrangement
is something more than the expansion and contraction model. Under this system it is
believed that disaster management is efforts to prevent the calamity, minimise its
effects, timely action and activities to bring the situation to normalcy; these activities
are expanded and contracted as per the emergency, sense of insecurity in the society etc.
Main stages of disaster management
Disaster management lays stress on four important things:
1. Advance preparation
2. Action at the time of disaster
3. To restore normalcy and rehabilitation.
4. Plan for preventing the recurrence of the disaster and minimise the ill effects
of the disaster.
1. Advance preparation - For this it is necessary to educate the society to be
ready in advance to face the situation. For this following things are necessary :-
● Education and community awareness
● Prepare plans for disaster management for the society/ schools/people.
● Mock drill, training and practice.
● Listing of material and trained human resource needed.
● Proper warning system.
● Arrangements for mutual help (cooperation also)
● Identification of vulnerable groups.
2. Relief and action at the time of the disaster- Following things are
necessary which should be done before, during and immediately after the disaster so that
the effects of the disaster may be minimised-
● To implement the disaster management plan.
● To set up community kitchens with the help of the local groups (local

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people)
● To collect resources.
● To warn people on the basis of latest position.
● To arrange for proper camps, toilets etc.
● Arrange temporary living accommodation.
● To trace affected people and send rescue teams to save them.
● Deploy teams for tracing and relief teams.
3. To restore normalcy and rehabilitation - Steps to rearrange infrastructural
facilities and to extend economic and emotional support to the people-
● To give information to the community regarding health and protective measures.
● Programmes for those whose kith and kin and relatives are missing and to
extend support and sympathy to them.
● Restore essential services, communication system and roads and put them in
order again.
● To provide temporary shelters/living accommodation.
● To collect reusable material for construction from the debris.
● Provide financial assistance.
● To find avenues of employment for the affected people.
● Construction of buildings again
4. Plan for Prevention and reduction of the aftereffects of the disaster -
Steps to be taken to reduce the intensity and bad effects of the disaster:
● Prepare plan for land use.
● To prevent people from settling in risky areas.
● To construct buildings which can resist the risks involved in the disaster (e.g.
earthquake proof building etc.)
● To find out ways and means to minimise the ill effects of the disaster before
their occurrence.
● Community awareness and education

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 Terms
Disaster - It is a calamity which may be either natural or due to human folly.
Its effects are loss to human life so also to property.
Disaster management - It is a series of such actions and steps which are taken in
advance, taken after the disaster and also during the disaster
period.
Natural calamity - A natural incident beyound human control which causes loss to
human beings and property.
Land slide - Rocks slide and fall on the earth from hill slopes due to gravitation,
heavy rains or any other natural or human factors.
Drought - Scanty or no rainfall in a particular region and as a result of which
there is acute shortage of water and crops totally fail; people and
cattle population starve.
Flood - Widespread excessive water on land and human habitations; this
situation occurs when rainwater instead of flowing into rivers,
spreads on a particular area.
Tsunami - A situation of abrupt very high tides in the oceans, which is caused
either by earthquakes and /or volcano.
Exercises
Choose the correct option :
1. Name the most flood affected state.
(i) Bihar (ii) West Bengal
(iii) Assam (iv) Uttar Pradesh
2. Name the area of the country where earthquakes often occur (high incidence
zones).
(i) Kuttch (ii) Aravali mountain
(iii) Orissa coast (iv) Goa
3. Name the state where the Tsunami of 2004 December, caused greatest loss
of human lives in.
(i) Tamilnadu (ii) Gujrat
(ii) Kerala (iv) Orissa
4. Name the place where the Summit Conference was Organised at the
international level.
(i) Japan (Yakohama) (iii) India (Bangaluru)
(iii) Brazil (Riyodijanero) (iv) United States of America ( New York)

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Very short answer type questions :
1. What is done on the hilly roads to arrest land slides?
2. Which natural disasters occur abruptly?
3. For which areas construction of bunds is considered useful?
4. What is measured on the richter scale?
Short answer type questions :
1. What is meant by disaster?
2. What is drought and flood?
3. Describe three stages to protect ourselves from land slides.
4. What is meant by Tsunami?
5. Why do more earthquakes occur in Himalayan and North Eastern regions of
India?
6. Why are droughts more frequent in the Western region and Madhya Bharat?
7. Which are the main areas affected by Tsunami in India?
8. Exploitation of forest resources is responsible for natural disasters - is it
true? Explain.
9. How do epidemics spread? Please explain.
10. What is meant by disaster management? Explain main elements of disaster
management.
Long answer type questions :
1. Explain the factors responsible for floods; Write the steps which should be
taken to control floods.
2. What is meant by earthquakes? Describe the earthquake affected areas of India.
3. What is common between - drought and flood? How can flood and drought
conditions be controlled by proper planning? Explain.
4. What is meant by common disasters? Please classify main common disaster and
explain their causes, effect and the safety measures to be taken during the
disaster.
5. What are chemical disasters? Give examples of main disasters and explain the
steps proposed to be taken to prevent their recurrence.
6. Please indicate on the map of India the place of your residence (by a point);
also indicate earthquake drought, flood, land slide and Tsunami prone zones.
7. Please collect information from newspapers and magazines about four natural
disasters. What steps can be taken to minimise the occurrence of these
disasters?
8. Write an essay on disaster management.
❖❖❖
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 Chapter-7
The First Freedom Struggle of 1857
The struggle for freedom of 1857 is
We shall learn  considered as a glorious and revolutionary event
7.1 The background of first in the history of India. The revolution of 1857
struggle for freedom was the first armed revolution which was so
7.2 The causes of struggle for widespread and powerful that it shook the
freedom foundation of British Empire.By keeping the
7.3 The major events of the national problems on centre stage, the revolution
freedom struggle of 1857 challenged the existence of East India
7.4 The reasons for the failure of Company's rule. The revolution of 1857 was a
the freedom struggle nationwide, organized struggle for putting up
7.5 The importance of first an end to the British rule. Although this struggle
struggle for freedom and its failed in its mission, its memories and
features inspiration are still alive in the hearts of
7.6 The Freedom fighters of 1857 common men. Among the Indian people an
awakening took place followed by the freedom
struggle.The Indian people realised that there was a difference of interests between
them and the British administration and, Britishers would never allow Indians to grow
in their own interest. The Indians also realised that until they themselves do not wakeup
and work with the feelings of independence, equality, brotherhood, self respect, unity
and national pride, the country will continue to remain under British rule. This realization
aroused strong patriotic feelings among Indians.
7.1 The Background of the struggle of 1857 ( From the arrival of Europeans in
India to Struggle of Independence of 1857)
In the year 1857, the common man in India, soldiers, the rulers of small states and
landlords participated in the struggle against the foreign rule, with great valor, and that
is why this struggle is known as the first struggle for freedom. The events of 1857 were
the spark which kindled the freedom struggle.
The soldiers played a major role in the struggle. People from all walks of life
participated openly and strengthened it. Lakhs of people sacrificed their lives in this
struggle.
From the later part of 15 th century Europeans had started coming to India for
the purpose of trade. The companies which established their trade centers in various
parts of India were mainly from Portugal, Holand, England and France. These trade
centres were mainly situated on the coastal areas, they were called factories. These

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factories were fortified in order to protect them from rival company's attacks. these
companies used to buy commodities from India which were either scarce or not available
in Europe and, used to export them to earn higher profit. These reasons caused a mutual
rift between the companies.
The British East India Company was established in the year 1600.To earn more
and more profit through trade was the main aim of the company. In order to achieve
its objective, the company did not hesitate to even use unscrupulous methods. Surat was
the first place to be developed as a trade center by East India Company. Following
which the company established its main trade centers in Bharuch, Ahmedabad, Agra,
Macchlipatnam, Madras, Calcutta, Bengal and Mumbai etc..
By the end of 17 th century, the East India Company began aspiring for the political
foothold in India so that it would facilitate its commercial activities. After Aurangzeb's
death in 1707, Mughal empire started disintegrating. The whole nation disintegrated
into smaller states. Many of the states became virtually independent. These circumstances
led to establish company's foothold in the country. Company started interfering in the
political matters of the states and began overpowering the rival companies and the local
states.
The French company had established itself in Hyderabad and Karnataka in South
India. In order to finish the French company's influence, Britishers waged 3 wars against
them and finally defeated them.
In the year 1757, the East India company defeated the Nawab of Bengal in the war
of Plassey. In the year 1764, company fought another war at Buxar against united force
of Awadh-Bengal and Mughals and defeated them. These victories paved the way for
British rule in India.Gradually the British Company started conquering all the forces
which challenged the company's intention of undisputed (monopolistic) rule in India.
having defeated Bengal, company went on its victory march towards Mysore, Maratha,
Sindh and Punjab and wiped out any challenge that came in its way. Following the
victories accomplished in India, the company started spreading its tentacles in the
neighbouring countries like Nepal, Burma, Afghanistan, Tibbat, Sikkim and Bhutan.
Along with the spread of territorial control, the company dismantled the
traditional social and economic structure in India. The policy of 'lagan' (land lease)
which company acquired for farmers caused heavy losses to Indian farmers. British
destroyed the traditional cottage industries like handicrafts and handloom, as a result
the wealth started flowing towards England.British Export policy and establishment of
new industries had a singular aim-to impoverish India and make England prosper.
This way by means of victories in wars and by dissolving Indian states into
company states by unfair means and exploiting Indians, the East India Company
provoked anger and discontent among Indians. This resulted in dozens of uprisings in
various parts of the country from 1765 and 1856. Many of theses were done by tribals

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and farmers, dethroned rulers, Zamindars and Sardars also led some of these revolts.
In many places East India company's soldiers also joined it.
There was a revolt by "Farayjis", who were followers of a sect of Muslims, against
the exploitation of farmers by Jamindars and British.
In 1824, the 47th regiment of Barrackpur refused to sail to Burma and as a result
the regiment was dissolved.
The two major revolts by company's soldiers were - in 1800 at Vellore and in the
year 1824 at Barrackpur. the revolt of Vellore was inspired by Tipu's ancestors which was
mercilessly crushed. In the year 1824, the revolt launched by soldiers of 47th Native
infantry made English soldiers worn-down yet they crushed the attack brutally.
The tribes residing in various parts of the country also took to arms as a protest
against British rule, the main reason being, dissatisfaction caused due to British policies
of administration, judiciary and land revenue.The Company Govt. had taken possession
of jungles and displaced the Tribals from their farming lands, which were their main
sources of income.Even the new land lords, businessmen and Sahukars (money lenders)
were involved in exploitation of the tribes. The tribals agitated because the self
sufficient economy was demolished by new British Economy model. The major tribes
which revolted against British Government were -Bhils of Maharashtra and Madhya
Pradesh, Gounds and Khonds of Orissa, Kols of Chhota Nagpur, Meenas of Rajasthan,
Santhals of Bengal and Bihar, Khasis of Norh East etc. Besides there were some revolts
by non tribe also they were Kattboman (Tamilnadu), Painka (Orisa), Veluthambi
(Travankor), Ramosiys (Pune), Bundel (Bundelkhand), Gadkari (Maharashtra)..Famkhonda
(Andhra Pradesh), Kooka (Punjab).
All of these uprisings against British were local and were crushed successfully.
Although none of these revolts posed a serious threat to British power, they indicated
that there was a wide spread discontent against the rule of East India Company even prior
to the struggle of 1857. they all formed a background for the freedom struggle of 1857.
7.2 The causes of the first struggle of freedom
Political Reasons : There was a lot of discontentment among landlords and
jamindars due to the British territorial extension policies.Lord Wellesley introduced
a scheme to bring the Indian rulers under the British thumb. He named this plan the
Subsidary Alliance.
The Doctrine of Lapse a policy of dissolution of states, Lord Dulhousie caused
many Indian states to be a part of the Company empire. British took control of many
states like Punjab, Sikkim, Satara, Jaitpur, Sambhalpur, Jhansi, Nagpur etc. the Company
govt ended state titles conferred to Nawab's of Awadh, Tanjore and Karnataka which
caused a political unstabality therein. British were disrespectful towards the last Mughal
emperor.
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 This caused a state of anxiety among ruling families. whichever states British
took control of, their soldiers, craftsmen and people connected with various other
trades were adversely affected. British seized lands from many Jamindars and Sardars
which resulted in unemployement of many people working there previously.
Attack on indian languages, culture and its traditions: The education policy
formulated by Lord Macaulay was an attack on Indian culture and education system.
Lord Macaulay was prejudiced and was against education in vernacular languages.Macaulay
considered English as a superior race and English language as finest language. He
therefore encouraged English language and western and scientific learning. But at that
point of time, Lord Macaulay's aim was to protect the interests of British rule in India
by providing English education and prepare a class of people who would help in running
of British administration.Macaulay was such a conceited racist that he recommended
a ban on printing and translation of books in oriental languages.
The followers of oriental education considered English education policy as an
attack on their culture, traditions and language and protested against it.
Economic reasons : the land management policies of Company Government
proved disastrous for the farmers. Heavy taxes imposed on farmers caused them to fall
in the clutches of local money lenders and remain under debts.
In order to sell more and more finished goods manufactured in England, the British
government discouraged the cottage industries of handlooms and handicrafts.
Social and religious reasons: The social and religious policies of company
Government caused a lot of discontent among Indians. Indians developed an apprehension
that Company Government was bent upon destroying their religion and traditions.
Major Edwarden's statement was "the ultimate aim of the British rule was to make
India a Christian country".
Company Government made many laws and took major steps to eradicate the social
evils prevailing in India. Indians considered this as an interference in their social life.
Spread of Christianity, enticement of Indians for conversion to Christianity,
Christian education in educational institutes were the reasons which caused
discontentment among Indians.
Discontent among soldiers : Owing to the policies of Company Government
there was a lot of discontent among soldiers. Although the existence of Company
Government solely depended upon Indian soldiers,the Indian soldiers were meted out
unfair and discriminatory treatment. Indian soldiers were denied promotions. They were
paid less remuneration as compared to their European counterparts. European officers
looked down upon Indian soldiers. Due to religious constraints Indian soldiers were not
inclined to cross the Sea yet they were forced to sail and participate in wars. Besides
this, Indian soldiers were an integral part of the Indian society therefore the sufferings
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of rulers, landlords, farmers, craftsmen affected them as well.
Company government had forbidden Indian soldiers to apply Tilak on their forehead,
keep a 'choti' (ponytail), mustache and beard. these restrictions hurt the religious
feelings of soldiers. As a result discontent was on rise among various sections of the
society against the foreign rule. Around the same time, a new rifle was introduced, its
cartridge had cow-fat and pig's lard out it. While loading the cartridge in the rifle, the
cartridge needed to be cut with the teeth at the corners. Indian soldiers did not want
to use such cartridges, which became immediate reason for the revolt..
Immediate Reason : on 29 th March 1857, a soldier named Mangal Pandey
refused to use the larded cartridge and shot a British officer in a feat of anger. Mangal
Pandey was arrested and executed on 8 th April 1857. Mangal Pandey was the first one
to sacrifice his life in the revolt.
7.3 Major events of the Freedom Struggle
The Bairackpur incident was repeated in Meerut too. About 85 soldiers of Indian
cavalary refused to use larded cartridges, as a result they were dismissed from the army
and were imprisoned. As a reaction to their dismissal, other soldiers in Meerut, on 10th
May 1857, openly confronted the Government by breaking into the prison and liberating
the arrested soldiers. They then marched towards Delhi and took control of armory. The
soldiers declared Bahadur Shah-II as the emperor of India, who wrote letters to various
rulers of India seeking their support.This is how this revolt took place.
The incident causing revolt happened in Bairakpur (Bengal) but, the revolt is
actually considered to have begun on 10 th of May because the revolutionaries came
forward in an organized and planned way to challenge the British rule following the
Barrackpur incident.
The news of revolt in Delhi spread like a wild fire. Awadh, Kanpur,Ruhelkhand,
Aligarh, Mathura, Agra, Badayun, and many parts of Bihar, Nasirabad cantonment of
Rajasthan, Kota, Jodhpur, and Indore, Neemuch and Gwalior in Madhya Pradesh started
revolt. The soldiers were greeted by people at every place. Farmers, artisans and
common men too became their supporters. The farmers and artisans who were the
exploited lot, participated openly in the revolt. Farmers and land owners attacked the
new landlords and money lenders and seized the account books and loan papers. common
people attacked British courts, revenue offices and police stations. This revolt took the
proportion of a national event because of the participation of common people.
Kunwar Singh led the revolt in Bihar, The Commander of Mughal army Bakht Khan
led the revolt in Delhi. Nana Saheb was declared as Peshwa in Kanpur and Ajimulla was
his chief advisor. The army of Nana Saheb was led by Tatya Tope. The widowed Queen
of Jhansi, Luxmibai led the revolt in Jhansi.
The soldiers of Sikh regiment of Ludhiyana joined hands with the revolutionaries
of Eastern Uttar Pradesh. The British were confronted by Begum Hajrat Mahal in

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Lucknow. she declared her young son Birjis Kadar as Nawab of Awadh and started ruling
in his name. In the leadership of maulavi Ahemdullah, the residency of Lucknow was
besieged. Khan Bahdur Khan led the rebellion against the British.
During the entire revolt Hindus and Muslims fought together, hands in hands.British
attempted to instigate a rift between them. For example, British attemped to instigate
hindus against the soldiers fighting under the leadership of Khan Bahadur Khan but, all
such attempts failed.
The revolt was wide spread and the British took more than an year to bring it under
control. By September 1857 they took control of Delhi again.In 1858, Lucknow was
taken over again by British but, Begum Hajrat Mahal refused to surrender. She left for
Nepal. With The help of Tatya Tope, Rani Laxmibai seized Gwalior again but atlast on
18th June 1858 martyred while fighting.Kunwarsingh too died in April 1858 after
suffering fatal injuries.Tatya Tope fought Guerrilla war for some time but atlast was
caught by deceit in the jungle of Auron near Guna and was hanged.
Generally the notion was given that revolt of 1857 was limited to North
India.Actually this revolt was stretched upto today's Maharashtra, Karnataka,Andhra
Pradesh, Tamilnadu and Kerala.Even Goa and Pondicherry did not remain unaffected.
Satara, Kolhapur and Pune, Mumbai were the affected areas. The Coastal belt, From
Kdadppa and Vishakhapattnam to Nellore was affected by this revolt.There was an open
revolt against British Governemnt in Mysore, Dharwad, Bijapur, Belgam in Karnataka.
The British were openly challenged in Chennai, Chingalpur, Northern Atkar, Selam,
Tanjore, Madurai, Koimbatore and Tirunelvelli.
Although this revolt was trampled by British, they had to face the rage of not only
soldiers but the common man too.In order to crush the revolt, british flared the villages
and terrorized the people by hanging prisnors to death in public places. Historians
believe that about 300,000 people died in this revolt.
7.4 The reasons of failure for the Freedom struggle
The struggle of 1857 did not bring about positive outcome but it proved to be a
milestone in gaining the freedom. This revolt did not receive success in full measure
because of :
1. lack of unity and organization - The chief cause of failure of first war of
freedom was lack of unity and organized effort. Neither was there a proper planning for
the revolt nor any concrete programme. This resulted in unorganized and limited
attempt.
2. Lack of leadership- One of the main reasons of failure was, lack of powerful
leadership so as to be capable of strategizing.Due to the lack of a single capable
leadership, this revolt did not succeed in its objective.
3. Traditional and outdated weapons - Indian soldiers had to use traditional
weapons like sword, bow and arrow, spear barchha unlike the British soldiers who had

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modern and sophesticated weapons with a big artillery.
4. Feudal features - In the revolt of 1857, on one side there were 'Samants' of
Awadh, Ruhelkhand from North India who challenged British forces and on the other
side there were rulers of Patiala, Zind, Gwalior and Hyderabad who supported British
rulers. As a result the freedom struggle could not succeed in its objective.
5. unawareness of Bahadurshah Second - Despite the soldiers declaring
Bahadurshah Zafar-II as their leader, this revolt was as much a surprise to him as it was
to British. That's why he was eventually arrested by Lieutenant Hudson and was sent to
Rangoon in Burma.
6. Premature outbreak and lack of communication - A major reason for failure
was that it broke out prematurely. There could have been better chances of success had
this revolt been organised in a planned manner. The leadership failed in making
propaganda about the revolt. That caused a severe blow to the revolt.
7. Localised revolt - Since the revolt was based on the local issues, Indian masses
did not participate in it. only those rulers whose interests were affected played a part in
it.
8. No common language of communication - The main reason of failure of this
revolt was a lack of a single common language among Indians which led to lack of
communication,whereas british soldiers communicated in English only.
7.5 Importance of first struggle for freedom and its features
Though the first struggle for freedom failed it proved to be a milestone and had
far reaching impact which became a source of inspiration in the history of freedom
struggle for the Indians. This shook the very foundation of British rule in India.
The revolt was eventually crushed by the Governor General Lord Canning but
it dealt a severe blow to them. Consequentially British Government had to introduce
many administrative changes. These changes brought about many transformations in
Indian society, economy and governance. They were -
● A Declaration was passed in 1858 in British Parliament according to which
the right to rule was transferred to British government from the East India
Company.
● After 1858 there was a restructuring of army. Since British Government had
lost faith in Indian soldiers, all important posts in army were given to
British officers. More number of European soldiers was inducted. British
restructured the Indian army with the policy of "divide and rule"
● There was change in policy of merger of states. Adoption of a successor was
recognized. Native rulers were assured that no more take over of states will
take place henceforth.
● British Government showed a more sympathetic attitude towards landowners,

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 landlords and native rulers in order to get their support.
● The British historians tried to play down the importance of revolt of 1857 by
calling it a "mutiny of soldiers ". the famous revolutionary and thinker Vinayak
Damodar Savarkar called the events of 1857 as the first struggle for freedom
and wrote a book with the same title.
The first struggle for freedom was started on 10th May 1857in Meerut.between
soildiers and their officers. But, this is worth a note that the very next day the soldiers
marched towards Delhi and declared Bahadurshah Zafar-II as the symbolic emperor of
India, this way the struggle of independence which was not fought between the soldiers
and their officers but between two political powers.
A large number of people participated in the struggle. On one hand the soldiers
were revolting against the British regime and on the other hand common people were
protesting against them on roads with spears, axes and sticks in hands. The fear of
administration and rulers ended from the minds of people of villages. Wherever the
soldiers could not reach, these villagers organized themselves and came forward to
protest and revolt. Farmers, artisans and landlords whose lands were seized came
forward openly to express their agitation. Every policy that affected Indian society
adversely affected the soldiers as well therefore the similarity in the interests of
soldiers and common man was a major cause of unity. This blurred the line of divide
between caste and religion; Hindus and Muslims came closer than before. This struggle
of freedom inspired the coming generations of India for the struggle. The struggle of
1857 implanted the nationalistic feelings. This caused reinforcement of cultural unity
in the country.
The main feature of this struggle was that Indians realised the importance of unity
and organization for the achievement of their goals. Therefore, common goal, religious
harmony and feeling of cooperation between people have made the struggle for
freedom of 1857 an event of national importance.
7.6 The Freedom Fighters of 1857 -
The freedom struggle of 1857 was a wide spread event
in India. the gallant acts of the fighters soon became famous
and well known among people. these national heroes will
always remain a source of inspiration for the generations to
come. It will not be possible to describe about each one
of them here, therefore only a brief description of few
important soldiers is presented here -
Mangal Pandey- Mangal Pandey was a soldier who
was posted in the Barrackpur Chhavani (Bengal). On 29th
March 1857 he refused to open the larded cartridge with
the teeth and shot an officer dead in his anger. He was Mangal Pandey

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 arrested and hanged to death on 8th april 1857.
Bahadur Shah Zafar-II - Bahadurshah Zafar was the
last Mughal emperor. On May 10th 1857, the soldiers of
Meerut Cantonment marched to Delhi following a revolt
against British officers. Having conquered Delhi they
proclaimed Bahadur shah Zafar-II as the emperor of India.
Despite his old age, Bahadurshah II accepted the leadership
of revolt.looking to the enthusiasm of soldiers, he was also
optimistic about the success of revolt. To extend the
boundaries of revolt, he wrote personal letters to the rulers
of Patiala, Gwalior, Kashmir and Rajput kings to request
them to participate in the revolt.
Bahadur Shah Zafar As a consequence of Delhi capture by soldiers, the
revolt spread at many places. Lord Canning was so appalled by the response that he
decided to crush the revolt in Delhi itself. Bahadurshah's army fought very gallantly and
ferociously with the British army but were eventually defeated. British arrested
Bahadurshah and exiled him to Rangoon where he died in 1862.
Rani Laxmibai - In the year 1854, following the
death of Raja Gangadhar rao, the husband of Luxmibai,
British government denied their adopted son the heir to
the throne and merged Jhansi in the British empire. Rani
Laxmibai protested and fought fiercely. Having defeated by
Hurose she landed in Kalapi and,with the help of Tatya
Tope she acquired Gwalior. British commandor Hurose
besieged Gwalior fort. On 18th June 1858 Laxmibai
sacrificed her life in soldier's outfit. Stories of her valour
are still sung and inspire the Indians.
Tatya Tope- Tatya Tope
was one of the valiant soldiers
Rani Laxmibai
of struggle of 1857 who had
loyalty with Peshwa family. Tatya Tope will be remembered
for his patriotism, courage, strategic skills, military acumen,
perseverance in the absence of resources, fearlessness and
guerrilla warfare tactics. The entire responsibility of Nana
Saheb Peshwa's military campaign was on the shoulders of
Tatya Tope.
Tatya Tope played a major role in acquiring Gwalior for
the Queen of Jhansi Laxmibai. After the death of Laxmibai,
Tatya Tope
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Tatya Tope continuously engaged himself in guerrilla warfare and challenged British
army in Central India and Bundelkhand.. he was arrested by
British by deceit and betrayal. He was caught in the jungle of
Aaron (district Guna) and was hanged in Shivpuri on 18th April
1859.
Nana Saheb -- Nana Saheb was another important soldier
in the freedom struggle. He was the adopted son of Bazirao
Peshwa II and stayed in Bithur. After the demise of Bazirao
Peshwa, british Governement refused to grant a title or pension
to Nana Saheb. Therefore Nanasaheb along with his loyal
soldiers chased British army off from Kanpur and declared Nana Saheb
himself a Peshwa.Tatya Tope and Ajimullah were his loyal army
chiefs.
Begam Hajarat Mahal - Begum Hajrat Mahal was
the widow of Nawab of Awadh.Once the revolt started,
Begum encouraged and managed it. She declared her minor
son Birjis Kadar as nawab of Awadh and ordered her soldiers
to attack the British residency in Lucknow.She also led the
revolt in Shahajahnpur. After suffering a defeat she went to
Nepal.
The other participants in the revolt of 1857 were -
Kunwar Singh (Jagdishpur-Bihar), Ahmedullah (Faizabad-
Begam Hajarat Mahal Ruhelkhand), Ranga Bajuji Gupte (Satara), Sonaji Pandit
(Hyderabad), Bhimrao Mundargi (Karnataka), Annaji Fadnavis
(Kolhapur), Gulam Gous (Madras) etc.
Terminology
● Factory : The trade centres of European Companies in India were called factories.
● East India company : The East India Company was established in 1600 to trade
with the east. Queen Elizabeth-I of England provided it monopoly on trading.
● Subsidiary Alliances : this was a system of agreement, introduced by Lord
Wellesely, the Governor General of India. It was a treaty by-which British controlled
the native statis wethout annexation.
● Doctrine of lap'se : This is also known as the policy of dissolution. Lord
Dalhousies annexed several subordinate and native states by banning the right to
There were many more freedom fighters who contributed importantly, besides those who are named in the text
book but, it is not possible to name each one of them here. the Swaraj Bhavan situated in Bhopal contains lot of information
in this reference. The main aim of this chapter is to attract students' attention towards the freedom fighters and their struggle
and sacrifice for the cause of Independence, which took place one and a half century back.

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 adopt a successor of those native rulers who had no heir (real son).
● Conservatives : People who follow the traditional policies and look upon any
reformor progressive programme with saspicion are called conservatives.
● Residency : The office and residence of British Officers.
● British Crown : The emperor or empress of England and its colonies.

Exercises
Choose the correct answer :
1. Who led the freedom struggle of 1857 in Bundelkhand ?
(i) Kunwar Singh (ii) Bakhtawar Singh
(ii) Tatya Tope (iv) Ahamadulla Khan
2. The British Governor General of India in 1857 was
(i) Dalhousie (ii) William Bentink
(iii) Canning (iv) Rippon
Fill in the blanks :
1. After being arrested Bahadur Saha-II was sent to ………………… .
2. Many Indian states were annexed to the British empire as a result of
Dulhosie's ………………… policy
3. An ordinance passed by British Parliament, India was placed under the direct
control of ………………… .
4. The people of Delhi proclaimed ………………… as the emperor of India.
5. British historians termed Freedom Struggle of 1857 as ………………… .
Match the following :
1. Begum Hazrat Mahal - Delhi
2. Mangal Pandey - Bithur
3. Tatya Tope - Awadh
4. Nana Saheb - Bairackpur (Bengal)
5. Bahadur Sahah Zafar - Shivpuri
Very short answer type questions :
1. Name the places most affected by freedom struggle of 1857.
2. Name a few main freedom fighters who led the freedom struggle of 1857.
3. What were the immediate cause of freedom struggle of 1857.

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Short answer type questions :
1. Why is the struggle of 1857 called the first struggle for freedom?
2. Why did the 1857 uprisings against the British rule failed?
3. Why were the Indian rulers angry with the British rule?
4. What changes were introduced in the British administration after the freedom
struggle of 1857.
Long answer type questions :
1. Why were the Indians unhappy with social reforms introduced by the British
Government?
2. Describe the historical importance of the first struggle for freedom.
3. Write short notes on :
(a) Tatya Tope
(b) Rani Laxmibai
(c) Nana Saheb
(d) Begam Hazrat Mahal
4. What led to the failure of freedom struggle of 1857?
Project work
● Trace the places related to the freedom struggle of 1857 on the map of India.
Also write the names of regional leaders associated with it.
● Analyse the causes of failure of freedom struggle of 1857 and share your
view's with your classmates.

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-8
National Awakening and establishment of
political organizations in India
The freedom struggle of 1857 was first
We shall learn  ever organized armed struggle attempted to put
8.1 The reasons of national an end to the British Rule. This struggle was
awakening in India. crushed by British army; as a result, for some
8.2 Organisations established time, there was a feeling of despair among
prior to Indian National Indians. Yet the memories of the freedom
Congress (INC) struggle remained alive in Indian minds.
8.3 Establishment of Indian The awakening which took place following
national Congress the freedom struggle developed a pure
8.4 Development of nationalism nationalistic feeling among Indians. They
in India - liberal nationalits realised that there was a difference of interest
and aggressive nationalits between Indians and British regime and, in
order to promote their own interest British
would continue to exploit Indians. Indians also realised that unless they wake up from
the slumber and, work with the feeling of self respect, unity, freedom and nationalism,
the country will remain under foreign rule; this realization filled the Indian hearts with
nationalistic feelings.
8.1 The reasons of national awakening in India :
As a reaction to the British policies of exploitation, merger and control, the
struggle for freedom in 1857 took place and, it developed strong nationalistic feelings
among Indians.
1. Political Reasons - Even before the struggle of freedom of 1857. The East
India Company had taken over the control of entire India with the approval of British
Government. After the events of 1857, the Company rule in India ended and the nation
was directly placed under the rule of British Government. The British parliament passed
an ordinance in 1858, which aimed at many administrative changes in India but it did not
change the plight of Indians. The dispatch from Queen Victoria bore an assurance
for the people of India as well as for native rulers that the past mistakes would not be
repeated and there would be no discrimination against Indians but, these statements of
assurances were never followed by the Brtish Government.
The British Government established a uniform administration all over the country
for the sake of unity and security of their empire. Uniform laws and judicial systems

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were established. This unified administration started by British Government developed a
sense of unity and
awakening among Indians. The religious and social reform movements in India
While this uniform Institutions and their founders
administration act was year of establishment
passed by British in the ● Aatmeya Sabha (1815) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
interest of their own ● Bramha Samaj (1828) Raja Ram Mohan Roy
empire, it proved to be ● Tatvabodhini Sabha (1839) Devendra Nath Tagore
encouraging for the ● Prarthana Samaj(1867) Atmaram Pandurang
national unity. ● Satya shodhak Samaj (1873)Jyotiba Phule

2 . Religious and ● Arya Samaj (1875) Swami Dayanand Saraswati

Social resurgence - The ● Theosophical Society (1875) Madam Blawatski and
religious and social reform Colonel Alcott
movements also played a ● Ramkrishna mission (1879) Swami Vivekanand
major role in the
development of nationalistic feelings. The leaders who pioneered these movements
became the prominent leaders of the political awakening. These movements developed
a feeling of respect for Indian culture in the hearts of the Indians. The social and
religious reformers and leaders like - Raja Ram Moham Rai, Swami Vivekanand, Swami
Dayanada Saraswati, RamKrishna Paramhans, Mrs. Anni Beseant etc. kindled the
feelings of pride about self religion, homeland and self governence.
The movements of 19th century were basically religious in nature, yet they had the
inclusion of nationalistic feelings in them. In addition to Swami Dayand Saraswati's "Arya
Samaj" and Swami Vivekannad's " Ram Krishna Mission" there were many more such
movements to which the nation owed its reawakening. Among Muslims there were
Aligarh and Deoband movements, among Sikhs there were Singh Sabha and Gurudwara
reform movements and, Theosophical society's movements which changed the society
and its thinking. These movements made the future generations ready for the leadership
of the nation.
3. Impact of western culture, education and thinkers- With the intention of
uprooting nationalistic feeling from the Indian hearts, Lord Macaulay introduced
western education in India. His intention in spreading western education in English
was to develop a class of people who would work in the interest of British Government.
But, on the contrary the spread of English education inspired Indians to free themselves
from the clutches of foreign rule. With the knowledge of English language, Indians
became acquainted with the western literature, thinking and philosophy and
administration.
The western education introduced Indians to the modern concepts of Nationalism,
independence, equality and democracy.

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 4. Impact of contemporary European movements- With the establishment of
British empire in India, spread of English education also took place. As a result, Indians
came into contact with the western world. the reform movements in England, the
independence movements of Italy, Germany, Romania and Serbia inspired Indians to
struggle for their rights. This inspiration caused restlessness among Indians for the
freedom of their Motherland.
5. Development of means of communication and transport - After the British
empire established its rule in India, the means of communication and transport were
developed in India. Rails, Telegraph, postal services, roads, bridges etc were developed
in India, keeping in view the security of British Empire and economic exploitation of
Indians. As the means of transport developed, it benefited Indians too. The movement and
transport of goods became easier, which resulted in exchange of ideas and establishment
of communication. Therefore the development of transport and communication system
indirectly helped the Indians to unite in one bond.
6. Impact of ancient Indian culture - In the 19 th century, there was a search for
ancient Indian literature. With the help of indian and western scholars, many important
books were translated in English from Sanskrit. The scholars like Maxmullar,William
Jones, Harprasad Shastri,RamKrishna Gopal Bhandarkar, Rajendralal Mitra, Mahadev
Govind Ranade wrote many books on subjects of Indian culture and literature. These
writings made a great impact on Indian mind set. It developed a high self confidence
and selfesteem among Indians.
7. Indian news papers and literature - News papers and Indian literature
contributed a great deal in the national awakening. The writings of Bankim Chandra
Chatterji, Dinbandhu Mitra, Bhartendu Harishchandra, D.L. Roy and Ravindra Nath
Thakur had a very important role in national awakening. "Anand Math " written by Bankim
chnadra Chatterji and its song "Vande matarm" became the source of inspiration for the
youngsters of the country.
Anand Math depicted the political and economic shortcomings of British
rule.
The play " Neel Darpan" written by Deenbandhu Mitra expressed the
exploitation and sufferings meted out to the labours working in Indigo farms
Laxminath Bej Barua (Assami) and Altaf Hussain Haji (Urdu) were the
writers of nationalistic literature of this period.
The analytical review of British rule was being printed in Indian News papers.
Among Indian newspapers, there were 'Samvad Kaumudi', 'Amrit Bazar Patrika', 'Bambai
Samachar', 'Kesari', 'Maratha', 'Hindu', 'Patriot', 'Swadeshi Mitram', 'Arya Darshan' etc
which contributed in developing national awakening. Press developed Indian consciousness
and gave political teaching to Indians.
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 8. The British policy of economic exploitation - Dissatisfaction arises
from the economic exploitation. With the establishment of British empire and the
industrial revolution in England, Indian cottage industries suffered a blow. On the goods
exported from India a heavy tax was levied on them in foreign market whereas the
imported goods from England were made tax free, to sell in the Indian market. This made
the money flow out of India and destabilized the economy. This drove the Indians to
struggle against the economic slavery.
9. The policy of Racial discrimination - British used to show racial
discrimination against Indians (they considered themselves as superior race). They used
to look down upon Indians and used to mistrust them. The talented and educated Indians
were not considered capable for government posts of higher ranks. A tendency cropped
up, against the Indians, who were successful in competitive exams to be denied jobs
on the basis of some concocted faults. People like Surendranath Benarjee and Arvind
Ghosh became the victims of the British policy of discrimination.

Ilbert Bill
The viceroy Lord Rippon attempted to make a bill to abolish the policy
of discrimination. This was prepared by a law member Ilbert, that's why it was
called Illbert bill. According to this bill; a Indian magistrates and session
judges were given entitlement to hear criminal cases against Europeans.
Prior to the introduction of this bill Indian Magistrates were not authorized
to hear cases against European criminals and, illbert bill was a step to remove
the discriminating policy against Indians. Europeans staying in India collectively
protested against this bill and called it a black ruling. At last British Government
had to withdraw the Illbert bill, this affected Indians adversely
The reactionary policy of Lord Litten was racially discriminatory in nature. Lord
Litten's reactionary policy continued for four years (1876-1880). During this period, he
exempted British cloth from any kind of taxes, instead of providing relief to the draught
victims, he organized Durbar in the honour of Queen Victoria, he levied license fees for
Indians to keep weapons, introduced Vernacular Press Act for the suppression of
newspapers in local languages.
This way, initially the reawakening in India took place through social and religious
reform movements. these movements were instrumental in sowing seeds of self-respect
and patriotism and, economic and political reasons strengthened the nationalism.
8.2 Political organizations prior to the establishment of Indian National
Congress
By the end of 19th century, the peaceful political movements began in India.
Educated Indians were not unaware of the economic and political subjugation; this class

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started organized political activities. The objective of these organized movements was
to establish representative organisation, freedom of expression and thinking and
abolition of economic exploitation. These activities gradually converted in the demands
for freedom. These activities started from Bengal, Mumbai, Madras, where British Raj
had first established.
After the srtruggle of 1857, the national awakening intensified and the main
political organizations formed were- Poona sarvajanik sabha (1870), Indian league
(1875), East India association (1876), Madras Mahajan Sabha (1884) and Bombay
Presidency association(1885). These organization not only advocated their demands
about local issues but also vehemently advocated national demands. There was no
organization of national level established since then. To fulfill the requirement of a
national level organization, Surendranath Benarjee called a national convention of Indian
association in Kolkata in 1883. About 200 representatives participated in the convention.
Again there was a second convention in 1885 in Kolkata this was a major step in the
direction of forming a national organization in India. The objective of all these
organizations was to provide a common platform to all the organizations and to address
the problems and issues of common good. although the British government ignored the
demands put up by the political organizations, Indian newspapers gave wide publicity to
the demands.
The main members of East India Association were Anand Mohan Bose and Surendra
nath Benarjee. By 1885 there were 60 branches of the association, all over the country.
8.3 Establishment of Indian National congress
Between the years 1870 and 1880, Indian people had become politically conscious
and by the year 1885, there was a platform ready for establishment of a political
organization on national basis. The credit for giving a definite structure to the all India
organization goes to a retired British officer A.O. Hume. He was a liberal minded
person. Hume had been feeling a need for a political organization which would bridge
the gap between the rulers and the people being ruled. Hume wanted the people to adopt
the path of valid politics instead of violence and aggression. With the efforts of Mr.
Hume, "Indian National Union " was formed.
Hume obtained the permission from Lord Dafrin to convene a meeting of "Indian
national Union"between 25th December and 31 st December in Pune. The objective of
the meeting was to acquaint the work force with one another, which was working for the
national development and define a political agenda for the development.
Although the place of convention was decided to be Pune, the venue was changed to
Mumbai in the last minute. The convention was held at Mumbai on 28th December 1885
in Gokuldas Tejpal Sanskrit College. At the suggestion of Sir Hume the meeting was
named " Indian national Congress" and thus, Indian National Congress was born. There were
72 representatives in this convention of the Indian National Congress. Vyomesh Chandra

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Benarjee was the president of the first convention of Indian National Congress.
The Objectives of establishment of Indian National Congress -
Historians believe that, with the direction from British Government Hume and his
colleagues had founded Indian National Congress as a protective shield for British
Government. Hume did not want the people of India to adopt violent and aggressive
measures to register their discontent and anger against British Rule. Hume wanted to
encourage people to take legitimate path of protest like - appeals, memorandum,
delegations to influence the British Government, in order to fulfill the demands.
The leaders of Congress, accepted the leadership of A.O. Hume in the foundation
of Indian National Congress because they were not in the position of having an open
conflict with the British Government in the existing circumstances. This was more
sensible to co operate with Hume, in order to have a common platform wherein they
could discuss the problems of the country.
The national movements of those times, nationalistic feelings, restlessness among
all the classes of people, disillusionment of Indians from British Liberal party and a need
felt by different political organizations to have a centralized political forum were the
main reasons for the establishment of Indian National Congress. Therefore some
scholars have the opinion that Indian National Congress was the expression of national
consciousness.
The first President of Congress, Vyomesh Chandra Benarjee stated the objectives
of the Congress in its first convention in 1885.
1. To promote friendship and mutual intimacy among people, who work
enthusiastically for the country.
2. To eradicate the differences of caste, religion and regions and remove the
prejudices through friendship and direct contact, to develop unity and
nationalistic feelings, which were developed during the administrative regime
of Lord Rippon.
3. To document the contemporary and burning problems of India, with the help
of educated and matured individuals through a careful and detailed discussion.
4. To chart a programme of political activities and public good for next 12
months.
Very soon this organization took the shape of national level organisation and
became an expression of feelings of India.
8.4 The development of nationalism, liberalism and Extremism nationalism
Following the establishment of Indian National congress, representatives from all
the caste, followers of every religion and classes participated in its first convention.
After Lokmanya Tilak joined in, this institution came closer to the masses and Mahatma
Gandhi's influence gave it national level perspective.

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 Nationalism developed in India in different stages. With the passage of time, the
Congress ' policies also changed. Various views different from congress's existing
thinking emerged. In this chapter we shall understand the original characteristic of
Congress.
Liberalism or Liberal nationalistic thinking
The period between 1885 and 1905 is known as liberal period, in the history of
freedom movement in India. During this period the command of Indian National
congress was in the hands of Liberal (Moderate) leaders. The main moderate leaders
were Dadabhai Navroji, Surendranath Benarjee, Firojshah Mehta, Gopal Krishna Gokhale,
Ras Bihari Bose, Mahdev Govind Ranade. These leaders had faith in moderate thinking
and wanted to pursue their objectives through gradual and legitimate means.
Moderates were believers of legitimate means to pursue their objectives through
appeals, memorandums and delegations. In order to influence the British people and
politicians, Moderates had sent a delegation to England. To make British people aware
of the problems of Indians, Moderates had started publishing a news paper called "India",
from London. Every year Moderates used to pass a proposal and put up their demands
through logical approach. There was no place for agitation in their programme. They
were apprehensive that agitation
might result into lawlessness.
Demnads submitted by Moderate leaders of
Initially British took a Congress
sympathetic view towards
The demands submitted by liberals on the occasion
Congress. Even Government
of congress conventions and other meetings were–
officials used to attend the
● Increase in the number of elected members in
conventions but, gradually the
attitude changed and it was national and provincial assemblies.
declared as an organisation ● Indianisation of Administrative services.
representing minorities and anti ● Curtailing the army expenditure.
British. ● India should not be made to incur expenditure
on the British army.
A class of congress
members did not approve the ● Expansion of cottage industries and technical
policy of Moderates. They education.
considered Moderate approach ● Appointments of Indians on higher posts.
as if they were seeking favour ● Reduction in tax burden from farmers.
from British rule. Slowly even
moderates were also getting disenchanted with British rule as their demands were not
heeded by British government.
In the initial period of establishment of Congress, there was no demand
for freedom; only a few states were asked for Indians. The term" Self
Rule"was introduced by Tilak, in the last decade of 19th century.

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Importance and achievements of Moderates -
The Moderates did not succeed in achieving their demands through appeals or
memorandums but, they have the credit of building the background ready for a struggle
for freedom in the early life of congress. They provided a platform for discussing
national problems and educate people for political consciousness.
Although Moderates considered British rule as a means for welfare, they never
hesitated from criticizing British rule. DadaBhai Navroji made people of India aware of
outflow of money from India and its adverse impact it had on Indian economy. Under
the influence of Moderates, the British government passed a bill in 1892 which
permitted Indians to attend conferences.
Aggressive Nationalism - In the initial period of establishment of Indian National
Congress, for 20 years (1885-1905) the command of congress was in the hands of
liberals. The aggressive hardliners were tired of the politics of appeals, requests and
delegations. They wanted to prepare the people for national struggle through invoking
self respect, self confidence, patriotism and courage. They wanted to press the British
empire to give the Indians their rights.
The causes of emergence of Extremism- following are causes of emergence of
radical nationalism:
1. Dissatisfaction towards the working of moderates - The aggressive leaders
like Lala Lajpat Rai, Vipin Chandra Pal, Arvind Ghosh and others realised that Indians
would never get the political rights through memorandums and appeals. Aggressive
leaders had no faith in so called British justice and philanthropy. They wanted to launch
a powerful mass movement against British rule. Lokmanya Tilak said " Indians will not
get the freedom on a silver platter".
2. Failure of legitimate movements - Having received a lot of requests and
appeals from moderates, British finally in 1892 passed the "Bhartiya Parishad Adhiniyam"
but, it did not provide any valid rights to Indians. Thus all the hopes of getting political
rights through legitimate means faded.
3. The reactionary policy of British Rule - The main reason of emergence of
aggressive nationalism was the reactionary policy of British government. Whatever
promises Indians were given through the (Bharat Shasan Adhiniyam) and queen Victoria's
announcement in 1858, they proved to be only verbal farce. They were never followed
in their true spirit. The policy of exploitation and discrimination continued as before.
During the period of narrow-minded rule in Britain, the command of Indian rule was
also given to the reactionary viceroys in India.
The attitude of British administration was completely racially prejudiced and
inhuman towards Indians. Lord Lytton and Lord Curzon had hurt the Indian feelings
about their race.
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 4. Economic policy of British Government - Indian agriculture and industries
suffered a major setback due to the economic exploitation policy of British Government.
Their economic policy patronized the interests of capitalists. The import duty was
removed from the British goods which caused a heavy loss to Indian cottage industries.
5. The social, cultural and religious movenments - By the end of 19th century,
the social, cultural and religious movements continuously prepared Indian mind set to
struggle against the injustice. As a result of these movements people were charged with
the feelings of self respect, sacrifice and self confidance. Arya Samaj and Swami
Dayanand Saraswati struck the tendencies of indifference, lethargy and inferiority
prevailing in Indian society and politically awakened the followers of Arya Samaj.
Nationalists like, Bal Gangadhar Tilak, Lala Lajpat Rai, Bipin Chandra Pal, Arvind
Ghosh and Annie Beasent, with the encouragement from social and religious reform
movements, gave a direction to the national movements.
6. Natural calamities (Draught and Plague) - During the last decade of 19th
century people of India had to face many natural calamities. During the period of draught,
British government was busy in organizing a Grand Dilli Durbar. There was an outbreak
of Plague in Mumbai in 1896. During these natural calamities, the attitude of British
Government was of indifference which enraged Indians.
7. Impact of western thinking and foreign revolutions - The knowledge of
English enabled many educated Indians to come across the western revolutionary ideas.
Rousseau, Voltaire, Maijini, Burke and Garibaldi were the ones who influenced the
most. The victory of Ebisinia on Italy and small country like Japan's victory on Russia
enthused the Indians with hope.
8. Partition of Bengal and development of radical nationalism - Lord Curzon
in 1905, divided Bengal in two parts following the policy of " Divide and Rule". This was
a conspiracy to divide Hindus and Muslims of Bengal and break the bond of unity
between them, permanently. This caused a potentially explosive situation in Bengal.
Surendra Nath Benarjee has written that " Partition of Bengal caused the nationalist
movement to take the aggressive stance". Mahata Gandhi accepted it in "Hind Swaraj"
that after the partition of Bengal, the real awakening took place in India.
The development of Extremist movements and their system of working
The real extere must representation of national movements was observed in
Maharashtra. For the first time Ganesh Utsav festival was organized in the public domain
in 1893. For the first time, similarly Shivaji Jayanti was celebrated in 1899 on a large
scale. These events were means of developing nationalistic feelings among the people
of India. During 1896-97, there was a severe discontent among people of Maharashtra
owing to the outbreak of plague and draught.
Lala Lajpat Rai led the Extremist movement in Punjab. He inspired the people to

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struggle by making appeal through the news paper" Kayasth Samachar". In Bengal, the
Extremist movements began as a reaction of partition of Bengal. Public meetings were
conducted and protests were staged against the partition of Bengal. Bipin Chandra Pal
went on a nation wide tour to awaken the Indians against British rule. Indian newspapers
and magazines also contributed significantly in promoting Extremist movement.
The mode of working of Extremist leaders was quite different from that of
moderates. They believed in sacrifice and martyrdom, as means to achieve freedom.
Boycott, swadeshi and Indian education were their three weapons, which they used for
freedom from the British clutches.
These leaders used the word 'Swadeshi' or 'Self Governance' in a different
connotation. By self governance they not only meant obtaining the political rights but
also, establishing a political system which would help the Indians to progress.
The Extremist (radical nationalists) were staunch supporters of Boycott and Self
Rule,. By boycott they not only meant to boycott the foreign goods but also, the
boycott of Government jobs, institutions and awards. Self rule was corresponding to
Boycott. In the last decade of 19th century, the idea that if outflow of money and
poverty had to be curbed, the locally made (Swadeshi) goods should be used more and
more. Use of local goods became synonymous to nationalism.
The Boycott and Swadeshi movements run by radical nationalists gained enormous
success. It proved to be a boon for Indian cottage industries. A national corpus of fund
was made for the development of cottage industries. Very soon schools and colleges
became the centers of these movements.
English education was a barrier in the intellectual development of the Indians.
Extremist nationalists attempted to provide intellectual development through the scheme
of national education programme. The objective of the national education programme
was to provide education which would support national welfare. Aimed to achieve
national welfare, a national education council was established.
Importance of Extremist (radical) movement
The Extremist leaders adopted a policy of non cooperative protest policy instead
of cooperation with British Government. This policy was converted into a mass movement.
The Extremist nationalists never resorted to the path of violence and, stressed on a
creative programme in order to make the mass movement more powerful and impacting
and, this can be seen as the most significant feature of the movement.
They launched boycotts, introduced concept of Swadeshi, established national
education council and thus stressed on creative programmes and, reinforced on the
development of inherent qualities like self esteem, self dependence and self reliance
in an individual.

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 The main leaders of Extremist nationalism : There was a trio of Lal, Bal
and Pal who drove the national movement in a definite direction by exposing the non
action of British
Government and
discontent of common
Indian. Lala Lajpat Rai,
Bipin Chandra Pal and
Bal Gangadhar Tilak have
the credit to awaken the
Indians and develop a
feeling of self respect,
self confidance and Lala Lajpat Rai, Bal Gangadhar Tilak Vipin Chandra Pal
patriotism and courage.
Tilak is called as the father of aggressive nationalism. His political thinking was
very evidently influenced by his religious thinking. His beliefs were firmly placed in
natural rights, political freedom and principles of justice. He gave the proclamation
"Swaraj is my birthright and I shall have it". He fought for the cause of freedom and
self governance, all his life. He inspired the youngsters to struggle fearlessly and, to
be prepared for sacrifice for the country.
Another Extremist nationalist Vipin Chandra Pal was an influential orator, an
accomplished journalist and an educationist. He voiced his opinions through "New India"
and "Vande Mataram". Partition of Bengal was instrumental in drawing his thinking
towards radical nationalism. Vipin Chandra Pal played a major role in national awakening
in Bengal.
Lala Lajpat Rai was against moderate thinking and actions in Congress. He
protested very strongly against the partition of Bengal. He believed that Swaraj was
essential for the nation's development and no reforms and good governance could ever
replace Swaraj.

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 EXERCISES
Choose correct option :
1 The president of Congress during its first convention was
(i) Dada Bhai Navroji (ii) Arvind Ghosh
(iii) Gopal Krishna Gokhale (iv) W.C. Benarjee
2 Who entroduced English Education in India.
(i) Ram Krishna Gopal (ii) Maxmullar
(iii) Macaulay (iv) Bhartendu HarishChandra
3 Through which Newspaper did Lala Lajpat Rai inspire the people of India to
struggle?
(i) Kesari (ii) Samvad Kaumudi
(iii) Hindustan (iv) Kayasth Samachar
4. Who among the following was not a moderate thinker?
(i) Dadad Bhai Navroji (ii) Arvind Ghosh
(iii) Gopal Krishna Gokhale (iv) Firoj Shah Mehta
5. With whom is this proclamation associated "Swaraj is my birth right and I
shall have it?"
(i) Vipin Chandra Pal (ii) Lala Lajpat Rai
(iii) Arvind Ghosh (iv) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
Fill In the blanks :
1. The reactionary policy of Viceroy--------------- was full of racist thinking.
2. The founder of Congress is Considered to be -----------------------.
3. Vande Mataram was written by-------------------------------------.
4. In 1883 the national convention of Indian association was called in……………
.
Match the following :
1 Raja Ram Mohan Rai - Arya Samaj
2. Jyotiba Phule - Ram Krishna Mission
3. Swami Dayanand Saraswati - Satya Shodhak samaj
4. Swami Vivekanand - Tatva Bodhini Sabha
5. Devendra Nath Thakur - Bramha Samaj

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Very short answer type questions :
1. What were the measures adopted by Congress to address the grievances and
complaints in the initial period?
2. Name the leaders of aggressive nationalism.
3. What is a Boycott? Explain.
4. What was the policy adopted by Lord Curzon for Governance?
5. What were the objectives in the mind of Hume while establishing Indian
National Congress?
6. How many representatives participated in the first convention of Indian
National Congress?
Short answers type questions :
1. What was the role of western thinking and education in the development of
national consciousness?
2. Name the newspapers which played an important role in the development of
national awakening.
3. How were the cottage industries affected by the British policy of economic
exploitation?
4. Why did the Europeans staying in India protest against the Illbert bill?
5. what were the objectives of establishment of Congress?
6. What were the reasons, which in the end of 19th century encouraged the
aggressive nationalism?
Long answer type questions :
1. Describe the role of religious and social reform movements in the national
awakening.
2. Describe the causes which led to the establishment of Indian National
Congress.
3. Explain how the working style of moderates was different from that of
aggressive nationalists?
4. Write notes on :
(i) Bal Gangadhar Tilak
(ii) Vipin Chandra Pal
(iii) Lala lajpat Rai

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-9
Freedom Movement and Related Events
There has been a contribution of
We shall learn  numerous people, institutions and
9.1 Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi incidents in the national movement. The
Movement moderate leaders provided leadership in
9.2 Split in Surat their own way, in the initial period of the
9.3 Gandhian Era movement. Later on the leadership was
● Non Cooperation Movement taken over by aggressive nationalists who,
● Civil Disobediance Movement with their intense patriotism and sacrifice,
● Quit India Movement gave direction and pace to the freedom
9.4 Revolutionary Nationalism movement. Nationalist leaders like
9.5 Subhash Chandra Bose and Azad Mahatma Gandhi and Lokmanya Tilak
Hind Fauj provided a cultural and spiritual base to the
9.6 Muslim League and Communal nationalism, by way of protests. The series
Politics of revolutionary events presented examples
9.7 Partition of India of sacrifice and thus awakened the nation.
Leaders like Annie Besant, Deshbandhu
Chittaranjan Das, Subhash Chandra Bose had innate spark and courage to do the things
in their own way. The present chapter throws light on the major events associated with
Freedom movement.
9.1 Partition of Bengal and Swadeshi Movement
The most imprudent decision taken in the regime of Lord Curzon was the partition
of Bengal. Bihar, Assam and Orissa were also included in Bengal, those days. It was
a major province of India. Lord Curzon was of the opininon that, it was difficult to
provide effective rule by only one Lieutenant Governer from the administrative point
of view. In order to justify his view, he made a plan to divide Bengal into two parts.
Soon the news of proposed plan to divide Bengal spread like a wild fire in the
entire Bengal and, very strong protests were put forth. Lord Curzon, in the guise of
partition, wanted to have a communal divide between Hindus and Muslims. In December
1903, the news of proposed division of Bengal broke and, there were massive
movements to protest against the proposal, in the whole of Bengal. Only in East Bengal,
there were more than 500 protest meetings held. More than 40-50 thousand pamphlets
were distributed against the partition. In the same sequence, there were many massive
protest meetings held in the Town Hall of Kolkata.
Despite the massive protest, British Government declared on 19th July 1905, the
decision of partition of Bengal. Now a different method of protests was adopted i.e.
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to take a vow to boycott the British goods. In a historic meeting held in the Town Hall
of Kolkata on 7th August 1905, Swadesh movement was officially announced. Eventually,
the partition of Bengal came into effect from 16th October 1905.
1. A new province was made by combining East Bengal and Assam, this included
3 districts of Rajashahi, Chatgaon and Dhaka. Muslim population outnumbered
Hindus in this province. Dhaka was made the Capital of this province.
2. Another province was created by combining West Bengal, Bihar and Orissa.
This province had majority of Hindu population. Kolkata was made Capital of
this province.
The division of Bengal was not done for administrative reasons but, was done for
political reasons. Lord Curzon had the intention of hitting Bengal, the center of
National consciousness, to weaken it. He also wanted the unity between Hindus and
Muslim to break.
As soon as the news of partition of Bengal was received, people observed the day
as a 'Black day'. People kept fasts, marched on roads, observed strikes and demonstrated
on roads while chanting 'Vande Mataram'. People tied Rakhis on one another's wrist to
convey that British would not succeed in their effort to divide the people and their unity.
During the movement, Surendra Nath Benarjee, Krishna Kumar Mishra, Prithvish Chandra
Rai, Anand Mohan Bose etc addressed many public meetings to intensify the voice of
protest. Thus partition of Bengal gave a new direction to the national movement and
Swadeshi movement.
Swadeshi movement - Nationalist leaders had the intention of using Swadeshi
movement as a weapon to pressurize the British Government. The supporters of
Swadeshi were of the opinion that the interests of Indian and British Government are
mutually opposite and, it will be required to sabotage the commercial interests of
Britain, if British Government were to be forced to leave India. Swadeshi brigade
believed that, to curb poverty and stop the money flowing out of country, manufacture
and use of more and more of swadeshi goods is necessary . In order to execute their
plan, nationalists started collecting capital to open up new industries like soap, cloth and
match sticks and also to open national banks. Gradually there were Swadeshi schools
established and Swadeshi became a symbol of patriotism.
A 'Swadeshi goods' exhibition was organized in 1905, during the Congress
convention. The establishment of Banaras Hindu university was envisaged in the same
convention. It stressed the use of Devnagari script. In the Banaras Convention of 1905,
Gopal Krishna Gokhale supported Swadeshi movement. In 1905, for the first time the
congress convention in Banaras started with the song "Vande Mataram"this movement
gathered momentum in the entire country. Swadeshi movement became very popular and
flourished in Ravalpindi, Kangada and Haridwar. Sayyad haidar Raja led this movement in

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Delhi. Chidambaram Pillai gave direction to the movement in Chennai. Leaders like Bal
Ganghadhar Tilak, Vipin Chandra Pal, Lala Lajpat Rai and Arvind Ghosh wanted to drive
a mass struggle through Swadeshi movement, therefore they targeted towards self rule,
swadeshi, boycott and national education.
The aggressive leaders had a strong grip on swadeshi movement. They came
forward with new ideas, plans and thinking, and put it before the people of India. They
aimed at attaining political freedom through mass movements. The protesters not only
boycotted British clothes but also shunned government schools, courts, titles and
government jobs. The aggressive leaders like Arvind Ghosh advocated the path of violent
protest,in case British government chose the path of suppression. This movement
popularized the boycott of foreign clothes the most. Women boycotted foreign made
bangles and utensils, washermen refused washing of foreign made clothes, even the
temple priests refused to offer the sweets to the God which were made with sugar made
in foreign countries. The widespread movement strengthened the feeling of Swaraj in the
Indian minds.
The impact of partition of Bengal and Swadeshi movement- The partition of
Bengal had far reaching impact on Indian freedom struggle, they were -
● Feeling of unity developed due to partition of Bengal.
● People developed respect for Swadeshi goods which revived and rejuvenated
the traditional industries like Handlloom, silk weaving and other traditional
handicrafts.
● The feeling of self reliance developed due to partition of Bengal. this
movement was closely associated with self reliance and self sufficiency.
People developed feeling that they should come forward for their own
progress. The Swadeshi or indigenous industries came into existence.
● There were major changes in the field of education. Bengal national
college was established by Gurudev Rabindra Nath Tagore, on the lines of
Shanti Niketan. Arvind Ghosh was made principal of the college. within a
short span of time, many national schools were established. A curriculum in
vernacular language was prepared.
● Cultural consciousness developed due to partition of Bengal. The songs
written by Rabindranath Tagore, Rajanikant Sen, Dwijendralal Roy, Mukund
Das. Sayyed Abu Mohammad etc. became the source of inspiration for
revolutionaries and freedom fighters.
● Subsequent to the partition of Bengal, British started dividing Indians on
the lines of communal differences, they were successful to a great extent in
their objective. British government provoked Muslims again and again, in
order to weaken the national movement. On the suggestion of British
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 Government, Indian Muslim League was formed. The Nawab of Dhaka,
Salimullah protested against Swadeshi movement, on a suggestion from the
British.
The six long years of Curzon's tenure in India, changed the direction of
Freedom movement in India.
Swadeshi movement was the first forceful national movement against the
Colonialism.
9.2 Surat Split -
Partition of Bengal impacted the scenario of Indian politics very deeply. the
moderate leaders of Congress were against taking any hard stand against the Government.
They wanted this movement to be limited up to Bengal whereas aggressive leaders had
made up their mind to protest against the government. With this kind of dichotomy in
thinking, two conventions of Benaras(1905) and Kolkata (1906) were held. The
convention of 1907 was to be held in Nagpur which was later on changed to Surat. By
this time the aggressive movements and thinking had intensified within Congress. The
aggressive nationalists wanted Lala Lajpat Rai to be made their leader but, the moderates
made Ras Bihari Bose as their leader. From this time onwards, aggressive leaders started
protesting. The convention was suspended on the first day. On second day, Bal
Gangadhar Tilak proposed that if Swaraj(self Rule),Boycott and National education are
accepted on agenda then the issues of president's candidature will be brought to an end.
Moderates refused to accept this proposal and, consequently there was chaos and
disorder in the meeting. The rift between moderates and Extremists became so wide that
aggressive nationalists were ousted from the Congress.
The Sadical nationalists considered Moderates as an obstacle in the path of national
movement and wanted to take reigns of congress in their hands. On the other hands, the
moderates also wanted to keep the Congress away from aggressive influence. They did
not want to invite the rage of British Government and be victimized by them. this was
also a reason for moderates to get Congress rid of Aggressive nationalists.
After the incident of Surat, the moderates and Extremist nationalists were forced
to think of a common agenda but, many leaders did not agree upon concluding the
differences and, finally there was a divide in Congress. This divide in Congress is known
as "Surat Split".this event proved to be potentially damaging for the national movement.
British Government considered it as their Victory. Infact "Surat Split" opened a new
chapter in the freedom movement. A new consciousness was taking place not only in the
selected few people of middle class but, also among masses which was overwhelming
the minds and hearts of the masses. This movement was soon going to take the
proportion of a massive movement.

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9.3 The Gandhian Era
The national movement, after the First World War
became a widespread anti colonial movement. The
evolution had many stages, this was the time when
Mohandas Karam Chand Gandhi came into limelight and
became the national leader with very wide acceptance.
After studying Law in England, he went to South Africa
for practice. The struggle against the African
Government's policy of discrimination and apartheid
caused him to develop his 'philosophy of action' this
philosophy was based on non violent protest. When this
philosophy was applied in the Indian context, this took
the shape of "Satyagraha" and this became a strong weapon and millions of people
participated in Swaraj Movement. Many forceful mass movements were organized under
his leadership. Disobedience of law, Boycott of Courts, peaceful demonstrations, stop
the work, boycott of educational institutions, Dharna on liquor shops and forein goods
shops, non payment of tax and bringing the major industries to a close, were the main
features of this movement. Although all these methods of protest were non violent, they
were revolutionary and, influenced all the classes of society very strongly. This caused
a feeling of courage and self confidence emerge in them. Lakhs of people willingly went
to jail, faced lathi charge and bullets and suppression by Government.
Gandhiji led a very simple life. He talked to people in a language which they could
understand. That's why soon he was called "Mahatma". Gandhiji incorporated highest
moral values in the freedom movement and succeeded in converting it into a mass
movement. His life was based on principles of truth and non violence. For all th political
problems, he provided a solution which was in conformity with truth and non violence.
He also reiterated that means should also be pure to achieve an objective. The methodology
which he employed to struggle against the British Rule is called "Satyagrah".
Gandhiji made social reforms an integral part of nationalist movement. The
movement against the custom of untouchability, which was so inhuman and had
downgraded the lives of many Indians to the level of animals, is the biggest achievement
Gandhiji has in the field of social reforms. His another contribution is in the field of
Cottage industries. He claimed that the spinning wheel (Charkha) was a tool of rural
people for earning additional income and, to popularize Charkha became an essential
part of Congress. Apart from developing nationalistic feelings among people, the
Charkha provided employment to millions of people and prepared a battery of people
who were willing to take part in struggle and go to jail willingly. The importance of
Charkha increased so much that it found a place in party flag.

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 Gandhiji sacrificed his life for the unity of Hindus and Muslims. He considered
communalism anti national and inhuman. In his leadership, the national movements
became stronger and unified and people of India stood up for freedom.
The First World War ended in 1918. Turkey was defeated in the war. The victorious
nations caused the breakdown of Turkish empire. This infuriated the Muslim population
and, a discontent arose among Muslims against British government. British Government
resorted to the 'policy of suppression' and introduced Rowlatt Act in 1919.
The Rowlatt Act gave the right to the Government to send an individual to jail
without any judicial trial.
The massacre of Jallianwalla Bagh - Rowlatt Act came into force from March
1919. There were protests all over India against the Act. On 6th of April 1919, there
were strikes and demonstrations and, work was stalled. Punjab witnessed a strong
protest. The Government charged 'lathis' and bullets at many places in Punjab. The two
powerful leaders of Congress, Dr Satyapal and Dr, Saifuddin Kichlu were arrested and
sentenced to jail. To protest against these arrests there was a meeting on 13th April, the
Baisakhi day, in Jalianwallah Bagh in Amritsar. This is a small garden surrounded with
houses. General Dyer entered from the only gate of the garden surrounded it along with
all his soldiers. Without giving any warning to the people, he ordered his soldiers to
open fire. Children, women and old people were also present there for the meeting. The
firing lasted for 10 minutes and nobody could escape from there. After some time Dyer
left the place. According to the official statistics, about 100 people died there and more
than 1200 people were injured. Many people jumped in the well situated in the Bagh.
This inhuman and barbaric act infuriated the entire nation. Even many of the British
people found this "gruesome act " and "deliberate massacre" soul stirring.
Soon after the massacre, Martial Law was imposed in Punjab to establish the
terror rule but, this could not daunt the spirit of the movement. The terror of
military which Dyer hoped to develop, failed. The non cooperation movement
started after this massacre.
Khilafat and Non Cooperation Movement
After First World War was over, Turkey was given unjust and unfair treatment
by victorious nations, consequently 'Khilafat movement' started there. In order to
support this movement,Ali brothers (Mohammad Ali and shoukat Ali) of India started
this movement. Even the leaders of Congress participated in the movement and tried
spreading it allover the country. But, as soon as this movement ended in Turkey, its
intensity faded.
Congress adopted a new programme of 'Non cooperation' in 1920, under the
leadership of Gandhiji. Protest against Jalianwallah Bagh massacre, Rowlatt Act, breach
of promise from British Government and achieving Swaraj were the main objectives of
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Non Cooperation Movement. This movement was to be run in many stages. In the initial
stages, the titles conferred by the British Government were to be returmed. In the next
stage, Legislative councils, courts and educational institutions were to be boycotted. It
was decided that, a battery of 150,000 volunteers would be prepared to run the
movement. Non Cooperation Movement was a very big success. More than two third
voters did not vote in the assembly elections. Educational institutions wore deserted
looks. A new programme of national education was launched. Kashi Vidyapeeth and Jamia
Milia were established during the same time. Many Indians left government jobs. There
was a Holi (bonfire) of foreign cloth. There was "Mopla" revolt staged in Malabar. This
revolt presented a unique example of Hindu Muslim unity before the country.The Sikhs
protested against the hold of Government backed priests in Gurudwaras. Thousands of
people registered themselves as volunteers. During this movement, Prince of Wales
visited India. When, on 17th November 1921he reached India, he was welcomed with
protests and strikes. Police opened fire on demonstrators at many places. The suppression
continued and most of the great leaders with the exception of Gandhiji were sentenced
to Jail within a year.
When Non Cooperation Movement and suppression were on the climax, a Congress
convention was held in Allahabad in December 1921. The president of the convention
was Hakim Ajmal Khan. Congress decided to continue the movement till the injustice
against the people of Turkey was redressed and self rule was achieved.
In February 1922, Gandhiji decided to launch a movement viz not to pay tax in
Bardoli district. But, on 4th February in a place called Chouri-Choura in Uttar Pradesh,
the frenzied people burnt a Police Station. 22 police men died in the incident. When this
news reached Gandhiji, he took it as the God's premonition and decided to suspend the
Non Cooperation Movement. On 12th February, when a meeting of Congress working
committee was convened, it was decided to focus on issues like popularizing the
spinning wheel (Charkha), Hindu Muslim unity and abolition of untouchability.
The imprisoned leaders were unhappy with the news of suspension of Non
Cooperation Movement. Gandhiji himself was arrested and sent for 6 years imprisonment
but, was released after 2 years. Having released he also focused on popularizing charkha,
campaigning against untouchability and promotion of national education programme.
This helped in providing the achievements of the movement, a permanency. A
faction of congress made another party under the leadership of Motilal Nehru and
Chittaranjan das which was called Swaraj Party. They decided to contest the elections
of Legislative Council (vidhan Mandal) which they had been protesting up till now. But
now they decided to join the government machinery and try to disrupt it, till the people's
demands were not met.

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Simon Commission :
According to Government of India Act 1919, there was going to be a reconsideration
on the issue of any constitutional changes in next 10 years. In November 1927, British
Government appointed a commission to review the working of the Act and to bring about
reform if required. This commission had no representation of Indians and whatever the
terms of reference were, Indians had no hope to find Swaraj through it.
The Simon Commission reached India in February 1928' a nation wide strike was
awaiting it. Even most of the members of central assembly boycotted it. There were
committees formed all over the country to protest against the Simon Commission by
strikes and demonstrations. The demonstrators shouted the slogan " Simon go back", the
police lathi charged the silent and peaceful protestors. Lala Lajpat Rai led the protest
in Punjab. As a result of Lathi charge, Lala Lajpat Rai was injured and succumbed to
death. Finally Simon Commission had to go back.
Civil Disobedience Movement (humble defiance of law)
How to continue the freedom struggle movement, after the suspension of Non
cooperation movement, became a disputed matter within Congress.. One faction of
congress wanted to take part in the Parishad election whereas the majority still wanted
to boycott it. In this scenario, members who wanted to contest elections made an
independent party namely " Swaraj party.".
A congress convention started in Lahore in December 1929. Pandit Jawaharlal
Nehru was the president of the convention. He declared that " there is only one aim
before us and that is of total independence ". In this convention, congress accepted the
proposal of total independence, on the mid night of 31 st December 1929, Congress
President, in the presence of a huge crowd, hoisted the flag of "Total independence " on
the bank of river Ravi. Congress took the decision of observing 26th January 1930 as
the total independence day. Thus independence day was celebrated with zeal and enthusiasm,
all over the country.
In December 1929, in the Lahore convention, the working committee of Congress
got the approval to start the "Civil Disobedience Movement". the Viceroy, Lord Irwin had
refused to accept the proposal of total independence but, Gandhiji was still hopeful about
an agreement. He therefore put forward 11 demands before Lord Irwin. Gandhiji also
declared that if demands were not met, the Civil Disobedience Movement will be started.
Gandhiji wanted that Government should consider the reduction in the rate of
exchange, reduction of land revenue, should put total ban on drinking liquor, should
give licenses to keep guns, withdrawal of tax on salt, release political prisoners who
refrain from violence, keep control on Secret Service Department, 50% reduction in
military expenses and reduce the import of cloth. Since Viceroy rejected all the
demands, Gandhiji started Civil disobedience movement, as per plan.
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 Dandi March - Gandhiji decided to launch the 'Civil disobedience Movement' by
breaking the Salt Law. On 12th of March 1930, Gandhiji along with his colleagues
started for Dandi at Gujrat sea shore which is about 200 miles from Sabarmati Ashram.
People welcomed him, on his way lat eruisat Seashare to the march and he reached Dandi
on 5 th April. On 6 th of April Gandhiji and his colleagues broke the salt law and started
the movement.
As soon as Gandhiji had defied the law, people all over the country started defying
the British rule.At many places, the salt law was broken.there was defiance of " Jungle
Law" in Madhya Pradesh.there were strikes in Mumbai, Kolkata and many other places.
Members of Parishads, and Government employees renounced their jobs. Students left
their Government institutions. Women sat on Dharna in front of liquor shops. There
were dharnas in front of foreign cloth's shops.in Dharsana, Gujrat, there was a Dharna in
which 2500 volunteers joined. In Peshawar, under the leadership of Khan Abdul Gaffar
Khan, the volunteers popularly known as "Lal Kurti" participated actively. In May 1930,
Gandhiji was arrested and imprisoned in Yerwada Jail in Pune. As a consequence, very
high intensity protests were carried out in Delhi, Kolkata, Mumbai, Sholapur etc.
Tayyabji and thereafter Sarojini Naidu were entrusted with the leadership following the
Gandhiji's arrest. The movement had reached its peak by June 1930. Lathi charge,
imprisonment and fines for defiance became very common occurrence. Wearing Khadi
and wearing Gandhi Topi (cap) was considered an offence. Congress was declared an
illegal organization by The British Government.
Meanwhile there was a Round Table Conference in London in 1930. This became
evident in the conference that, if there was to be a solution of this problem, cooperation
of Congress was highly needed. In this scenario, Government released Gandhiji from jail
unconditionally on 26th January 1931. After being released, Gandhiji had a talk with
Viceroy Lord Irwin and, on 5th March 1931 the "Gandhi -Irwin Pact " came into
existence, according to which prisoners who had no charges of violence against them
would be released. The making of salt for personal consumption and Dharna in front of
Liquor Shops was given permission.
Fast Unto Death-Pune pact - British Government was, on one side using the
policy of exploitation and, on the other side was using " divide and rule policy". The
government offered separate reserved seats to "dalits " (down trodden) for contesting
elections. This was a policy to entice the dalits and drift them away from Hindus.
Gandhiji strongly opposed this move of the British Government.
In spite of that, in August 1932, Government declared the Communal Award of Mac
Donald, which reserved separate electorates for Dalits. Gandhiji protested against it and
asked for its cancellation failing which he went on a fast "Unto Death".
The entire country was in anxiety due to Gandhiji's Fast Unto Death. To find a
solution at such a delicate moment, an agreement was done in Pune between high caste

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Hindus and Dalits. This agreement was done between Gandhiji and Dr. Bhimrao
Ambedkar. The Government accepted this agreement and, finally Gandhiji ended his fast.
On 2nd of May 1933, Gandhiji was released from prison.
In 1935, Government enforced Government of India Act, according to which there
was a dual governance at centre and provinces had fully responsible rule The act was
criticized by the political parties of India. the reason being, there was nothing mentioned
about the total independence, in the provisions of 1935 Act. There were provincial
assembly elections in 1937 which Congress won and formed own ministries.
Quit India movement
On the political stage of India a historical movement, started which is known as
"Quit India Movement". This was literally a mass movement. This was truly a self inspired
and self driven mass movement, which was the result of intense desire of Indians to gain
freedom.
There are many reasons at the root for starting of this movement. India was not
willing to take part in the Second World War but, was forced to join without any
consent. With the shadow of war looming on the country, economy of the country
worsened, the running expenditure went up threefolds.Profiteering and exploitation
continued. In such a dire condition, Congress decided to start the non-cooperation
movement once again. On the night of 8th of August " Quit India " proposal was passed
in Mumbai with majority. On this occasion Gandhiji said" Each and every individual
should consider himself a free individual. He/she should, in order to achieve the
freedom in reality try hard and be prepared to lay the life"
Gandhiji said" I am not going to accept anything less than total independence,
we shall either do or die"
Even before the movement started, on the night of 9th August, government arrested
leaders like Mahatma Gandhiji Maulana Azad, Sardra Patel, Jawaharlal Nehru, Sarojini
Naidu and other members of working committee and sent them to Pune. This hasty
action on the part of Government, gave strength to the movement, without any effort.The
mob came on road. There were strikes, demonstrations and public meetings all over the
country. Mumbai, Ahmedabad, Pune, Delhi, Kanpur, Allahabad Varanasi, Jabalpur, Patna,
even in the smaller towns and districts, people organized themselves for the struggle.
The importance of Quit India movement is that, this made Freedom for the country
an instant demand.
The agitators damaged the means of transport, attacked police stations, damged
government documents and defied every law. Owing to the harsh reactions and suppression
from police, this agitation overstepped its principle of non violence too.
Police opened fire indiscriminately on agitators, charged them with lathis and

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arrested thousands of them. As the suppression hiked, so did the agitation. In Jabalpur,
Sagar. Mandla, Baitul in Madhya Pradesh and many other small estates, this movement
took a blazing stance. the agitators expressed their anger by burning railway stations,
derailment, falling the electric poles and damaging government office buildings. Thousands
of people died in this round of suppression, educational institutions closed down. The
Revolutionaries protested in their own way against the government.
At this time, when all great leaders were imprisoned, Aruna Asaf Ali, Achyut
Patwardhan, Mehar Ali, Jayprakash Narayan etc went underground and conducted the
movement.
Despite all this, the reaction of Brirtish Government was quite dismissive. Churchill
blamed congress for the violence but, Gandhiji blamed it on the suppressive action by
the government.
On 10th February 1943, Gandhiji started fast for 3 weeks. His condition became
serious but still continued it by his will power. While he was in prison, on 23 rd
February 1944, his wife Kasturba died. Gradually even the movement slowed down. On
6 th may 1944, government released Gandhiji from jail, due to his ill health.
Quit India movement was a Congress motivated movement, this did not get support
from Hindu Maha Sabha, Muslim League or Socialist parties. Although other political
parties did not take part in it, many people participated in it on a personal level,
The "Quit India Movement" could not succeed in its declared goal but it was
successful on one account that British Government realised that the demand for freedom
by Indians can not be ignored for a long time. Because of this movement, the international
opinion was formed against England. That's why, after the movement ended, the only
question to be addressed was of transfer of power.
9.4 Revolutionary nationalism
Due to the reactionary policy of the of the British Rule, Revolutionary nationalism
started in India from the last decade of the 19th Century. After the partition of Bengal
revolutionary feelings developed amongst Indians. The revolutionaries believed that
political rights can not be achieved through non violent and constitutional means. The
revolutionaries were of the view that independence and self-rule can be got by violence
and threats to the British rule. They wanted to free the motherland from the shackles of
foreign rule as early as possible. To achieve these objectives the revolutionaries formed
secret organisations of revolutionaries imparted them military training, collected arms
and ammunition and propagated revolutionary ideology through news papers and other
means. To achieve their objectives the revolutionaries set up committees for follow up,
in Bengal. These committees oriented the youths about India's history and culture and
aroused feelings for freedom among them. These committees used to prepare the youths

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for sacrifice and prepare them for freeing the country from the foreign rule. For this the
revolutionaries adopted the path of violence and started collecting arms and ammunition.

The partition of Bengal and the oppressive activities of the British rule
and ignoring the peoples' views created a situation that the people resorted to
violence.
Important Revolutionaries and revolutionary incidents
During those days the active revolutionaries in Maharastra were Shyamji Krishna
Verma, Vasudeo Balwant Phadke, Chafekar brothers and Savarkar brothers.
Revolutionary feelings gathered momentum in Punjab in 1907. Here Shri. Parmanand
and Lala Hardayal and other leaders led the revolutionaries. In 1909 Mandanlal
Dhingra killed. Sir Villiam Curzon Bailey and Anant Kanhere killed the sessions Judge
Mr.Jackson in Nasik. Subsequently a case was tried against
Kanhere termed as "Nasik Conspiracy Case". Although
revolutionary activities started in Maharashtra, but they
flourished in Bengal. Partition of Bengal provoked the
revolutionaries to organise themselves and launch struggle
against the Britisher. In Bengal the main revolutionaries
were Virendra Kumar Ghosh and Bhupendranath Dutt. In
1908 the revolutionaries planned to kill the judge of
Muzaffarpur and threw a bomb at him. In this explosion two
English women were killed. In this connection the
revolutionary, Khudiram Bose was hanged.
In Calcutta the police unearthed a factory of arms in Khudiram Bose
Maniktalla. (colony) and arrested many revolutionaries.
These revolutionaries were tried subsequently; it is very well known in the history of
freedom movement as Alipur bomb case. In this case Virendra Ghosh was deported to
Andamans. In the Haorah conspiracy and Dhaka conspiracy in 1910 many revolutionaries
were arrested. The revolutionary leader of Bengal Vipin Chandra Pal motivated youths
of Madras to participate in the national struggle.
In Uttar Pradesh and Delhi, Rasbehari Bose and Shachindra Sanyal organised the
revolutionaries. In 1912 a bomb was hurled at the Viceroy in Delhi but he narrowly
escaped. The revolutionaries who were arrested where tried in 'Delhi Conspiracy' case.
Several revolutionaries were hanged. Some revolutionaries planned for an army coup but
the plan leaked and the revolutionaries were caught and their arms were seized and 24
of them were hanged. Between 1908 and 1918 about 200 revolutionaries either died or
were put in the jail.
The revolutionary activities of the Indian revolutionaries were restricted not only

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to India but they were also conducted from countries outside India. London, Paris,
Kanada, America, France, California, Sanfransisco, Berlin, Japan etc. were the places
from where such activities were being conducted. The Indian independence committee
was formed in Berlin in the last years of the 19th century. Madam Bicaiji Cama, Lala
Hardayal, Barkatullah, Taraknath Das etc. were its members. This committee subsequently
became the centre of Indian revolutionary activities. Main function of the committee was
to maintain contacts with the revolutionaries of India and provide them arms and
ammunition.
After the Jalianwala Baag incidence a fresh wave of revolution came. At the same
time people were unhappy over suspension of the Non-cooperation movement. Communal
riots broke at several places. Disappointed by the non-violent movement the
revolutionaries again started consolidating themselves.
The revolutionaries needed money to carryout their activities. The revolutionaries
therefore planned to loot Government treasuries and on 9th August 1925 they stopped
a train at a place called 'Kakori' near Lucknow and looted the Government money. Later
Government arrested 40 people on the charge of looting the Government treasurey.
Ramprasad Bismil, Rajendra Lahon and Roshan Singh and Ashfaqullah Khan played
important role in this incidence. They were subsequently hanged and Shachin Sanyal was
punished and sent to Andamans (Kala Pani).
In north India the revolutionary movement was led by Sardar Bhagat Singh,
Batukeshwar Dutt and Rajguru. A meeting of revolutionaries of North India was
organised in Delhi and 'Hindustan Socialist Democratic army'
was set up. In Punjab Bhagwati Charan and Bhagat Singh
organised 'Navjawan Bharat Sabha'. This organisation was set up
to arouse pafriotsm among the youths. The British Government
wanted to pass 'Public safety Bill'. To prevent the passing of this
Bill the revolutionaries planned to throw a bomb in the Central
Assembly. Sardar Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Dutt were
entrusted this work. When this bill was being discussed in the
assembly on 9th August 1929 Bhagat Singh hurled a bomb in the
assembly. The intention of the revolutionaries was not to kill
anybody but wanted their voice to reach the Government. A case Bhagat Singh
was instituted against Bhagat Singh and Batukeshwar Datt.Jatindra
Das raised a demand to make available certain facilities in the jail to the revolutionaries,
he started fasting and ultimately laid his life.
On 23 March 1931 the British Government hanged Sardar Bhagat Singh, Rajguru
and Sukhdev. Bhagat Singh gave the powerful slogan of "Inqalab Zindabad" to the country.
In 1928 "Simon Go back" movement was started by Lala Lajpatrai in

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Lahore. In a conflict with the police, Lalaji died; the revolutionaries became very
angry and killed police officer Saunders.
The revolutionary movement got a setback due the oppressive policy of the
Britishers and deaths of many revolutionary leaders. The leadership of revolutionaries,
in the North India, came in the hands of Chandrashekhar Azad, Yashpal and Bhagvati
Charan. To take a revenge from the British rule, the revolutionaries planned to blast a
bomb on the train of Viceroy Lord Irwin. The bomb blasted but Irwin narrowly escaped.
On 27th February 1931 Chandrashekhar Azad organised a meeting of the revolutionaries
in the Alfred Park Allahabad. Unfortunately they were surrounded by the police. Azad
tried to give a tough fight till last but when he saw that he cannot escape, he shot himself
and laid his life for the motherland. In the revolutionary activities, women were also
equally active. Smt. Sushiladevi, Smt. Durgadevi, Premvati and many other ladies
actively participated in the revolutionary activities.
On 13th March 1940 the then Governor of Punjab O'Dyre, who was instrumental
in the killings of Jalianwala Bag firing incidence, was killed by a revolutionary named
Udham Singh.
The revolutionary movement started in the 20th century had spread its roots in
many parts of India. The government strictly suppressed their activities, hundreds of
revolutionaries were hanged and many more were sent to jail. Although gradually the
revolutionary movement slowed down but it has gone in the history of Freedom struggle
as a very important chapter. Indian people hold them in very high regard because these
revolutionaries had no selfish motive behind their actions. They were setting an example
of sacrifice and selflessness before the youth. Whenever a revolutionary was hanged
people used to be sad and angry and a sense of patriotism was arousing in them. This
promoted public awakening. The Indian National Army and the Navy revolt also have a
place of significance in the history of freedom struggle.
9.5 Subhash Chandra Bose and the Indian National Army
'Netaji' Subhash Chandra Bose came in contact with Gandhiji during the non-
cooperation movement. He was more impressed by the ideology of Deshbandhu
Chhittaranjandas than the ideology of Gandhiji. Subhash Chandraji was sad when the non-
cooperation movement was suspended and he joined the 'Swarjya Dal' organised by
Chhittaranjan Dass. Subhash Chandra Bose represented the youth in the Indian National
Congress and believed in the ideology of total independence like Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru.
He was elected Congress President in 1938 and 1939. When he was elected Congress
President second time, there were differences of opinion between him and Gandhiji and
the Congress working Committee. Ultimately he resigned and formed an organisation
named 'Forward Block' in 1939.
Taking advantage of the Second World War he escaped from the country and

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reached Japan via Peshawar, Moscow and Berlin. He believed
that his plans can be successful in the south East Asia and
therefore, he organised the Indian National Army and became
its Chief. Subhash Chandra Bose was associated with the
Indian independence League also. In this work he got
cooperation from the famous revolutionary Rasbehari Bose.
In the year 1943, in the capacity of Commander of the Indian
National Army he formed an interim Government of
Independent India in Singapore and took oath to fight for
achieving Independence till the last drop of the blood. Subhash Chandra Bose
Subhash Chandra Bose started war on the Indo-Burma
border. In February 1944 Indian National Army launched another attack and freed Ramu,
Kohima, Palem, Tiddim areas from the possession of the British. In April 1944 the
Indian National Army surrounded Imphal but due to heavy rains and shortage of supplies
it had to withdraw from there. Unfortunately the position of Germany and Japan
weakened and from May 1944 the position of the Indian National Army went on
becoming weak due to adverse circumstances and shortage of supplies. Subhash Chandra
Bose tried his best to boost up the morale of the army but failed and returned to
Bangkok. In August 1945 in an air journey his areoplane caught fire and he died near
Formosa, but some historians do not agree with this.
9.6 Muslim League
In the last 25 years of the 19th Century the Britishers tried to permanently divide
the Hindus and Muslims under a well-calculated plan. For this they made use of Sir
Sayyad Ahmed Khan.
At the time of the freedom struggle of 1857 Sir Sayyad Ahmed Khan was in the
British service and he had helped the Government. He convinced the Britishers that
Muslims are not anti-administration and are not responsible for the incidents of 1857.
Sayyad Ahmed Khan went to England in 1869 and was very impressed by the British
culture. After return to India in 1875 he established 'Mohammadan Anglo-oriental
College' in Aligarh. The intention was to educate Indian Muslims on the western pattern.
Very soon this college became a centre to influence Muslims by the English people.
Later this college was converted into Aligarh Muslim University and became staunch
supporter of the Britishers. The first principal of this college, Mr. Beek (1883-1899)
engaged himself in distancing the students form the nationalist spirit.
In 1887 at the time of the Congress convention Sir Sayyad opposed it and
organised a Muslim education Conference so also to oppose Congress he set up a
Patriotic Association.
But gradually the power and impact of Congress went on increasing and educated

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muslim middle class started joining Congress. This became a cause of worry for the
Britishers. They started making efforts to keep the Muslims away from Congress. They
tried to explain the Muslims that congress is a Hindu organisation and it is not advisable
for the Muslims to join it. In fact the British administration wanted to create permanent
differences between the Hindus and Muslims on the grounds of religious, economic, and
political issues so that it can act as a mediator after the differences are created
permanently.
In the beginning of the 20th Century the feelings of communalism became strong.
One section of the Muslims started feeling Congress to be anti-Muslim. The British
rulers also viewed the Congress movements as anti-British. Therefore they wanted to
promote an anti-Congress organisation. Looking to the indications of the British rulers
a delegation of the Muslims under the leadership of Agakhan met the Viceroy of India
Lord Minto in October 1906 and put forth certain demands through a memorandum. In
the memorandum main demands made were; a separate electorate for Muslims, more
seats for the Muslims in the legislatures, relaxations in government services and
establishment of universities and appointment of a Muslim representative in the council
of the Governor General. Ultimately Lord Minto became the promoter of the Muslim
communalism. With the patronage of the staunch Muslims, All India Muslim League was
established on 30th December 1906 and in the Lucknow convention of1907 the
constitution of the League was made applicable.
Main objectives of the Muslim League were : 1. To arouse a sense of devotion
towards the British Raj amongst the Muslims of India. 2. To put forth demand before the
Britishers for the political rights and interests of Muslims. 3. Without jeopardising the
interests of the league, keep good relations with other communities.
From the objectives of the Muslim League it is clear that it was a communal
organisation and therefore the nationalist Muslims opposed it and continued to be with
the congress.
Development of Communal Politics : The Minto-Morley Reforms of 1909 were
the beginning of communal election of communal system. For the Muslim voters a
separate election system was made. Between 1912 to 1924 there was influence of
nationalist Muslims on the Muslim League. Nationalist Muslims like Maulana Abul
Kalam Azad, Hakim Ajmal Khan, and Mohammed Ali Jinnah were on the helm of affairs
of the Muslim League. Because of this, the Congress in its Lucknow Convention of
1916 accepted the Communal Election system related with representation of Muslims.
Thus the Congress also ultimately gave importance to communal politics. This gave the
nationalist movement a different direction which had farreaching repercussions and
ultimately became the cause for partition of the country.
With the suspension of the Non-cooperation Movement the basis of communal

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harmony came to an end. Several communal riots took place between 1922 to 1927.
Hindu Mahasabha organised movements for national development and purification. The
Muslims also organised movement like Janjir (organise the Muslims) and Tablig (spread
Islam). Leaders like Lala Lajpat Rai and Madan Mohan Malviya were associated with the
Hindu Mahasabha. In the meantime under the leadership of Dr. Keshavrao Baliram
Hedgewar, Rashtriya Swayam Sewak Sangh (R.S.S.) was established.
In March 1927 Leaders of Congress and Muslim League assembled to ponder over
the issue of Hindu-Muslim unity. In the meeting there were differences between the
members of the League and the League leader Jinna went to London. After some time,
after the death of the senior leader of Muslim League, Jinna returned to India and took
over as leader of the Muslim League.
The publication of Nehru Report in 1928 was termed as a report that serves the
Hindu interests, by Jinnah. The Congress invited communal Muslim leaders for talks. the
nationalist Muslim leaders, the Hindus and Muslims opposed the British from a common
platform at the time of the 'Boycott' and 'Civil disobedience Movement'. But in the
Round Table Conferences again the communal leaders fought for the interests of their
community.
On 16 August 1932 the British Prime Minister Macdonald got the Communal
'Panchat' published which harmed the Hindu-Muslim unity. In this 'Panchat' along with
Muslims, separate electorate was provided for the Sikhs, Indian Christians and the
Backward classes, thus expanding the communal base further. Between 1930 and 1937
the relations between the Congress and Muslim League leaders continued to be cordial
barring a few issues.
In the elections of 1937 Congress got good success but the Muslim League fared
badly. The relations between the Congress and the League became bitter after the
elections. The working committee of the Muslim League in its meeting of 20 March
1938 alleged that the Congress is doing injustice and victimising the Muslims. Congress
was helpless before the obstinate attitude of Jinnah. Later on the Muslim League claimed
that Muslims are not a community but a nation and they have right to self decision.
On 3 September 1939 Second World War started. The British Government, without
taking the Congress Cabinet Members into confidence, associated India in the war.
Congress opposed this. The Congress wanted the British Government to first make clear
the objectives of the war and its views on the Independence of India. When the British
did not clarify their stand on these issues, the Congress cabinet of Ministers of the eight
resigned. Jinnah was happy with this incident. On the call given by Jinnah Muslim League
observed 22 December 1939 as 'Liberation Day.'
Demand for Pakistan by the League : The idea of a separate nation, Pakistan did
not occur to the Muslim leaders abruptly; it gradully developed in their minds. In the

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Allahabad Convention of the Muslim League in 1930, Dr. Mohammad Iqubal mooted the
idea of formation of Pakistan. The idea of a separate nation of Pakistan was due to the
feelings for 'All Muslims.' According to the English encycolopedia the idea of Pakistan
was the brain child of a Punjabi muslim Rahmat Ali. Earlier a nationalist Mr. Jinnah
ulitmately became communal and in October 1938 he demanded two nations. In 1941 the
Muslim League in its Madras convention, made formation of Pakistan as its important
objective. In 1942 the Crips Mission by supporting the claim of Pakistan added fuel to
the fire. Thus the Congress had to try for unanimity on the issue of partition of India.
9.7 Partition of India
At the time of the Second World War, Congress was willing to co-operate with the
British Rule but it wanted that Mr. Churchil, the British Prime Minster should make
applicable the 'Atlantic Charter' to India also, and should make a declaration with regard
to giving freedom to India. Churchil was not willing to make such an announcement with
the result there was a hindrance in the talks between the two parties. Initially the position
of the British was not good on the war fronts. Japan, in the south east Asia was getting
stronger. Under the circumstances Churchil wanted India's co-operation in the war and
made a declaration to send Sir Stafford Crips to India.
Crips Mission : Crips arrived in India on 22nd March 1942 and had discussions
with the leaders of all the prominent political parties. The proposals of Crips were in two
parts : proposal to be made applicable during the war and the post war proposals.
Congress was not satisfied with these proposals because it proposed giving independence
within the colonial rule and the demand of the Congress was total independence. The
League was not satisfied because nothing was mentioned clearly about its demand for
separate Pakistan. besides Congress and the League, the Sikhs, Hindu Mahasabha, the
backward classes and others also did not agree to the proposals.
Lord Wavel came to India in October 1943 as Governor General. Wavel wanted to
solve this issue. The plan which he put forth gave clear indication that the British rule
wants to end this political deadlock and take positive steps in this direction.
A conference of Indian leaders was organised in Shimla on 25th June 1945 to
deliberate over the plan put forth by Wavel. It was decided that there would be a Central
Cabinet comprising 14 members out of which 5 would be nominated from Congress, 5
from League and 4 shall be nominees of the Viceroy. Viceroy requested the Congress
and the League to propose 8 to 12 names. The list which Congress sent included 2
Muslim, Jinnah wanted that the Muslim representatives should be from League only. The
reason being that Jinnah wanted to prove that Congress was a Hindu organisation and that
the League was the only representative organisation of the Muslims.
Due to non cooperation of the League Shimla conference failed and Wavel yielded
to it.

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 Cabinet Mission : After the failure of Shimla conference the new Government of
Labour Party sent a delegation to India to asses the situation. The British Parliamentary
Delegation recommended in its Report that powers be transferred to India immediately.
Under the circumstances the British Prime Minster Lord Attley sent a Cabinet Mission
to India. The Cabinet Mission submitted a plan in which a mention was made about the
picture of India that will emerge after granting independence to India. The plan was
mainly in two parts: Short term plan of establishment of interim Government and long
term plan of formulation of the Constitution.
On 6th August 1946 the Viceroy requested the President of All India Congress,
Jawaharlal Nehru to extend cooperation in the formulation of interim Government. In the
mean time the League decided to take direct action on 16th August 1946 to press its
demand for Pakistan. Due to the obstinacy of League and Jinnah, communal riots broke
in the country.
On 2nd September 1946 the Interim Government under the leadership of Jawaharlal
Nehru was sworn in. The League joined the interim Government but started putting
hindrances in the smooth working of the Government. The Government made efforts for
agreement but League adopted the policy of pressurisation and did not cooperate in
coming to an agreement. Under these circumstances the British Prime Minister Lord
Attley had to make and announcement to leave India.
Mountbatten Plan and Partition of India : On 23 March 1947 Lord Mountbatten
took over as new Governor General of India in place of Lord Wavel.
The British Government had fully authorised him to opertionalise the plan of
transfer of power to the Indians through the interim Legislative assembly constituted
under the Cabinet Mission. The Congress did not want partition but the League was not
willing to accept anything less than partition. Therefore to avert further communal
bitterness, Congress agreed for partition.
The factors which were responsible for partition of India were, helplessness
of the Interim Government and the Congress, serious communal riots, obstinacy
of Muslim League and the British diplomacy.
The plan presented by Mountbatten comprised partition of India into two parts VIZ.
India and Pakistan and transfer of powers to take place on 15th August 1947. In the plan,
policy regarding Punjab, Bengal, Sindh, Assam and Baluchistan was also made clear.
Congress consented to the Mountbattem Plan. Muslim League wanted whole of Bengal,
Assam, NorthWest Frontier province to be merged in Pakistan but had to yield to the
pressure of Mountabatten and accepted his plan.
Independence of India Act 1947 - As per the plan of Mountbatten, the Government
prepared the draft of 'Independence of India Act' and sent to the Congress and the League
for consent. After acceptance the British Government passed the Bill and it became an
Act on 18th July 1947.
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 Main provisions of the Act - The Act had 20 sections and 2 schedules. Main
provisions of the Act were -
1. India was to be divided into two sovereign states - India and Pakistan. The
responsibilities of the Government of India were to be handed over to Indian
leaders.
2. As per the Act there would be a Governor General to be appointed by the
Emperor of Britain in each of the sovereign states- India and Pakistan.
3. Borders of both the sovereign states were decided. It was stated in it that
Bengal, Punjab and Assam were to be divided and their borders were to be
demarcated on the basis of plebiscite.
4. Legislative Assemblies of both the states will have the right to formulate their
Constitution. Pending formulation of the Constitutions by both the states, the
states shall be governed as per the provisions of the Government of India Act.
5. The post of secretary of India was to be abolished and in its place a Secretary
of the Commonwealth shall be appointed.
No Act passed by the British Parliament after 15th August 1947 was to be
applicable to India. Thus India got independence from the British control after the
Independence Act became operational. Indian independence was the dawn of a new era
and the Indians were to decide their own fate.
In the mid-night of 14-15 August a special session of the Constituent Assembly was
held in Delhi. In this session Independence of India was declared and India was to be a
member of the British Commonwealth. Lord Mountbatten was appointed Governor
General of the new sovereign state- India.
Modalities of partition- Two commissions appointed by the British Government
started the work of partitioning Punjab and Bengal from 30th June 1947. The Chairman
of the Commission was Sir Sairil Redcliff. He faced lot of problem in the work of
demarcation of borders. On 18th August 1947 Redcliff gave his decision on the division
of Bengal and Punjab and accordingly it was implemented. As per the Redcliff plan East
Bengal and areas of West Punjab went to Pakistan. North West Frontiers Province,
Silhat, Baluchistan and Sindh agreed to accede to Pakistan.
Merger of the states - As per the Indian Independence Act 1947 the princely
states were freed from all the obligations towards the British Empire. They were given
freedom to merge with any of the sovereign states. After the passing of the Indian
Independence Act the work of merger of princely states into the Indian Union was
completed under the leadershop of Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel. He appealed to the native
rulers to work for the integrity and common benefits of the nation. He also assured them
that their personal property and rights shall be protected. He took an assurance from the
princely states to cooperate in the formation of democratic set up.

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 Before 15th August 1947 all the princely states except Junagarh, Hyderabad,
Bhopal and Kashmir had consented to merge in the Indian Union. Junagarh, Hyderbad,
Bhopal and Kashmir tried to create some problems; the people of Junagarh wanted
merger in the Indian Union but the Nawab was not willing, but he had to yield to the
wishes of the people.
Thus Junagarh was merged into Indian Union. The Nizam of Hyderbad was also
unwilling to merge in the Indian Union. Therefore strict action had to be taken against
him. The army of Hyderabad and the Razakars had to surrender and the Government of
India took the reins of administration in her hands. Because of the obstinacy of the
Bhopal Nawab the merge of Bhopal into Indian Union could be possible only in 1949.
The Maharaja of Kashmir wanted to maintain independent status. But when the
Kabailis attacked Kashmir, the Maharaja agreed to merge with the Indian Union on 26th
October 1947. The Maharaja requested Government of India to send army to Kashmir
and save Kashmir from the Kabailis. Therefore, Government of India sent army to
Kashmir. In the meantime the Maharaja set up a temporary emergency government in
Kashmir and appointed Sheikh Abdullah as its Prime Minister.
Azad Kashmir was opposed to the new Government because it had sympathies of
Pakistan.
Pakistan extended full support to the Kabailis and consequently fighting began.
Government of India handed over the issue to the Security Council. One third of Kashmir
went to Pakistan and the remaining 2/3 part was left in the Indian control. Ultimately the
Legislative Assembly of Jammu and Kashmir accepted accession to the Indian Union.
Exercises
Choose the right option :
1. Main objective of division of Bengal was-
(i) To establish administrative system in Bengal
(ii) To suppress nationalist feelings
(iii) To promote nationalist feelings
(iv) None of the above
2. Congress was Split in -
(i) Nagpur Session (ii) Surat session
(iii) Lahor session (iv) Mumbai session

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 3. Why did Gandhiji support 'Khilafat Movement'?
(i) Because Khalifa favoured freedom struggle of India
(ii) Because Gandhiji wanted support of the Muslims against the Britishers.
(iii) Because the Khalifa loved Indian civilisation.
(iv) Because Turky supported India's freedom movement
4. The objective of the Roweltt Act was -
(i) To declare illegal all strikes
(ii) To supress the volunteers of the movement
(iii) To establish equality among all.
(iv) All the above
5. Which programme was not there in the Civil Disobedience Movement?
(i) The people of the country should prepare salt.
(ii) To burn foreign cloth
(iii) To viloate laws through violent means
(iv) Picketing before the liquor shops
6. Who founded the Forward Block?
(i) Bhagat Singh (ii) Ras Behari Bose
(iii) Chandrashekhar Azad (iv) Subhash Chandra Bose
7. In July 1947 the British Parliament passed the Indian Independent Act,
according to which following two independent countries came into being -
(i) India-Bangladesh (ii) India-Pakistan
(iii) India-Srilanka (iv) India-Nepal
Fill in the blanks :
1. In 1905 Bengal ............................ Orissa were included in the Bengal Province.
2. The call (slogan) for 'Do or Die' was given in .................... movement.
3. In 1928 the revolutionaries formed .....................
4. At the time of independence of India ................. was the viceroy.
5. Under the leadership of .................. the merger of princely states was done.
Very short answer type questions :
1. Why was the partition of Bengal cancelled?
2. Why was the 'Non co-operation Movement' abruptly suspended?
3. What were the objectives of the 'Khailaft' and 'Non Co-operation movement?
4. Which places were freed by the Azad Hind Army from the Britishers by
attacking them?

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Short answer type questions :
1. What were the objectives of the British Government behind Partition of
Bengal?
2. Division of Congress proved to be fatal from the point of view of India
National Movement. Explain.
3. What is the imporatnce of Lahore session of 1929 in the history of freedom
struggle?
4. What were the reasons of conducting Civil Disobedience Movement?
5. How was 'Quit India Movement' different from the initial movements launched
by Gnadhiji?
6. Which methods did Gandhiji advise to adopt during the Freedom Movment?
7. Explain the importance of revolutionary movements in the history of India.
8. What was the objective of the Cabinet Mission? To what extent it succeded
in its mission?
Long answer type questions :
1. What is the meaning of Quit India Movement and when did it start? Write the
importance of this movement in the history of Indian Independence.
2. What do you know about the revolutionaries? What methods did they adopt
against the British Administration?
3. Why was the Indian Naitonal Army set up and write about its contribuiton to
the freedom struggle of India.
4. How was the background for formation of Pakistan created by the actions of
the Muslim League? Explain.
5. Under what circumstances partition of India was made, why did Congress
accepted the partition?
Project work
● Collect pictures of Indian Natinoal Movement and prepare an album for the
school.
● Draw a line of period (duration) between 1905 to 1922 and show important
events of the freedom struggle therein.
● Organise an exhibitoin on the 'the Histroy of Freedom Movement' with the
help of you teachers, guardians and colleagues and include in it the pictures
of leaders, events related with them and reports from Newspapers.
❖❖❖

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 Chapter-10
Contribution of Madhya Pradesh in
the Freedom Struggle
We shall learn  First struggle for independence in
1857 paved the way of national movement
10.1 First struggle of independence in in Madhya Pradesh. Some of the rulers
1857 and Madhya Pradesh in Madhya Pradesh also opposed the
10.2 Main freedom fighters British even before 1857. Out of these
10.3 Contribution of Madhya Pradesh to two up risings are worth mentioning.
the National movement Revolt of Prince Chain Singh
10.3.1 Non-Cooperation Movement
Prince Chain Singh of Narsinghgarh
10.3.2 Civil disobedience movement
was insulted by political Agent Maddoc
10.3.3 Revolutionaries of madhya
of Sehore Cantonment. Hence Chain
Pradesh
Singh started agitation against the British.
10.3.4 Quit India Movement
In 1824 there was a fierce battle between
10.4 Main centres of National Movement
Chain Singh and the British on a spot
in Madhya Pradesh
which is presently known as Tehsil
10.5 Role of newspapers in national
Chouraha. Chain Singh and handful of
awakening
brave soldiers sacrificed their lives while
10.6 Organisations and institutions set up
during the national movement fighting with British soldiers in Sehore's
Dussehra Bagh.
Bundela revolt
In the land of Madhya Pradesh second flame of revolt flickered in 1840-1842 when
in Narmada Sagar region of Bundelkhand. Bundela, Rajput, Gond and Lodhi rulers and
landlords revolted against the British and fought against the British rule. Dhillan Shah of
Madanpur, Hirde Shah of Heerapur, Raja Parinit of Jaitpur, Rao Basant Singh of Chirgaon
and Deewan Bundela of Jheejhaon were heroes of this agitation, but because of lack of
unity and power of British army the revolt could not succeed.
10.1 First struggle of independence in 1857 and Madhya Pradesh
Many freedom fighters showed their displeasure against British in 1857 revolt. In
this fight not only local rulers, Jagirdars. Talukadars and Malgujars took part but common
people also took part in this struggle. In spite of non-cooperation of princely states lack
of resources, inferior weapons and unorganized efforts the struggle lasted for many
months. Tribals also took part in the struggle whole heartedly. Many Gond and Malguzars,
Jagirdar of Sagar, Jabalpur and Narsinghgarh districts took part in this struggle. Bhil

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Nayak of Barwani also fought against the cooperation of common public.
In 1818 during the regime of Lord Hastings crushed the Maratha power. Many parts
of Madhya Pradesh ruled by Marathas were captured by British. British started the new
land regulations. People of Hoshangabad, Seoni, Narsinghpur, Damoh, Sagar and Narmada
valley were given cruel treatment. It became difficult to pay increased Malgujari for the
farmers and British started atrcities on them. There was mass intolerance in public and
in 1857 the feeling became widespread. Like other parts of India there were many small
Riyasats in Madhya Pradesh; their rulers and Nababs were faithful to British but the
soldiers of their army after hearing the news of revolt, were eager to help their fellow
soldiers. Main centre of revolt were Gwalior, Bhopal and Indore. The places where the
flame of revolt flared were Sagar, Jabalpur, Narsinghpur, Hoshangabad, Naogaon, Gwalior,
Jhansi, Shivpuri, Bhopal, Neemuch, Indore, Mahidpur, Mandsaur etc.
10.2 Main Freedom Fighters
From every part of Madhya Pradesh fighters took part in the freedom struggle.
There was hardly any area where freedom fighters were not there. Everyone from almost
all the areas of Madhya Pradesh took part in the struggle. Only because of these people
that we are breathing in free atmosphere. Although freedom fighters did not confine
themselves to a specific area; they considered the nation above everything. The freedom
fighters described here are related to Madhya Pradesh in one way or the other.
Central character of struggle for freedom of 1857 was Rani Laxmi Bai, Who
belonged to Jhansi, fought her important battle in Madhya Pradesh posed challenge to
British ad won the war.
She caputred the Gawalior fort with the help of Tatya tope. When English caption
Hughes approached Gwalior fort, she fought bravely and on 18th June 1858 near Gwalior
she sacrificed her life in the Baba Gangadas Bag. To prevent her body to be touched by
British, she was cremated in haystacks near the hut of Baba Gangadas. British army
demolished the hut. Aides of Baba Gangadas lost their lives while fighting with the
British army. The memorial of Rani Laxmi Bai is in Gwalior. Even English generals
praised her as a very brave lady.
Tatya Tope, the great fighter of first freedom struggle helped Rani Laxmi Bai to
capture Gwalior. Even after the death of Rani Laxmi Bai, Tatya Tope continued gurilla
fighting with the British for2 years in Madhya Pradesh and other parts of India. A friend
betrayed Tatya Tope and he was imprisoned and later hanged in Shivpuri.
'Virangana' Rani Avantibai
The queen of Ramgarh of Mandla district also showed extra ordinary love for her
motherland and fought bravely. Ramgarh is a small town in Mandla district. In 1850 after
the death of Raja Lakshmansingh his only son Vikramjeet Singh was declared mentally
sick and unfit to rule. British Government took the reins of administration in their hands
and appointed their officer. The royal family was sanctioned annual subsistence allowance.

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Rani Avantibai (Wife of Raja Laxman Singh) of Ramgarh was
very able and intelligent lady who wanted to rule the state in
her son's name but at the time the 'policy of annexation'
(Hadap Neeti) was being strictly implemented. Rani Avantibai
opposed this, fought with the officer who was appointed by
the Britisher there and took the reins of administration in her
hands. She contacted the thakurs and malguzars of the district
and sought their cooperation. Many 'Zamindars' promised to
lend their support. The Rani used to lead her soldiers in
battlefield in soldier's uniform. In April 1858 the Britishers
attacked Ramgarh, the Rani assessed her strength and vacated
the fort and went into the adjoining forests. From there she Rani Avantibai
constantly attacked the Britishers but one of these attacks
proved to be fatal.
When she saw that she is surrounded and will surely be caught, this brave lady
instead of courting arrest, got down from the horse, seized
sword from her body guard and pierced it in her chest and laid
her life bravely for her motherland.
Raja Bakhtawar Singh
Raja Bakhtawar Singh of Amjhera (about 30 Kilometers
from Dhar) decided to oppose the company rule and put an
end to it. He fought bravely but was arrested because his own
men deceived him. The Britishers hanged him in Indore. Raja Bakhtawar Singh
Sadat Khan and Bhagirath Silawat - In the freedom
struggle of 1857 Sadat Khan and Bhagirath Silawat of Indore played an important role.
They gave tough fight to the Britishers but were caught and hanged in Indore. Their
sacrifice is also worth mentioning.
Raja Shankar Singh and Raghunath Shah
Jablpur's role in the freedom struggle of 1857 is also worth mentioning. The
descendant of Rani Durgavati and one of the members of the Gond Royal family Raja
Shankar Shah and his son Raghunath Shah's sacrifice is also memorable. They were
picked up as their leader by the local soldiers and thakurs to fight against the Britishers.
Unfortunately their plan leaked before its implementation, as a result the Britishers
arrested them and were taken to the Residency (Present office of the Commissioner).
The Britishers posed that they are being tried in the court and before a big crowd, both
the father and the son were shot dead on 18th September 1857.
Thakur Ranmat Singh - Thakur Ranmat Singh of village Manakhari of Satna
district also gave tough fight to the Britishers in the struggle of 1857. The Thakur was

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unhappy with the activities of the political agent and decided to fight with Britishers. He
along with his companions organised an army in the jungles of Chitrakoot and attacked
the Residency in Nagod. The Resident fleed. Thakur Ranmat Singh attacked the Naogaon
cantonment also, after a few days and a British platoon of Barodha was killed. A prize
of Rs.2000/- was declared on the Thakur. After fighting with the Britishers for a long
time, he was arrested by the Britishers one day when he was resting in his friend's house,
he was caught unaware and was hanged in the year 1859.
Diman Despat Bundela
He belonged to the family of Maharaja Chhatrasal. Diman Despat also gave a tough
fight to the British soldiers in 1857-58 and sent 1000 gunmen for the help of Tatya Tope.
Despat had captured the territory of Fatehpur of Shahgarh (princely) state. Despat
became so powerful that the British administration declared a reward of Rs.5000/- to
arrest him. After a long fight the brave Despat was killed in 1862 at a place few miles
away from Naogaon.
Mahadeo Shastri
Mahadeo Shastri of Gwalior was great patriot, who although did not oppose the
Britishers by weapons but he helped Nana Saheb Peshwa and therefore he was hanged.
Shastri created an atmosphere in favour of Nana Saheb Peshwa in Gwalior. He rupplied
the information of revolution to other freedom fighters by working as a messenger for
Nana Saheb Peshwa.
The British Government took note of his activities and he was arrested and hanged.
Amirchand Wadhia was also hanged in 1867.
Khajya (Kajya) Nayak and Bhima Nayak of Barwani
The Bhils of Malwa and Nimad area were freedom lovers. To supress them the
Britishers had formed an army called the Malwa Bhil Corps.' Khajya and Bhima were
working in the army in the capacity of 'Nayak'. Against the opperssive policy of the
Britishers these two soldiers increased their activities of opposition (associating with
the 1857 Freedom Stuggle). Worried by their activites the Britishers launched a
campaign to arrest them. Khajya was killed in 1860 (by deception) while Bhima
continued his struggle. He was also arrested in 1867
Besides these, the role of Rao Khalak Singh Daua of Sevdha (Datia) , Daulat Singh
of Raghogarh (Dewas) Waris Mohammad Khan of Bhopal, Nawab Adil Mohammad Khan
of Ambapani (Bhopal) and Phajil Mohammad Khan Sohagpur (Shahdol), Garul Singh etc.
was also important in the freedom struggle of 1857.
Tantya Bhil
After the freedom struggle of 1857 Tantya Bhil in West Nimad became a symbol
of terror for the Britishers. Dopia and Bijania, his associates were also his partners in
the revolutionary activities. For years they were living amongst the local people and at

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the same time conducted revolutionary activities as a result of
which they became a big challenge for the Britihsers. Tantya
Bhil was arrested under a conspiracy and was hanged in the year
1886. Tantya is a hero even today among Bhils.
10.3 Contribution of Madhya Pradesh in the national
movement
All sections of the population of Madhya Pradesh actively
participated in the national movement. The triabls played their
role, the ruling families and their subjects also participated in
the struggle. The peasants also made their contribution in their Tantya Bhil
own way. Thus people of al sections participated in the 'Non
cooperation movement', 'Civil Disobedience', 'Salt movement', 'Jungle Satya grah' and the
movement of 1942. The centre of activities of the great revolutionary, Chandra Shekhar
Azad was Orchha. The Red Army of Maganlal Bagdi too lead as an armed revolutionary.
Lokmanya Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi, Netaji Subhash Chandra Bose, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Dr. Ansari, Maluna Azad were the leaders
who motivated the freedom struggle in Madhya Pradesh. Pandit Ravishankar Shukla, Pt.
sunderalal Sharma, Dwarka Prasad Mishra, Thakur Niranjan Singh, Seth Govinddas, Hari
Vishnu Kakath, Thakur Pyarelal, E. Raghavendra Rao, Mahant Laxmi Narayan Das,
Subhadrakumari Chauhan, Wamanrao Lakhe, GhanShyam singh Gupta, Bhai Abdul Gani,
Vishnudatta Shukla, Beohar Rajendra, Kashi Prasad Pandey, Chaudhari Shankarlal Dubey,
Narayanrao Meghawale, Captain Avdhesh Pratap Singh, Lal Yadavendra Singh, Raj Bhau
Singh Tiwari, Lalram Vajpai, Chaturbhuj Pathak, Brijalal Biyani, Shyam Narayan Kashmiri,
Gopikrishna Vijaivargiya, Leeladhar Joshi, Shyamlal Pandaviya, Jagannath Prasad Milind,
Murlidhar Ghule, R. M. Argare Advocate, Krishnakant Vyas, Mishrilal Gangwal, Kanhaiyalal
Vaidya, Master Lal Singh, Shankar Dayal Sharma, Baijnath Mahodaya, Kanhaiyalal
Khadiwala, Durgashankar Mehta and many others were prominent freedom fighters of
Madhya Pradesh.
10.3.1 Non cooperation movement
A great enthusiasm was witnessed during the Non cooperation movement among
people of not only big princely states of Gwalior, Indore, Bhopal but it was seen among
the people of small states also. During this period Gandhiji toured Chhindwara, Jabalpur,
Khandwa, Seoni etc. This tour aroused a great national awareness among the people.
The people of Madhya Pradesh participated in the non-cooperation movement and
took part in the activities like movement against consumption of liquor, Tilak Swaraj
fund, boycott of foreign cloth, boycott of Government schools and establishment of
national educational institutions, Handloom industry etc. The advocates abandoned their
practice. Those advocates who went to courts wore Gandhi caps. District committees

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ignored Government orders and hoisted national flag. Due to this the sense of fear and
feeling of slavery of the British Empire ended. Examples of religious harmony were also
seen.
'Jhanda Satyagraha ' (1923)
The national flag of a country is the symbol of sovereignty, self-respect and a
sense of pride for the people. During the freedom movement, tricolour with spinning
wheal (charkha) in the centre was having the status of national flag; during 1923 an
incident with regard to its honour occurred and the whole nation stood for it and even
the British administration had to recognize that fact. This is a golden incidence in the
history of freedom struggle and is known as 'Jhanda Satyagraha'. The Congress party
constituted a committee under the leadership of Hakim Ajmal Khan to assess the extent
of mental preparedness of the people in favour of the Non Cooperation Movement. The
Jabalpur Congress Committee decided to honour Mr. Khan and hoist the Tricolour on the
building of Jabalpur Municipality. The British Government took this act of honouring Mr.
Khan as an insult of the British rule and ordered the police to not only remove the flag
but insult it by crushing it under feet. Consequently the people were extremely annoyed.
They agitated and this agitation became a national agitation only after few months.
Against this action (insulting the flag) of the British rule, Pandit Sunderlal, Subhadrakumari
Chauhan, Nathuram Modi, Narsinghdas Agrawal, Laxman Singh Chouhan and some
volunteers took out a procession along with the tricolour. The police arrested all the
leaders. Pandit Sunderlal was tried in the court of law and imprisoned for six months. All
the members of Jabalpur Municipality, the leaders in the second batch comprising
Premchandra, Sitaram Jadhav' Chhigelal Swarnkar and Todermal hoisted flag on the town
hall. The 'Jhanda Movement' spread in other parts of India including Nagpur.
10.3.2 Civil Disobedience Movement
The forest struggle (Satya graha) of Turia Jungle-
When in 1930 Gandhiji marched to Dandi and led the 'Namak Satya graha', at the
time the congress workers of Seoni, under the leadership of Durga Shankar Mehta
carried out the 'Jungle Satyagraha'. About 9-10 K.ms. from Seoni, a movement to cut
grass from the Government Sandal wood Gardens, was started. In continuation of the
above movement another movement to cut grass in the Jungles of Duria 28 Kms from
Seoni. It was planned to enter Duria jungle on 9th October 1930. The police and range
officers insulted the freedom fighters and the public who had assembled there in support
of the freedom fighters. The Deputy Commissioner, Seoni ordered police to open fire
on them to 'teach a lesson.' On the spot four tribals VIZ. Guddodai, Renabai, Bemabai
and Birju Gond died. This incidence is a proof of the fact that the freedom movement
spread even among the tribals. The bodies of these martyrs were not handed over to their
family.
'Jungle Satyagraha' of Ghodadongri -
The tribal district Betul was also a centre of freedom struggle and the tribals here

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also participated in the freedom movement. After the 'Jungle movement ' of 1930 the
tribal freedom fighters also took the reigns of the freedom movement in their hands
under the leadership of Ganjan Singh Korku of Banjari Dhal. When the police reached
Banjari Dhal to arrest Shri Ganjan Singh the local tribals strongly opposed. The police
opened fire and in firing Koma Gond died and became a martyr. Ganjan Singh however
escaped. In a place named Jambada a crowd gathered to free the arrested tribals, police
opened fire on the crowd, Ramu and Makdu Gond died and became martyrs.
The firing incidence of Charanpaduka
On the 14th January 1931 on the 'Makar Sankranti', day a large number of freedom
fighters had gathered in a meeting at a place named 'Charan Paduka' on the bank of river
Urmil in the state of Chhatarpur. The political Agent of Naogaon ordered to open fire on
this crowd without giving prior notice as a result of which many people died. In this
heinous firing which is also known as 'Madhya Pradesh's Jalian Wala Bagh' as per
Governments' acceptance', 6 persons VIZ. Seth Sunderlal,
Dharamdas Khirwa, Chirku, Halke Kurmi, Ramlal Kurmi and
Raghuraj Singh ware shotdead.
10.3.3 Important revolutionaries of Madhya Pradesh-
● The great martyr Chandra Shekar Azad - He was
born in village Bhabhra of Alirajpur district (Madhya Pradesh).
He joined the Non-cooperation Movement in the early age of
14 years. When he was arrested he told in the court of law,
'Azad' as his name, 'Independence' as father's name and 'Prison'
as his address. Since then suffix 'Azad' is added to his name.
For the Britishers, Azad's name was the synonym for
terror. The credit of arousing a sense of patriotism and prepare Chandra Shekar Azad
people for armed revolution and preparing a generation of revolutionaries goes to Azad.
Between the year 1926 to 1931, Azad was associated in almost all the revolutionary
activities and associated himself in about 100 incidences of fight against the Britishers
and became General Officer in Command of the Indian Socialist Republican Party. He
set up his headquarters in a village named Dhimarpura on the Bank of the river Satar in
Jhansi. During day hours he used to narrate the story of Lord Ram, arrange meals for the
people and from there used to direct revolutionary activities in Jhansi. The police of
North India was after him. Some of his associates had already deceived him and so he
was annoyed. He some how reached Allahabad, hiding himself from the police and on 27
February 1931 he was sitting in the Alfred Park. The police rounded him there at 10 am
in the morning. Firing started from both the sides, when only one bullet was left in his
pistol he shot himself by firing a bullet near the ear and died a martijssdeath.
● On 23 July 1931 a British officer Hextan, Sheehan along with his dog were

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travelling by Punjab Mail for Bombay in the 1st class compartment. Three freedom
fighter VIZ. Veer Yashwant Sing of Damoh, Devnarayan Tiwari of Bhusawal an d his
friend Dalpatrao prepared a plan to loot the rifles and other belongings of these officer.
All the three entered the train and took revenge. After doing this, the three pulled the
chain and ran away in the Jungle. This incidence terrorized the Britishers. The
revolutionaries were caught and tried in a court in Khandwa. Devnarayan Tiwari and
Yashwant were hanged in Jabalpur jail.
● During the freedom movement when Quit India Movement was going on
under Gandhiji's leadership, the whole country was looking at Subhash Chandra Bose and
his Azad Hind Army. Many people of Madhya Pradesh also joined the Azad Hind Army.
Many from Dewas had joined the Indian National Army (Azad Hind Sena). Colonel
Gurubax Singh Dhillon on whom a case was instituted and
was tried in the court for working for the Indian National
Army was a resident of Shivpuri.
● Many freedom fighters were carrying out the
activites of the freedom stuggle from outside the country -
Maulana Mohd. Barkatullah (Bhopal) was one of them. A
true patriot and a courageous man, he conducted the activities
from America, Japan and Kabul. His role in the freedom Maulana Mohd. Barkatullah
struggle has been remarkable.
10.3.4 Quit India Movement
In August 1942 a new chapter in the freedom struggle of India was added, popularly
known as 'Quit India Movement'. The All India Congress Committee Quit India resolution
in the meeting of Indian Congress Committee held on 8th August 1942 in Bombay. On
the 9th August many big leaders including Mahatma Gandhi were arrested. In this
situation, many big leaders of Madhya Pradesh like Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla, Dwarka
Prasad Mishra returned to Madhya Pradesh to fight against such oppressive activities
of the British Rule. People organised themselves in every village, Tehsil and town, thus
the beginning of the struggle was Started. In Betul the struggle assumed serious form and
the police opened fire.
In places like Mandla, Sagar, Hoshangabad, Chhindwara Jabalpur etc. people attacked
Government offices and burnt Government records, railway, postal and transport services
were disrupted. The police took recourse to oppression were disrupted. Seth Govinddas
was arrested in Jabalpur. As a consequence of this the struggle gathered momentum. The
people participated in the struggle with great enthusiasm in places like Khandwa,
Khargone, Narsinghpur, Damoh, Balaghat etc.
A meeting was organised on 9th Auaugst 1942 at 'Tilak Bhoomi Talaiya' in Jabalpur
on 9th August 1942 to stage protest against the arrest of Congress leaders. It was

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decided to observe one week's strike. On the 11 August the police lathi charged the
freedom fighters at the 'Phoohara(fountain)'; as a result the movement further intensified.
On 14th August the police resorted to firing on the procession which was to start from
'Phoohara' and a young man 'Gulab Singh' died. On 12 August in Prabhat Pattan of Betul,
Bazar (market) was held where people from adjoining villages had gathered in large
numbers, police was also there. People were filled with enthusiasm of the 'Quit India
Movement' and they decided to take off the uniform of the police and dress them in
khadi clothes. In the meantime more police arrived form Multai, who fired on the
procession. In the firing Mahadev Teli died. (became martyr).
In the Rewa (princely) state in village Kripalpur of Satna, police opened fire on the
procession of the student union. When police was firing, Lal Padmadhar Singh stood
before the police with the Tricollour in hand; he died in the firing.
On 15th August 1942 a procession was taken out in Mandla which was heading to
the Collectorate but the armed policemen stopped the procession. The people had a
meeting there, it was addressed by Mannoolal Modi and Mathura Prasad Yadav. Thereafter
a matriculation student named Udaichand Jain started addressing the meeting. To dismiss
the meeting police resorted to lathi charge and fired bullets in air. When the people
opposed the action of the police, the magistrate ordered firing and the brave youth,
Udaichand died.
On 19th August 1942 a large group of tribal freedom fighters under the leadership
of Vishnu Gond had gathered near the Ghodadongri railway station. These freedom
fighters were from Ghodadongri-Shahpur area. These tribals had gathered under the
leadership of Vishnu Gond who collected them from the villages of the areas. These
tribals removed the rails and set fire to the large timber depot located behind the police
station and Ghoddongri railway station. Police and forest officers arrived at the place of
incidence and fired bullet without any warning. Veersa Gond died on the spot and Jeera
Gond later died in the prison. The British administration committed many atrocities
here.
On 8th August 1942 Bapu (Gandhiji) gave a new slogan 'Do or die' to the country;
this slogan shook the whole country. One 21st August in village Chichli near Gadarwara
a meeting was organised, in the meeting fiery speeches were delivered. The police
arrested Narmada Prasad and Babulal. The people were angry. On 23th August when
a large crowd gathered near village Chichli, the police opened fire in which Mansharam
and Garuabai died. Thakur Rudrapratap Singh of Manegaon (Narsinghpur) who was
arrested during a disobedience movement in 1940, died in the jail itself.
In 1942 in the Sarafa 'Satyagraha' in Indore initially the police lathi charged the
freedom fighters but when it did not affect their high morale. police started firing. In the
Indore State during the Quit India Movement the role of the police was very oppressive.
Inspite of lathi charge and firing meetings and processions continued to take place in
Indore. The 'Praja Mandal' supported the Quit India Movement. Firey demonstrations
were held in Ratlam, Dhar, Badnawar, Dhamnod, Jhabua etc.

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 In the Gwalior State 'Sarvajanik Sabha' supported the Quit India Movement and put
forth a demand for responsible government in the Vidisha convention. Many leaders were
arrested.
In the Bhopal State a proposal of 'Quit India' was passed and copies of it were
distributed among people. As result of which Shakir Ali Khan and other leaders were
arrested. Movements were organised in Sehore Raisen etc.
In Rewa, Vindhya Pradesh, on a call given by 'Praja Mandal' the 'Rice Movement'
was organised in which many people participated and courted arrest.
In short there was no princely state left in Madhya Pradesh where the freedom
movement was not organised. The Government also tried all methods, resources and
forces to supress the movement when the suppressive activities of the Government were
speeded up the leaders went under ground and conducted the movements from there. The
Government wanted Gandhiji to condemn the violence during the freedom movement but
Gandhiji held responsible the provocative activities of administration during the freedom
movement. As a reaction to this people registered their opposition by organising strikes,
meetings and demonstrations.
Movement of merger of princely states
Although the Quit India Movement of 1942 could not succeed in its mission of
achieving freedom but it gave a clear message to the British Government and the rulers
of the princely states that the demand for independence cannot be ignored for a long
time. After the formation of Interim Government of India in 1946, the demand for
responsible government in the princely states gathered momentum. The princely states
had the option that after the end of British sovereignty they can merge in any state but
on the call given by the 'Praja Mandal' the people of the princely states started a
movement and put forth demand for 'Responsible Government'. These movements ended
only when the rulers signed the letter of Accession.
In an incidence in Bamhori in district Tikamgarh a freedom fighter Narayandas
Khare was arousing awareness among people against the oppressive rule of the princely
state and establishment of popular government; the princely rule managed to kill him.
10.5 Important centres of natinal movement in Madhya Pradesh
Jabalpur - In the freedom struggle, contribution of Jabalpur was important.
Chindambaram Pillai and his associates of Robertson College set up a revolutionary
organisaion here. Shri Pillai was associated with the wellknown incidene- 'Kama Gata
Maru'. In the year 1916 and 1917 Lokamanya Tilak had come to Jabalpur. Mahatma
Gandhi had also visited Jabalpur in the year 1921.The citizens of Jabalpur had given a
sum of Rs.20, 000/- for the 'Swarajnidhi' fund. The 'Jhanda Satyagraha' was started from
Jabalpur. In the incidence of treading the tricolour by a European Commissioner of
forceful movement was organised and people took out a procession in protest; the
leaders of this march were Pandit Sunderlal, Srimati Subhadrakumari Chauhan etc.

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 In the 'Salt Satya Graha' Pandit Dwarkaprasad Mishra and Seth Govindas of Jabalpur
broke the salt law. During the1942 movement also strike was observed and people took
out procession. In 1945 the soldiers of the Indian Signal Corps, in sympathy of the
opposition organised by the Royal Indian Navy, Bombay, organised a strike and left their
barracks and took out a procession.
Indore - The spell of political awareness stated in Indore in the beginning of the
20th century. In 1907 'Jnyan Prakash Mandal' was set up through which publicity of
nationalist ideology was started. In 1918 the convention of 'Hindi Sahitya Sammelan' was
organised in Indore which was presided by Gandhiji. The nationalist ideology got strength
due to Gandhiji's visit to Indore. In the year 1920, branch of the Indian National Congress
was set up in Indore. A lot of publicity was made for the use of indigenous articles -
'Swadeshi articles'. Kanhaiyalal Khadiwala played an important role in this activity.
The people of Indore participated enthusiastically in the 1942 Movement. Public
meetings were organised on a large scale and freedom fighters under the banners of
'Praja Mandal'; 'Majdoor Sangh' Congress and Women organisations were put in jail.
1946 the people of Indore gave an ultimatum to the ruler of Indore to set up a
responsible Government within a year, and in September 1947 responsible government
was set up in Indore. In Ujjain, in the setting up of 'Sarvajanik Sabha', contribution of
Trimbak Damodar Pustake was remarkable.
Bhopal - Mohammad Barkatullah continuously made efforts of Independence of
India, while living in foreign countries. He was made the Prime Minister of the interim
Government of India set up in Kabul. Political activities started in Bhopal from the year
1934. In this very year publication of two weekly papers was stasted VIZ 'Subahe Watan'
in Urdu by Shakir Ali Khan and 'Praja Pukar' by the Hindu Mahasabha of Bhopal State.
In 1938 the Hindu and Muslim population together, set up 'Praja Mandal'. In the year
1939 Gandhiji had come to Bhopal. In 1942 Praja Mandal had become a very powerful
organisation. In 1946 Praja Mandal and the Nawab of Bhopal entered in to an agreement.
In 1946 itself, a strong movement for merger of the state started. Master Lal Singh, Dr.
Shankardayal Sharma, (former President of India) Surajmal Jain, Prem Srivastava and
others were arrested. Hundreds of women also came forward. Government committed
atrocities. In protest of the atrocities the markets were closed for 22 days. The
movement spread in adjoining places VIZ. Sehore, Bareli, Udaipura tahsils like wild fire.
In Vorasghat of Udaipura tahsil a very sad incidence took place; in the firing four brave
youth VIZ. Chhotelal, Dhansingh, Mangal Singh and Vishal Singh lost their lives with the
Tricolour in their hands. This event created a great hue and cry. Sardar Patel sent
V.P.Menon to Bhopal. The Cabinet was dissolved. Most of the prisoners were released.
After a series of talks the state was merged in the centre.
Vindhya Pradesh - In Vindhya Pradesh Rewa State was prominent in the National
Movement. Due to nearness to Allahabad the movement got momentum here early.
After the Nagpur convention of the congress in 1920 the Congress organisation
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started its work in BaghelKhand. During the period of Civil Disobedience Movement
(1931) atrocities were committed on the nationalist leaders of Rewa. Prominent
workers were Pandit Shambhunath Shukla and captain Awadhesh Pratap Singh. In the year
1943 Praja Mandal was organised and its office was setup in Chhatarpur. A demand was
put up before the king for responsible government. This demand intensified in 1947.
After independence the princely states of Vindhya Pradesh signed the letter of Accession
(in Central Government.)
Gwalior - Gwalior State was spread from Bhind to Mandsor. Here also the
nationalist Movement spread. In 1908 an exhibition of 'Swadeshi' was organised. Gwalior
was the seat of the revolutionaries. Gendalal and Chandra Shekhar Azad were hiding in
various parts of Gwalior. In 1930 an organisation was set up in Gwalior for boycott of
foreign textiles. The Gwalior-Goa conspiracy took place in 1932. Under this movement
arms were brought from foreign countries and were being made available to the
revolutionaries. Those who were punished in this regard, were mainly Baklrishna sharma,
Girdharilal, Ramchandra Sarvate, Stephen Joseph. A political organisation was set up in
Gwalior viz "Gwalior Rajya Saravajanik Sabha". This Sabha demanded from the ruler,
responsible government. 'The Sarvajnik Sabha' supported the "Quit India Movement" of
1942 and organised big demonstrations and strikes.
Shivpuri city of Gwalior State became the main centre of Congress in 1940; for
civil disobedience. Vishwanath Gupta of Shivpuri was imprisoned for two years. Besides
the above places the nationalist movement spread speedily in many towns and small
cities. Important among them are Dhamtari, Mandla, Damoh, Narsinghpur, Jhabua, Dhar,
Mandsaur, Bhanpura, Gadhakota, Dindori, Dongargaon, Chhindwara, Prabhat Pattan, Nahia,
Ghodadongri, Sagar, Tikamgarh, Orchha, Ratlam, Vidisha, Kurvai etc.
Administrative set up in Madhya Pradesh during the Nationalist Movement
Two administrative systems were prevailing in Madhya Pradesh during the period of
Nationalist Movement. Jabalpur, Mandla, Sagar, Betul, Chhindwada, Hoshangabad, Khandwa
and adjoining areas were directly governed by the British Government. These places
formed part of the erstwhile Central Provinces. Several districts of present Maharashtra
were also in Central Provinces and the capital was at Nagpur. The people of the above
areas, under the British administration, were facing many difficulties; therefore, branches
of Indian National Congress were set up in these areas. The Nationalist Movement was
more active here. Other places of present Madhya Pradesh were under the native states
viz Indore, Gwalior, Rewa, Dewas, Bhopal etc. After the Freedom Struggle of 1857 the
Britishers adopted sympathetic attitude towards these rulers. Besides, the people of
these princely states were more or less satisfied with the administrative system of these
states. Therefore, the activities of nationalist movement in princely states were
comparatively slow. The nationalists of these princely states used to go to adjoining
provinces for participating in the nationalist movements. Similarly the freedom fighters
active in the British ruled areas used to come in the areas of princely states to save
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themselves from the oppressive activities of the British rule.
10.6 Role of newspapers in national awakening
Many factors contributed to promote nationalist feeling among the people; role of
newspapers was also very important. The nationalist feelings further gathered momentum
after prominent leaders like Lokmanaya Tilak, Mahatma Gandhi, Jawaharlal Nehru,
Madanmohan Malviya joined the movement. During that period many newspapers like,
'Karmaveer', 'Ankush', 'Subodh Sindhu' (Khandwa), 'Nyaya Sudha' (Harda), 'Arya Vaibhav'
(Burhanpur), 'Lokmat' (Jabalpur), 'Praja Mandal Patrika' (Indore), 'Saraswati Vilas'
(Jabalpur), 'Saptahik Awaz' and 'Subaha Watan' (Bhopal) were published, which raised
voice against the oppressive and unjust policies of the British. This helped in arousing
nationalist feelings. Wherever the newspapers were not published due to ban by the
British Government, bulletins and pamphlets were published secretly for arousing public
awareness.
During the national movement many organisations along with the activities of
freedom movement also did some constructive work. The Indian National Congress
played an important role in this direction. In the princely states, 'Praja Mandals' and
Public Service Sangh prominently came forward. Besides, some organisations to do only
constructive work were started. They were:
'Gurukul'1929 (Satna), Hindustani Seva Dal 1931, Charkha Sangh (Rewa), Gwalior
Rajya Seva Sangh and Harijan Sevak Sangh 1935 (Gwalior), Lok Sevak Sangh 1939,
(Khargone) Gram Seva Kutir 1935 (Sendhwa), Seva Samiti (Betul) Seva Mandal (Ratlam)
Jnyan Prakash Mandal (Indore) etc. During the freedom movement many political and
social service institutions were set up; their way of working and policies though
different, their contribution in the movement was remarkable. Thus contribution of the
people of Madhya Pradesh was memorable.

Terms
Resident - A representative of the British Government posted in some
princely states
Accession - After independence the princely states merged in the Indian
Government, they signed a letter of Accession
Exercises
Choose the correct option :
1. Which freedom fighter of Madhya Pradesh had the honour of becoming
President of India?
a) Dr. Shankar Dayal Sharma b) Pt. Sunderlal
c) Pt.Dwarika Pradad Mishra d) Pt. Shambhunath Shukla
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 2. Bhopal university has been named after a freedom fighter's name.
a) Seth Govindddas b) Barkatullah
c) Harisingh Gaur d) Rani Durgaviti
3. From which city of Madhya Pradesh did the 'Jhanda Satyagraha' begin?
a) Indore b) Sagar
c) Jabalpur d) Bhopal
Fill in the blanks :
1. …...... (name) lived in village Dhimarpura by the name Harishankar Bramhachari.
2. Rani Avantibai was queen of Ramgarh of ……….. district.
3. Rani Laxmibai captured Gwalior with the help of ……….(name).
Match the following :
a. 'Jungle Satyagraha' Rewa
b. 'Chawal Andolan' Indore
c. 'Sarafa Kand' Chhatarpur
d. 'Charan Paduka Kand' Seoni
Very short answer type questions :
1. Where was Chandra Shekhar Azad born?
2. Name the places of organisations set up in Madhya Pradesh.
3. Which freedom fighter's name (soldier) of the Indian National Army was
associated with Shivpuri?
Short answer type questions :
1. Name the newspapers published from Madhya Pradesh to arouse awareness
for national awakening.
2. In what way the people of Madhya Pradesh made their contribution in the civil
disobedience movement?
3. What was Jungle Satyagraha?
4. How did 'Jhanda Satya Graha' take place? Explain.
Long answer type questions :
1. Describe the contribution of freedom fighters of Madhya Pradesh in the
freedom struggle of 1857.
2. What impact 'Civil Disobedience Movement' and 'Quit India Movement' had
on Madhya Pradesh.
3. Write notes :
1. Barkatullah Bhopali 2. Chandra Shekhar Azad
3. Kunwar Chain Singh 4. Tantya Bhil
5. Virangana Avantibai 6. Thakur Ranmat Singh
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 Chapter-11
Important Events of the Post Independent India
India became independent on 15th
We shall learn  August 1947. After the achievement of
11.1 The Kashmir problem independence India framed its foreign
11.2 Indo-China relations and the war policy as per its requirements.
of 1962 The important features of the foreign
11.3 Indo-Pak relations and wars of policy of India are as under :
1965 and 1971 ● India follows the policy of non-
11.4 Formation of Bangladesh alignment in relation to world politics.
11.5 Emergency in India ● India is committed to the
11.6 Emergence of India as a nuclear principle of peaceful coexistence and
power extends cooperation in the efforts to
establish world peace.
● India supports the United Nations Organisation, other organisations related
to U.N.O. and extends all cooperation to them.
11.1 The Kashmir problem
The Kashmir problem is the most complex problem between India and Pakistan.
After independence two new nations emerged. The native states were given the liberty to
merge either with India or Pakistan or remain independent. Most states merged with
either India or Pakistan. Kashmir, situated on the North-West border of India is between
the borders of both the countries VIZ. India and Pakistan. The king of Jammu and
Kashmir decided to retain the independent status of his state. Raja Hari Singh thought
that if he accedes to Pakistan it will be an injustice to the Hindu population of Jammu
and Baudh population of Ladakh and if it merges with India it will be an injustice to the
Muslim population of Kashmir.
The Prime Minister of India Pandit Jawaharlal Nehru assured that the people of
Kashmir will decide through plebiscite, with whom (India or Pakistan) they want to
merge. After the war was over and peace is restored in Kashmir. In the beginning,
Pakistan didn't make any official statement with regard to Kahsmir therefore Government
of India requested to stop the Kabailies from infiltrating. When it became evident that
Pakistan Government itself is helping the Kabailis, then on the advice of Lord Mountbatten,
the Governor General Government of India lodged a complaint in the Security Council
that the Kabailis, with the help of Pakistan attacked Kashmir, which is a part of India. This
has posed a danger to the international peace and security
The Security Council of the United Nations Organisation constituted a team of five

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nations viz Czechoslovakia, Argentina, America, Columbia and Belgium to find out
solution of this problem. The team of United Nations Organisation studied the situation
and submitted their report. It was stated in the report that -
1. Pakistan should remove its troops from Kashmir and try to remove
Kabailies and other people who are not the residents of Kashmir.
2. When Pakistan will fulfill this condition then India should also remove
most of its troops.
3. The situation of cease-fire will be operational till the final agreement is
reached and India will keep only that much Army which will be necessary for
the help of local officers and to maintain law and order.
On the basis of this principle, both the parties, after a long talk agreed to cease-
fire on 1st January 1949. The accession of Kashmir was to take place. On the basis of
a plebiscite. The United Nations Organisation appointed an American officer as
administrator to oversee that the conditions for plebiscite are fulfilled.
The administrator discussed the modalities of plebiscite with India and Pakistan but
the talks failed and the officer submitted his resignation.
After the finalization of 'cease-fire line' the area which remained with Pakistan and
is called the occupied territory and Pakistan calls it "Azad Kashmir".
Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to honour his commitment for plebiscite but Pakistan,
violating the conditions laid down by the United Nations Organisation, did not remove
its troops from the occupied territory (So called Azad Kashmir). The Kabilies also
continued living there. Therefore, it was not possible to conduct plebiscite. Pakistan did
not want to withdraw from Kashmir, rather it staked its claim over Kashmir which was
under the control of India. Pakistan started strengthening its army and entered into a
treaty with America in the year 1954 and tried to strengthen its claim. In the year 1955
it became member of SEATO (South East Asia Treaty Organisation) and thus gained
sympathy of America. In return America got some army bases in Pakistan. Under these
circumstances Pandit Nehru made changes in the Kashmir policy. He refused a plebiscite
so long as Pakistan's army is not withdrawn. Soviet Russia supported India on the
Kashmir issue; this support strengthened India's position.
On 6th February 1954 the Kashmir Assembly passed a resolution to merge the state
of Jammu and Kashmir in the Indian Union. Government of India made an amendment in
the Constitution on 14th May and accorded special status to Jammu and Kashmir under
Article 370 of the Constitution.
On 26th January 1957 the Constitution of Jammu-Kashmir was amended and the
state became an integral part of Indian Union. After this Pakistan constantly tried to
raise Kashmir problem and create instability there. Pakistan raised the issue in the
Security Council and put forth the demand for plebiscite. America, Britain and France
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supported Pakistan's stand' but India opposed it. Soviet Russia, friend of India opposed
it by using its special power of 'Veto' and set at a naught the issue. In 1962 Pakistan again
raised the issue but Soviet Union again used its special right of Veto. All the Governments
which came in power in Pakistan tried to keep this issue alive, whereas for India it a
question of self respect.
11.2 Indo China relations and the war of 1962 -
India had relations of friendship with China from ancient times. But these relations
were strained when Western Imperialism started entering Asian region. When India was
under British rule India had sympathy with China. When Japan attacked Manchuria, 'China
Day ' was organised in India in sympathy for China. In 1937 when Japan-China war began
India again sympathised with China.
The differences between India and China cropped up on the 'Tibet Issue'. India was
ready to accept the right of China over Tibet but wanted that a sovereign Government be
set up there. Ignoring India's wishes China started Army action in Tibet on 25 October
1950. India opposed this action of China. In March 1958 opposition started in Tibet
against China. The revolutionaries had the support of Dalai Lama.
When China tried to supress the movement by Tibetans, Dalai Lama had to leave
Tibet. India allowed Dalai Lama to stay in India, as a result of which cold war started
between the two countries; with this China started raising the border issue. India again
tried to normalize relations on the basis of 'Panch Sheel' principles. The Prime Ministers
of India and China had a meeting in Delhi to sort out the border issue. Thereafter a series
of meetings were held between the two countries but China attacked the NEFA area
(Eastern Sector of Indo-china border) in September 1962.
When we study the background of Indo-China war certain things emerge: Why
China attacked India? Why India suffered set back? Why China declared a unilateral
cease-fire? The scholars pondered over these issues and following conclusions were
drawn:
● China wanted to demonstrate its power.
● China's policy was of expansionism.
● China wanted to establish its economic and political supremacy in the world.
● China wanted to negate India's policy of 'Non-alignment'.
● China wanted to have world opinion in her favour by declaring cease-fire.
China succeeded in achieving his twin goals VIZ. 1.Geographical (Staking claims
on certain areas of India and 2. Strategic (showing its military power.)
The reasons of Indian defeat were: China got the advantage of the geographical
situation. China was fully prepared for this war whereas we were not. China compelled
India to fight the war by attacking first under its policy of expansionism.

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 The Afro-Asian countries offered certain suggestions in the Colombo Conference
in December 1962 in respect of the Indo-China war; they were:
1. Both the countries should accept the present line of control.
2. Both the countries should remove their army on either side of the border
from within a distance of 20 Kilometers.
3. Both the countries should sort out their controversial issues through
mutual talks.
India agreed to these suggestions principally.

Short term and long term effects of Indo-China war

● The relations between the two countries strained
● A large area of the Indian Territory went in the hands of China.
● India's international image and Non-aligned policy were harmed.
● In the foreign policy of India Realism was considered better than idealism.
● There was improvement in the Indo-American relations.

11.3 The Indo-Pak relations and wars of 1965 and 1971

In 1947 after the partition of India, it was believed that both the countries will live
in peace, forgetting the past, but the bitterness in relations that cropped up during the
British Rule and the partition both led to strained relations between the two countries.
In addition, the issue of Kashmir gave permanency to the strained relations between the
two countries.
After partition differences cropped up due to economic problems also. The
problems that cropped up were relating to income, division of debts and investments.
Efforts were made to improve the relations but the situation did not improve. The
problem of handing over property of the people who were displaced was also complicated.
The situation partially improved in 1950 but tensions continued. The problem of
minorities in both the countries was also the cause of tension.
The situation of river waters was more serious than economic problems. The
Sindhu river and its tributaries flow from India and Pakistan feared that India may hamper
the flow of water to Pakistan, but an agreement was reached in this regard in September
1960.
Indo-China war took place in 1962, India got the support of America and Britain but
the sympathy of Pakistan was with China. As result of the sympathetic relations Pakistan
entered into an agreement with China and handed over a part of the Pak occupied
Kashmir to China. India opposed this step.
Another reason of bitterness in relation between the two countries is that Pakistan

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tries to obtain secrets of the things of strategic importance and when their conspiracy
is brought to light, Pakistan accuses India of spying into its strategic secrets. Pakistan
also tries to disrupt the communal harmony in the country. Pakistan is constantly trying
to provoke the Kashimiri people by sending infiltrators there.
In 1965 differences cropped up between the two countries on the issue of Kutcha.
The Rann of Kutch was within the territory of the King of Kutch. The ruler of Kutch had
agreed to acced to India but Pakistan claimed that this area should have been given to
Pakistan after partition. Pakistan attacked the area of Kutch in 1965 and captured many
areas of this region. Ultimately due to intervention of the British Prime Minister the war
ended. A committee (Tribunal) was formed to solve the Kutch issue. This Tribunal gave
90% of the disputed territory to India and remaining 320 Square Kilometer area was
decided to be given to Pakistan. India opposed this decision. But India had to ultimately
agree to it because India had already committed that she will agree to the decision of the
Tribunal. Thus there were many reasons that gave rise to permanent enimity between the
two countries.
Again war - Soon after the solution of Kutch issue, Pakistan again started its
activities in Kashmir. Pakistan was sending its soldiers for gurilla war training in China
and thus preparing for another attack. On 4th August thousands of Pakistani soldiers
entered into Kashmir and Kashmir radio declared that an uprising has started in Kashmir.
In fact Pakistan herself had started this by sending 'Mujahidins' into Kashmir. Soon
after receiving this information Indian army started action and hundreds of gorilla
soldiers were either caught or killed.
Pakistan was prepared for this and sent another batch of gorilla soldiers. Under the
circumstances Indian Government identified such areas from where infiltration was
going on and started taking possession of these areas. The areas of Kargil, Tithwal, Dera-
Punji, Haji peer etc were taken possession by the Indian army and the infiltration
stopped.
The officers of the United Nations Organisations who were keeping a watch in
these areas, gave information of these happening to the United Nations Organisations.
The United Nations Secretary General requested both the countries to observe restraint
but it was of no avail.
To prevent the infiltrators from Pakistan, war opened between the two countries on
25th August 1965. Pakistan army attacked and took possession of Akhnoor area. Pak
Airforce also launched an aerial attack on Amritsar. Therefore to suppress the Pakistan
army India attacked the Punjab area of Pakistan from three sides and the Indian forces
headed towards Lahore. This was such an undeclared war where both the armies fought
on the eastern borders.

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 Cease fire- With the intervention of United Nations Organisation there was cease
fire on 23 September 1965. At the time of cease fire Indian Army had captured about
740 Kilometers area of Pakistan and about 240 Square Kilometer area of India was in
possession of Pakistan.

In 1965 War India won; following were the effects of this war
● Pakistan wanted to solve Kashmir issue by wars but she could not
succeed.
● Pakistan believed that the Muslim population of Kashmir will side with
Pakistan but such thing did not happen. India proved that the base of
secularism in the country is strong.
● The morale of the people of India and Indian Army was very high and
Indian Army fought with indigenous weapons.
● The role of the United Nation's in the Indo-Pak war was important; The
United Nation succeeded in its efforts to restore peace because America
and Russia both extended their valuable support to the United Nations.
● For Pakistan this war proved fatal; the defeat in the war proved that the
army dictatorship has not been effective.
The Tashkand Pact- Even after the cease-fire, disturbances in the border areas did
not stop. To end this situation Soviet Union took special interest and invited both the
parties to Tashkand for talks. On 4th January 1966 talks started between the President
of Pakistan Ayub Khan and Prime Minister of India, Lal Bahadur Shastri. Ultimately on
19 January 1966 the historical Tashkand agreement was signed by both the countries,
Important conditions of this agreement were as follows:-
1. Both the countries agreed to build harmonious relations like good neighbours.
2. Both parties agreed to call back their armies and restore the positions as it
was before 5th August 1965. Both the parties will abide by the conditions of
cease-fire.
3. Both parties agreed to abstain from interfering in the internal matters of each
other, discourage publicity against each other and restore diplomatic relations.
Besides, it was also agreed that relations between both the countries in the field of
economic, commercial and cultural sectors shall be made cordial.
Tashkand agreement was welcomed by every body. Although this agreement could
not put an end to the basic differences but it was hoped that both parties will forget their
old differences and take steps to solve further problems- peacefully. The Taskhand
agreement also showed a way that at the international level 'Tashkand spirit' should be
adopted for solving mutual differences.

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The Indo-Pak war of 1971
Although the basic differences between the two countries did not end due to
Taskhand agreement but the soldiers of both the armies returned to their original places.
But very soon Pakistan started such activities, which gave rise to tensions again. These
incidences were: Intrusion of a Pakistani aeroplanes in the Indian territory in the year
1967. In May 1967 battle in the Akhnoor sector between the soldiers of both the
counties, hijacking of an areoplane of Indian Airlines and setting it to fire because the
demands of the hijackers were not agreed to these incidences again generated bitterness
between the two countries.
In the meantime civil war broke in East Pakistan. In December 1970 elections for
the provincial assemblies of Pakistan were held. In these elections the Awami League of
Sheikh Mujiburrahman of East Pakistan got good success. The Awami League wanted
autonomy for East Pakistan. When the Prime Minister of Peoples' Party Zulfikar Ali
Bhutto and President Yahya Khan did not give any importance to the victory of Awami
League, the Awami League got annoyed and organised a strike on 3rd March in the East
Pakistan. The Government crushed this movement by resorting to lathi charge and firing;
however, peace could not be restored.
The President of Awami League, Muziburrahman addressed a large gathering in
Dhaka on 7th March 1971 and demanded that President Yahaya Khan should hand over
the reins of administration in the hands of the elected representatives of the people. He
demanded return of army, end Marshall Law, and judicial enquiry of the killings and
control of the centre from East Pakistan. Awami League became powerful. Thus a
struggle for liberation began. The volunteer force for liberation was called 'Mukti
Wahini'.
The Government of Pakistan started military action in East Pakistan to end the
peoples' revolution. In this respect India's sympathy was with the Awami League. India
criticized the military action by Pakistan; Pakistan considered this to be an interference
of India in her internal matters. Thus the relations between India and Pakistan became
very strained. The situation worsened so much that war between the two countries
became inevitable.
On 17th April 1971 'Bangla Republic' was properly setup. In this way the East
Pakistan was called 'Bangla Desh.' While Pakistan started a genocide in 'Bangla Desh' on
a large scale and democracy was being crushed, main worry of India was, thousands of
refugees were coming into India. Under such circumstances India could not remain a
silent spectator. In Pakistan the disturbance took bad shape.
Beginning of the war - On the 12th November 1971 the situation on the Indo-Pak
eastern border became explosive. Armies of both the countries came out against each
other. Some Pakistani tanks, while fighting with the 'Mukti Wahini' entered the Indian

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territory. Indian army destroyed the tanks. Pakistan made aerial attacks on the Western
side from Srinagar to Agra. Pakistani entered in large numbers form the Poonch area of
Jammu-Kashmir and opened fire on the posts of Western Borders. Government of India
was fully alert and gave a befitting reply to the attack. India took action to drive out the
enemy from both the borders.
As the war activities aggravated, efforts to stop the war began at the international
level. America wanted to save Pakistan from this condition, America's intention was not
to find out a proper solution for the Bangladesh problem. These efforts did not bear any
fruits. India stated that problem can be solved only when the Pakistan's Army withdraws
from Bangladesh. Lakhs of refugees came to India on account of the inhuman atrocities
created by the Pak forces on the people of East Pakistan. Pakistan, in order to retain
its control over East Pakistan, converted this war into Indo-Pak war and India had also
to fight for self-defence. The war continued and in the meantime it gave recognition to
'Bangla Desh'. Therefore, Pakistan broke its diplomatic relations with India. When
America saw that Pakistan will have to face defeat on all the fronts, it decided to take
the issue of Indo-Pak war to United Nations Organisation.
Pakistan had started the war with all preparations but it was defeated on all the
fronts. India in its combined action of Army, Navy and Airforce compelled Pakistan to
surrender. Pakistan army was surrounded from all the sides. Under the circumstances,
the commander of Pakistan Army General Niyazi signed the letter of surrender on 16th
December 1971 in Dhacca. General Niyaji along with 93 thousand soldiers surrendered
before the Indian general Jagjit Singh Arora. Pakistan was compelled to stop war on the
Western front also.
Causes of defeat of Pakistan - The 1971 Indo-Pak was continued for 14 days. It
proved a costly affair for Pakistan. Pakistan had to pay a heavy price by losing a vast area
of East Pakistan. East Pakistan came into being as an Independent nation viz Bangla
Desh.
Following were the reasons of defeat of Pakistan :
1. From point of view of Army strength it was weak.
2. Pakistan's moral side was weak. Pakistan had adopted a discriminatory policy
against East Pakistan which resulted into a mass struggle. The Bengali people
were fighting for a nation of their own.
3. The military rule of Pakistan was ignoring the democratic process for which
the Army Rule had to pay heavily.
4. Due to a great distance between East and West Pakistan the Pak-army could
not easily reach east Pakistan: India had surrounded the sea route also
therefore, supplies to Pak army were also hampered.

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 5. Due to oppressive activities of Pakistan, lakhs of refugees came to India and
therefore, India got the opportunity to interfere in the affairs of Pakistan.

Important effects of 1971 Indo- Pak war were as follows-

1. Bangladesh was formed.
2. A reduction in the area, population and strength of Pakistan.
3. The defeat after the 1965 and 1971 war had a demoralising effect on
Pakistan.
4. India could understand that America is no longer a well wisher of Pakistan,
and India intensified its friendly relations with Russia.
5. This war was also an indirect set back for America and China who have
sympathies for Pakistan.
6. At the time of the Indo-Pak war all the political parties set aside their
mutual differences and the problem of Bangladesh Liberation became a
national issue.
7. It had a great impact on the internal politics of Pakistan; People wanted
Yahya Khan to resign. Demonstrations were held in Pakistan because of the
defeat. Yahya Khan had to resign and Zulfikar Ali Bhutto came in to power
who faced many problems along with the powers. The divided public
opinion, divided mindset and divided leadership all were unfortunate for the
country.
11.4 Rise of Bangladesh
Bangladesh came into being as a sequel to the Indo-Pak war of 1971. When people
of East Bengal revolted against the Pakistani rule, India's sympathy was for the Bangla
freedom fighters. India strongly opposed the cruel suppression of these freedom fighters
by the military dictator of Pakistan. Frightened by the genocide by Pakistan many
refugees from East Bangal came to India. India arranged for their stay food etc. and
imparted training to the soldiers of the 'Mukti Wahini'. This boosted up the morale of
the Bangladeshi refugees. On 26th March 1971 Sheikh Mujiburrahaman made a declaration
through a secret broadcast about the Independent Bangladesh; and the oppressive activities
of West Pakistan started. Ultimately on 17th April 1971 a declaration was made
regarding the independent sovereign state of Bangladesh and Governments world over,
were requested to give recognition to this new country. During the liberation struggle
about one crore Bangla refugees came to India.
It was directly affecting the security and unity and integrity of India. For peaceful
solution of the Bangladesh problem the then Prime Minister Smt. Indira Gandhi toured
many western countries but she could not get the needed success. Ultimately war broke

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between India and Pakistan on 3rh December 1971.
India gave recognition to Bangladesh on 6th December 1971 at the request of the
Foreign Minister of Bangla Desh. On 8th December Bangladesh appointed Hussain Ali
as its first ambassador to India. On 10th December 1971 Bangladesh signed its first
treaty with India under which India offered to help Bangladesh for its nation building
activities on military and economic basis. Soon after the defeat of Pakistan the
Government of Bangladesh was set up in Dhaka. Yielding to the pressure of India and
International Community, Pakistan had to release Sheikh Mujiburrahman, leader of the
Awami League on 8th January 1971. Mujiburrahman expressed his gratitude to India after
release.
To establish Bangladesh as an independent country second treaty between the two
countries was signed. India took the responsibility of solving its economic and internal
and external problems. After India and Bhutan, other countries that recognised Bangladesh
as an independent nation were East Germany, Nepal, Burma, West European countries,
Malaysia, Indonesia etc. In January 1971 a solidarity conference of Afro-Asian countries
was held in Kahira and India again showed its nobility by getting Bangladesh admitted as
its permanent member. Thereafter, India continued lending support to Bangladesh from
time-to-time in different sectors.
India made agreements with Bagladesh in the sector of business and culture. On 9th
August 1972 India supported Bangladesh in getting membership of the United Nations
Organisation but China used its Veto and India could not succeed in this matter.
11.5 Emergency in India-
After independence India had to face many problems. Looking to the needs of such
emergent conditions the makers of Constitution gave such powers to the Central
Government that it can take effective measures in the time of emergency. Certain
emergency provisions have been made in the Constitution of India so that it can use
those powers to ensure that the security, integrity and unity of the country is not
jeopardised; powers have been given to the President of India to declare emergency in
the country under emergent conditions, (on the advice of the Prime Minister). Normally
these are three situation under which emergency can be declared:
● National emergency
● Failure of constitutional machinery in the state.
● Financial emergency
National emergency - If the President of India is satisfied that such conditions
prevail in the country; that the security of the whole country or a part of it is in danger;
due to foreigh aggression or because of a civil war, the president may declare Emergency
before the occurance of emergency of such conditions. In present times, he can do that
only after witten recommendations of the council of the ministers.
Failure of constitutional machinery - When the President is satisfied on the
basis of the Report of the Governor of a state or through any other source that it is not
Possible to run the state as per the constitutional provisions; In such conditions the
president can proclaim Emergency for awoiding the failure of the contitutional machinery.

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It is commonly known as President's Rule.
Financial emergency - If the President is satisfied that there is financial crises
in the country or a part thereof or the credit of the country/ part thereof is in danger, he
can declare Emergancy..

Emergency in India-
● National emergency was declared in India thrice, so far; During Chinese
aggression from 26th October 1962 to 10 January 1968.
● Pakistan aggression from 3rd December 1971 to 21 March 1977.
● Emergency was declared on 25th June 1975 due to internal disturbances.
● Failure of constitutional machinery in a particular state such emergency
(and President's rule in that state) was declared many times in states.
● No emergency has been declared till now due to financial crisis.

The fundamental rights of citizens are affected when emergency is declared. It

also affects the autonomy and freedom to the states. The powers of the Central
Government increase. The Centre acquires the right to prepare Law in a subject/
subjects incorporated in the state list. The Centre gives directions to the states. On the
basis of the report of the Governor, the President declares such emergency. Many
times such decision (President's Rule in a state) has become cause of controversy.
Normally emergency provisions have been used in the national interest. However
the most controversial decision was the declaration of emergency on 25th June 1975.
The basis of this emergency was the so-called possibility of internal disturbances in the
country. This emergency was criticised most because the right of freedom of life and
personal liberty was suspended by the President. Under the circumstances no person
could go to a court of law. Therefore, the Janta Party, after coming in power made an
amendment in the Constitution to restore the right of freedom of life. Through this
amendment it has been made clear that the right to life cannot be suspended even during
emergency.
During the emergency of 1975 the Central Government using its powers arrested
all prominent leaders of the opposition. The opposition leaders were even prevented
from expressing their views in the Parliament and debating this policy. Thousands of
innocent citizens were arrested on the basis of mere doubt. The political analysts
believe that there was no possibility or condition of internal disturbances and the
emergency was an unnecessary step.
11.6 Rise of India as a nuclear power
Atomic energy is obtained from disintegration of radioactive elements. Electricity
is generated from this power (heat). Uranium, thorium, plutonium are main radioactive
elements; energy exists in latent form in these elements.
According to an estimate the quantum of energy that can be produced by 1-

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Kilogram Uranium is equivalent to the energy that can be generated from 2700 tons of
coal; Uranium is very valuable element. Atomic energy is used for peaceful and
developmental works so also it can be used for making destructive weapons.

The Atomic energy and research programmes related with it have been
carried out under the able guidance of eminent scientists of India like, Dr. Homi
Bhabha, Dr. Vikram Sahabhai, Raja Ramanna etc.
The Atomic policy of India has been influenced by its social and economic base.
Right after the activement of independence India has been making efforts in the direction
of putting to use the atomic energy for peaceful purposes. Atomic Energy Act 1948 and
Atomic Energy Commission were the pioneering steps in this direction. The technological
advancement in the direction of atomic energy development was made with the setting
up of Tata Institute -1945, and Bhabha Atomic Energy centre 1957. In the year 1956
Apsara Research Reactor was set up and in the year 1969 the Tarapur Atomic Energy
Centre was established; this was the first centre for commercial use. Other atomic
energy centres set up in India are at Tarapur (Maharashtra), Kota (Rajasthan), Kalpakam
(Tamilnadu), Narora (Uttar Pradesh), Kakrapar (Gujrat) and Kaiga. India had achieved the
technology of atomic energy development in 1980. Digging out atomic fuel, to separate
it and convert it into Uranium, making fuel out of its, production of heavy water,
manufacturing reactor, development of all the processes of the fuel and waste management,
in all these processes India had achieved competence.
Atomic energy is a boon when put to use for peaceful purposes Atomic energy
is being put to use in the sectors of agriculture, treatment, industry etc., Atomic
explosions are made use of for construction of canals, dams and mines.
The Atomic policy of India can be understood in the context of the basic principles
of its foreign policy. The three fundamental principles of the foreign policy of India are
- national security, economic development and world situation. Besides, India believes
in opposing the policies of colonialism, empire building, apartheid and believes in
peaceful coexistence, friendly relations with all nations, international peace and cordial
relations. The aim of the Atomic Policy of India is to ensure security and development
of the country, and also to see that a sense of mutual cooperation, understanding and
peace prevail in the world.
The Atomic energy plants have an important role to play; in view of shortage
of traditional sources of energy.
Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru wanted to use atomic energy keeping in view the international
responsibilities and the high ideals to which the country is committed. He had several
times reiterated the commitment of not making an atom bomb.
After the death of Pt. Nehru, Lalbahadur Sharstri, believed that the policies of the

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Government change as per the needs of the times. He did not say that nuclear bomb
would be made but at the same time stated that the present situation may not continue
if world situations change.
Considering the security of the country of paramount importance, Indira Gandhi
stated that the atomic policy of the country could be reconsidered. She also stated that
the options regarding atomic policy shall be kept open. In 1977 Indira Gandhi conducted
a peaceful nuclear test in Pokharan (Rajasthan). This test was not carried out with the
intention of obtaining weapons. Between 1977 to 1980 India was firm on its policy of
not making atomic weapon. In her second term she adopted the policy of wait and watch.
In this reference, the 'Integrated guided missile programme' is most important. The
eminent scientist A.P.J. Abdul Kakam (former President of India) was made the Chairman
of this programme. Under the programme, the missiles India made are: Prithvi, Trishul,
Nag and Akash
Three organisations have been set up at the international level to check proliferation
of atomic weapons.Partial Moscow Atomic Test Ban Treaty (P.T.B.T.) 1963, Nuclear
Proliferation Ban Treaty (N.P.T.) 1985, and Comprehensive Atomic Test Ban Treaty
(C.T.B.T.) 1996, India has always been for an International organisation which will be
extensive, universal and objective but India found that the above proposals appeared to
be discriminatory and therefore, has not signed them.
In the Nineteen nineties there came a change in the Indian Atomic policy. The
reason being, that Pakistan made nuclear bomb as per reliable sources of Pakistan. India
started thinking that nuclear tests should be conducted in order to strengthen the defence
requirement, achieve independence in the matter of self defence, save ourselves from
international threats and become politically and diplomatically self reliant. This was not
an abrupt decision. It was the result of constant research.
On 11th May 1998 India conducted three continuous undergound tests in Pokhran.
Two of them were underground low intensity tests and one underground temperature
nuclear explosion.
After the test, the then Prime Minister Atal Behari Bajpai declared that we have
become nation of powerful nuclear capacity; but he stated that the 'Comprehensive Test
Ban Treaty' is discriminatory. He said India can not be threatened by any threats or penal
provisions because we have capacity to be self reliant in every respect. India will not
make use of the atomic weapons against anybody but for self-defence.
The Chief Scientific Adviser and Chairman of the Atomic Energy Department Dr.
A.P.J. Abdul Kalam (former President of India) said that we have studied all the stages
of making nuclear weapons and that it is complete. We have the atmosphere and reliable
system for atomic weapon system Dr. Kalam confirmed that indigenously developed
'Agni' and 'Prithvi' ground to ground missiles are now ready along with atomic parts and

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defence planes. Prior to this five countries VIZ. America, Soviet Russia, Britain, France
and China had already conducted nuclear tests. Now India also became nuclear country.
In fact India did these tests because countries adjoining the borders of India have
such capacities. Therefor it became necessary for India to intensify its defence system
and become politically and diplomatically powerful. India has always been a peace loving
country. It has not developed the atomic power to interfere in other countries' affairs or
to establish its supremacy over others.
After the nuclear tests the spokespersons of other developed countries expressed
their reactions in protests. China also joined such team. But the then Secretary General
of the United Nations, Kofi Annan made a balanced comment on this. He told the above
five nations, who opposed this step of India, that, "You cannot have such a club or
organisation, members of which themselves can have nuclear weapons, refuse to put a
ban on them and ask them (India and Pakistan) not to keep such weapons. "
In respect of nuclear matters, India is a nuclear country and should be recognised
so.

Terms
Plebiscite - a vote by which the people of an entire country or district
express an opinion for or against a proposal especially on a
choice of government or ruler.
Emergency - Failure of the constitutional machinery when it is rendered
impossible to run the state/Government.
Infiltration - Unauthorized entry into the territory of another country.
Exercises
Select the right option :
1. The war between India and China was fought-
(i) 11th July 1962 (ii) 20th October 1962
(iii) 20th August 1964 (iv) 11th July 1965
2. The reason of war of 1965 between India and Pakistan was-
(i) The area of the Rann of Kachh (ii) Azad Kashmir
(ii) Jaisalmer of Rajasthan (iv) Spying on India
3. Lacs of refugees came to India from -
(i) Sri Lanka (ii) Bangladesh
(iii) Pakistan (iv) China
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Fill in the blanks :
1. Special status has been given to the State of Jammu and Kashmir under Article
…….. of the constitution of India.
2. The war between China and Japan started in the year…… .
3. After the Indo-Pak war of 1971 ……… country was formed.
4. National Emergency has been declared (in India) ……. times so far.
Match the following :
1. Foreign policy of India Bangladesh
2. Kabailies andPakistan Pokhran
3. Atomic test A.P.J.Abdul Kalam
4. 'Mukti Wahini' army Invasion on Kashmir
5. Integrated guided missile plan Peaceful co-existence
Very Short answers type questions -
1. Name the missiles prepared by India.
2. For the solution of Kashmir problem, team of which five countries was
constituted by the Security Council of the United Nations Organisation?
Short answers type questions-
1. Why did the government of India asked Pakistan to stop/block the entry of
Kabailies? Write.
2. What were the effects of Indo-China war?
3. What were the conditions laid down for the 'Taskand Agreement'?
Long answer type questions :
1. Why did China declare one sided cease fire (end of war) in the Indo-Pak war?
2. What is Kashmir problem? Describe in detail.
3. Write the effects of Indo-Pak war of 1965.
Project work-
● Write in chronological order the wars between India and Pakistan.
● Please collect the pictures and informations about soldiers who laid their
lives for the Nation (Martyrs) in the Indo-China and Indo-Pak wars, with the
help of your teacher and colleagues.

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-12
Indian Constitution
The basic political framework of a country
We shall learn  is specified in the constitution of that country.
12.1 Need and concept of The Constitution specifies the functions,
constitution powers, responsibilities and structure of all
12.2 The constituent Assembly the constituent units of the Government viz.
The legislature, the Judiciary and the executive.
12.3 The Drafting Committee
The social, political and economic
12.4 Aims, objectives and ideals aspirations of the people are specified in the
of the Constitution Constitution. It also reflects the ideals the
12.5 Special features of Indian country aspires to follow.
Constitution 12.1 The need and concept of Constitution
Constitution is needed for properly running the government and clearly defining the
roles and functions of the Legislature, judiciary and administration so also for ensuring
a balance and coordination amongst them. In the absence of Constitution there is a strong
possibility of conflicts between different organs of the Government and at times even
a situation of anarchy may arise. Fundamental rights and duties of citizens are also
specified in the Constitution. It can be said that Constitution is the very base of
Government.
Constitution may be said to be a document which contains Laws, rules and
regulations for proper governance of a country.
The makers of Indian Constitution consulted and took useful provisions from
Constitutions of several countries. The directive principles have been taken from the
Constitution of Ireland. The idea of Fundamental Rights has been taken from the
Constitution of United States of America. The concept of Federation of states (Federal
form of Government) is taken from Canadian Constitution. There is a considerable
influence of the developments that occurred during the Freedom Movement on the
constitution. The Constitutional traditions and commentaries Judicial judgements and
views of Constitutional experts also form the basis of Indian Constitution.
12.2 Formation of Constituent Assembly
Indian Constitution has been drafted by a Constituent Assembly which was formed
by mutual consent of the leaders associated with the Freedom Movement and the British
Administration. The basis of this was Cabinet Mission Plan of 1946.
Cabinet Mission 1946 - This was a delegation comprising three members of

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British Cabinet. On the basis of the Cabinet Mission's suggestions members of Constituent
Assembly were elected in July 1946. Indian political leaders had accepted the proposals
of the Cabinet Mission.
The country was administered on the basis of the Government of India Act
1935 during the period from formation of the Constitution to its enactment.
The members of the Constituent Assembly were elected by the then members of
the provincial Assemblies, 292 members were from provincial Assemblies, 93 from
native princely states. (During British rule certain princely states were under the rule
of Rajas and Maharajas and not under the direct administration of the British rule. There
were many small princely states and big states like Kashmir, Hyderabad, Gwalior, Patiala,
Mysore, Baroda and Travancore) and 4 from the Chief Commissioneries, thus there were
398 members. The number of members in the Constituent Assembly was decided on the
basis of the population (generally one member over a population of 10 lakh). The number
of members of the Constituent Assembly after the partition was 299, as members of the
Muslim League didn't participate in the meetings of the Constituent Assembly. The
demand for Constituent Assembly was related with the National Movement. The formation
of constituent Assembly was the result of the 'Swaraj Bill' prepared under the directions
of Lokmanya Bal Gangadhar Tilak in 1895, the statement of Mahatma Gandhi on 5
January 1922 that, "Indian Constitution shall be as per the wishes of the people of India",
the National Convention of February 1924 under the Chairmanship of Tej Bahadur Sapru
and the demand in the Patna Convention of Swaraj Dal in May 1934.
The members of the Constituent Assembly could not be elected directly by adult
franchise therefore as a practical solution provincial Assemblies were utilised as
election bodies.
The prominent leaders associated with the Freedom
Movement like Dr. Rajendra Prasad, Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru, Sardar
Patel, Maulana Abdul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherji,
Sardar Baldev Singh etc. played an important role in the
formulation of the Constitution. They gave valuable guidance to
the Constitution Assembly. Franck Anthomy represented the
Anglo Indian Community and H.P. Modi was representative from
the Parsi Community. Aladi Krishanswami Aiyar, Dr. Bhimrao
Ambedkar and K.M. Munshi were Constitutional experts, Sarojini
Naidu and Vijaylakshmi Pandit were women representatives. B.N.
Dr. Rajendra Prasad
Rao was Constitutional advisor.
First meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on 9
December 1946, Dr. Saccchidanand Sinha was elected as Chairman to preside this
meeting. The second meeting of the Constituent Assembly was held on 11 December

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1946 in which Dr. Rajendra Prasad was elected as permanent Chairman. During The
period of 2 years, 11 months and 18 days, total 166 meetings were held in 11
conventions.
The new Constitution was passed and adopted on 26 November 1949. Certain
provisions of the Constitution in respect of citizenship, election and interim Parliament
were adopted with immediate effect and remaining provisions became effective from 26
January 1950, which was called as the date of promulgation of the Constitution.
Important members of the Constituent Assembly from then existing
provinces viz Central Province and Berar, Central India region (Bhopal,
Gwalior, Indore and Rewa) were Pandit Ravishankar Shukla, Seth Govind
Das, Hari Vishnu Kamat, Ghanshyam Singh Guchh, Gopikrishna Vijayvargiya,
Radhavallabh Vijayvargiya and Thakur Lal Singh.
12.3 Drafting Committee
Drafting of the Constitution was not an easy task therefore
different sub committees were formed to facilitate drafting of
the Constitution. 10 sub-committees were relating to matters of
procedure and 8 sub-committees related to matters of facts.
Important sub-committees were Rules, Business and Drafting
committee, steering Committee, Committee on Fundamental
Rights, Union Powers Committee, Minority Rights sub-
committee etc.
To give final shape to the reports and suggestions of the
above sub-committees a Drafting Committee under the
chairmanship of Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar was formed. Other Dr. Bhimrao Ambedkar
members of this Committee were N. Gopalswami Ayangar, Aladi
Krishna Swami Aiyyar, Sayyad Mohammad Sadullah, K.M. Munshi. B.L. Mittar and D.P.
Khaitan subsequently B.L. Mittra and D.P. Khaitan were replaced by N. Madhavan Rao
and T.T. Krishnamachari. The Draft of Constitution was submitted to the President of the
Constituent Assembly on 21 February 1948. Thereafter detailed discussions were held
in the Constituent Assembly.
12.4 Preamble of the Constitution
In the Preamble of the Constitution the framers of the Constitution have incorporated
the objectives of the Constitution, so also values and ideals. This is called the essence
or spirit of the Constitutions. it is the resolve and feelings of the framers of the
Constitution.
In the very beginning of the Preamble it has been indicated that the Constitution has
been framed as per the wishes of the people and ultimate powers vest in the people. It
has been stated that India shall be sovereign, democratic republic. As per the 42nd

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Constitutional amendment in 1976 India was declared a socialist secular state.

To protect the unity and integrity of the country is the duty of every
citizen and not only of the state.
12.5 Special features of the Constitution
Indian Constitution has many
special features, important ones are- CONSTITUTION OF INDIA
1. Written and Largest - Preamble
Indian Constitution is a written WE THE PEOPLE OF INDIA, having
Constitution which has been drafted solemnly resolved to constitute India into a
by a Constituent Assembly. It is the SOVEREIGN SOCIALIST SECULAR
largest in the World. It has 395 DEMOCRATIC REPUBLIC and to secure to all
Articles, 12 schedules and is divided its citizens : JUSTICE, social economic and
into 22 parts. whereas there are 7 political, LIBERTY of thought, expression,
Articles in the American, 147 belief; faith and worship
Articles in Canadian and 128 Articles EQUALITY of status and of opportunity;
in the Australian Constitution. and to promote among them all
2. It is rigid so also flexible- FRATERNITY assuring the dignity of the
A Constitution is termed as rigid or individual and the unity and integrity of the
flexible on the basis of the procedure Nation; in OUR CONSTITUENT ASSEMBLY
adopted for its amendment. If the This twenty sixth day of November 1949 do
constitution can be adopted by a HEREBY ADOPT, ENACT AND GIVE TO
simple procedure followed for OURSELVES THIS CONSTITUTION.
framing simple laws it is termed as
flexible but if a special procedure is needed for amendment then it is termed as rigid or
inflexible. There are three procedures of amendments in the Indian Constitution. Certain
provisions can be amended by a simple majority, some provisions can be amended by
specific majority and certain important ones can only be amended by specific majority
and consent of atlest 50 per cent number of states. Thus it is a mix of flexibility and
rigidity.
3. Sovereign State - The country will decide its own foreign and domestic
policies. It is not under any foreign rule and it can have its own policies of behavior at
the international level.
4. Socialist and Secular - By a socialist state is meant that the Indian economy
shall be based on socialistic patten of society. Minimum basic needs of every Indian
shall be fulfilled. Socialism as per the Indian conditions shall be adopted. The ideal of
secularism has been cherished in the Constitution. It means that the state shall protect
the interests of all religious beliefs but will not have any particular religion as state

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religion. The state shall not discriminate
Special Features of Indian
citizens on the basis of religion. Every citizen
is free to follow its religion and beliefs. Constitution
1. Written and largest Constitution.
5. Parliamentary form of Government
2. Mix of rigidity and flexibility.
- The Indian Constitution has accepted
3. Sovereign Republic.
Parliamentary form of Government. Under this
system the powers of executive vest in the 4. Socialist and secular Republic.
council of ministers and the President is the 5. Parliamentary system.
titular head. The council of ministers follow 6. Federal system.
the principle of combined responsibility. In 7. Free and impartial Judiciary.
case vote of no confidence is passed in the 8. Fundamental rights and basic
Parliament, the Cabinet of Ministers has to duties.
resign. 9. Directive principles of state
6. Federal form of Government - As policy.
per the First Schedule of the Constitution, 10. Universal adult franchise.
India is a Federation of States. Thus federal
form of Government has been set up in India. The powers of Government are not
centralised at one place and are divided between the Centre and the States and both have
independence in their respective jurisdictions. The Constitution is written and rigid to a
considerable extent and it is supreme. The Supreme Court is the protector of the
Constitution. Supreme Court has also the powers to interpret the Constitutional provisions
and decide Constitutional disputes arising between the Centre and the States.
7. Independent and Impartial Judiciary - The Judiciary is independent as it has
powers to interpreted the Constitution and to protect the fundamental rights of the
citizens. The Constitution has given powers to the Judiciary to review Laws enacted by
the Parliament and Legislative Assemblies and executive orders passed by the Executive
and to declare such Laws and orders null and void if they are against the sprit of the
Constitution.
Suitable provisions have been made in the Constitution to ensure impartial
functioning of the Judiciary. Impartiality of the Judiciary depends on the manner of
recruitment and removal of the Judges, their working and service conditions. Judges of
Supreme Court are appointed by the President
as per the procedure laid down in this regard Fundamental Rights
but the President doesn't have the power to 1. Right to equality.
remove them. The salary and allowances of
2. Right to freedom.
Judges cannot be reduced during their tenure
3. Right against exploitation
in the office. Due to these provisions the
4. Right to freedom of Religion
Judiciary is free from any pressure of the
5. Cultural and educational Rights
executive.
6. Right to constitutional remedies.

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 8. Fundamental rights and Duties - For alround development of the citizens,
fundamental rights are essential. There is a provision for fundamental rights for the
citizens. In case they are violated, a citizen has the right to approach the High Court or
Supreme Court. During the period of Emergency these Fundamental Rights can be
suspended.
The provision of Fundamental Duties of the citizens was added in the Constitution
by an amendment (42nd Amendment of the Constitution, 1976). Ten fundamental duties
have been specified in the Constitution.
Fundamental Duties
It shall be the duty of every citizen of India -
1. To abide by the Constitution and respect its ideals and institutions, the National
Flag and the National Anthem.
2. To cherish and follow the noble ideals which inspired our national struggle for
freedom.
3. To uphold and protect the sovereignty, unity and integrity of India.
4. To defend the country and render national service when called upon to do so.
5. To promote harmony and spirit of common brotherhood amongst all the people of
India transcending religious. linguistic and regional or sectional diversities, to
renounce practices derogatory to the dignity of women.
6. To value and preserve the rich heritage of our composite culture.
7. To protect and improve the natural environment including forest, lakes, rivers and
wild life and to have compassion for living creatures.
8. To develop the scientific temper, humanism and the spirit of inquiry and reform.
9. To safeguard public property and to abjure violence.
10. To strive towards excellence in all spheres of individual and collective activity so
that the nation constantly rises to higher levels of endeavor and achievement.
9. Directive Principles of the State - In the fourth part of the Constitution,
fundamental principles of Governance have been described, these are known as directive
principles. These principles are guidelines for political, social and economic programmes
for modern democracy. Although these principles cannot be directed by any court to be
enforced but they are fundamental in the good governance of the country. Through these
directive principles an attempt has been made to set up a welfare state in India.
10. Universal adult franchise - The Constitution has given the right to vote
to all its adult citizens. By adult franchise is meant that every adult citizen has a right to
vote on attainment of a definite age. In the Constitution this right is given to all citizens
who attain the age of 18 years, irrespective of their religion, race, caste, sex or place of

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birth.
11. Single citizenship - The Indian Constitution has adopted the principle of
single citizenship i.e. he / she is a citizen of India irrespective of his / her place of
residence in the country, thus person living in Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Haryana,
Panjab etc. are not citizens of that state but of India. The citizens of India can seek
employment any where in the country and enjoy same rights anywhere within the Indian
territory.
The framers of the Constitution were aware of the fact that the life of the people
of a country is closely associated with the culture and rich heritage of the country; the
identity of a country is not on the basis of political organisation or beliefs but on the
basis of the culture, traditions, beliefs and feelings of nationality.
Indian Constitution is not mrely a political document but much more than that. It
contains the culture and national values in it. In the manuscript of the Constitution, the
nice cultural and national heritage of the country has been depicted through representative
pictures. These pictures depict the traditions from Mohenjo-daro and Vedic period to the
period of Freedom Movement. These pictures are of the bullseal of Mohenjo-daro
period, Lord Ram returning with Sita in the 'Pushpak Viman' after victory of Lanka,
preaching of Getta by Sri Krishan to Arjuna, Lord Buddha, Mahavir Swami, Akbar and in
the background Mughal architecture, Shivaji, Guru Govingsingh, Tipu Sultan, the historical
Dandi March of Mahatma Gandhi, the Hinalayas, the Indian ocean etc.

Terms
Constituent Assembly - the assembly that is entrusted to make the constitution of a
contry
Indirect election - When the people directly do not partake in the election but their
representatives elect some one, such election is known as indirect
election.
Federal form - Separate Centre and State Governments and division of powers
between them
Right of citizens - Interests of citizens which are protected and legally accepted
Duties of citizens - Expectations from citizens their basis is morality
Universal - Rules and Acts uniformly applicable to all
Article - Provisions incorporated in the Constitution
Socialism - A system based on the principle of equality.

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 Exercises
Choose the right option :
1. The constitution is
(i) Form government (ii) Government of country
(iii) Documents of rules and laws (iv) Fundamental Rights
2. Which of the following is not a speciality of the Indian constitution?
(i) Parliamentary form of government (ii) Federal Government
(iii) Free and impartial Judiciary (iv) Unwritten Constitution
3. How many Fundamental duties have been indicated in the Constitution
(i) 5 (ii) 14
(iii) 18 (iv) 10
Fill in the blanks :
1. The Chairman of the Constituent Assembly was ……….
2. Dr. B.R. Ambedkar was the chairman of constitutional …………
3. The newly drafted Constitution was adopted by the constituent assembly on
………..
4. The right of Equality is one of the ….. described in the constitution.
Match the following :
a) The Chairman of the constituent Assembly Seth Govinddas
b) Speciality of Indian Constitution Secularism
c) The Chairman of the Drafting
Committee of the Constitution Fundamental Duty
d) The Member of constituent
Assembly from Madhya Pradesh Dr. Rajendra Prasad
e) Protection of Public property Dr.Ambedkar
Very short answer type questions :
1. What is a constitution?
2. Who in the protector of Fundamental Rights in India?
3. When were Fundamental duties added in the Constitution?
4. In whose guidance was the Independence Bill drafted?
Short answer type questions :
1. What is the importance of Constitution?
2. Write an introductory note on Constituent Assembly.
3. Who were the prominent members of the Constitutent Assembly from
Madhya Pradesh?
4. What do you understand by Directive Principles of the state policy?
5. What is the importance of Preamble in the Constitution?
6. Please explain the meaning of 'Socialist ' and 'secular'.

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 Chapter-13
Functioning of Indian Democracy
India is an important democratic
We shall learn  Republic in the world. The framers of the
Indian Constitution adopted a parliamentary
13.1 Indian Administrative system
from of government under the democratic set
13.2 Characteristics of Federal
up. Under this system the Executive at the
Form of Government
Centre is responsible to the Parliament and
13.3 Division of Administrative the executive in the state is responsible to
powers the legislative assembly.
13.4 Parts of Government : The Executive is of two types: nominal
Legislature, Judiciary and the and the other one real based on the powers
Executive they are able to exercise. The framers of
13.5 Administration of State Upper Constitution have adopted a federal form of
House and Legislative government for India in which there is a mix
Assembly of unitary and Federal system. There is one
13.6 Local Government government for the whole country which is
known as Federal or Central Government.
Besides, there is a Government for each State which is known as State Government.
There is division of powers and jurisdiction between the Central and State Governments.
After independence we adopted a process of national development which is based
on the policy of democracy dedicated to development and public good. The objective of
administration is to ensure social, political and economic justice for the people of India.
13.1 Indian Administrative sytem
The Indian administrative system is as folows:
1. Central government 2. State Governments
3. Local Governments
The Central Government comprises the President, the Prime Minister, the Cabinet
Ministers, Indian Parliament and supreme Court etc. The State Government include the
Governor, the Chief Minister, the Cabinet Ministers, the Vidhan Sabha and the High
Courts. The Local Government includes Municipal Corporation, Municipalities, District
Panchayats, Janpad Panchayats and Gram Panchayats. For proper administration the
country is divided into states, revenue divisions, districts, tahsils and villages. In this way
the administrative set up is properly organised from top to bottom level.
To make the democratic set up practical and useful the administrative powers are

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 Indian Administrative System

Central Government State Government

Legislature Executive Judiciary Legislature Executive Judiciary

President Supreme Governor High Court

Parliament Council Court Legislative Legislative
of Assembly Council Council District Court
states Counsil of of
(Rajya sabha) Ministers Ministers
(including Prime (including
Minister) Chief
Minister)
extended and given upto regional and local level. For this, local self-governments have
been provided. Every unit of administration discharges its duties and functions allotted
to them.
It is expected that these units discharge their duties and responsibilities as per the
wishes and aspirations of the people.
13.2 Characteristics of Federal form of Government
That form of Government under which powers
Characteristics of Federal
of the Government are divided by the Constitution
form of Government
between the Central Government (Union
1. Dual Governments
Government) and Provincial or State Governments.
2. Division of Powers between
The source of powers in respect of both the
centre and states
Governments is the Constitution. The Constitution is
3. Constitution to be supreme
supreme. The procedure of amendments in the
and in written form
Constitution is generally difficult and supremacy of
4. Supremacy of Judiciary
Judiciary is essential. So also it is essential that the
5. Two Houses of Legislature
Constitution is written and rigid. Such form of
Government is known as Federal form of Government
India has been termed in the Constitution as a Federation of states. The
Characteristics of Federal Government are present in Indian Constitution. In the Federal
form, the Union and the States function within the limits of their rights and powers given
by the Constitution. Presently in the Indian Federation there are 28 States and 7
Centrally administered states (union territories). The Federal characteristics present in
the Indian Government system are as follows: -

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 1. Dual Governments - In the Indian Union there are both the Governments viz.
Union Government and the State Governments There is an Executive in the Union where
there is a council of ministers and there are President, the Prime Minister and there is
a Legislature (Parliament) of peoples' representatives. Similarly in the states also there
is Executive and Legislature wherein there are Governor and a council of ministers under
the Chief Minister, and a Legislative Assembly of Peoples representatives. This
arrangement is known as dual form of Government.
2. Division of Power - There is a division of power between the Union and the
States under the Constitution. Accordingly the Centre and the states make laws and run
the administration as per the subjects under their jurisdiction The powers have been
allocated in the Constitution in the following manner -
The Union List - 97 Subjects of national importance are contained in the Union
list, in which subjects like Defence, Foreign Affairs, Defence forces, Finance,
Communication, Railways are prominent.
The State List - 62 Subjects of regional importance like Justice, Police,
Education, Agriculture, Social Welfare etc. are in the State List.
The Concurrent List - Originally there were 47 subjects in this list but after the
42nd amendment 4 subjects and one more subject were added; thus presently there are
52 Subjects. Marriages, divorce, Trusts and Trustees, Forests, wild Life and Protection
of birds, Social Security and Social Insurance, Labour welfare are some important
Subjects. Both the Central and State Governments can frame Laws on subjects contained
in the Concurrent list but if a law has been enacted by the Central Government, that shall
be in force.
Residual Powers - If certain subjects remain over and above the three lists, such
subjects shall be with the Union Government.
3. Supremacy and written form of Constitution - Under the Federal form of
Government written constitution is a necessity. Constitution is supreme and basic law of
the Land. The Union and State Governments follow the Constitution under this System
of Governments. To ensure supremacy of the Constitution the procedure of its
amendments has been made difficult.
4. Supremacy of Judiciary - Under the Federal form of Government Supremacy
of Judiciary is important. The Supreme Court is the protector of the Constitution. Laws
framed and decisions taken contrary to the constitution can be declared null and void by
the Supreme Court. Necessary provisions have been made in the Constitution to ensure
independence of the Judiciary.
5. Two houses of the Legislature - As per Federal form of Government Indian
Legislature has two Houses. First House is called the Parliament and the Second one is
called the Council of States. The Council of States (Rajya Sabha) represents the states.
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In the Council of States, representatives from States are indirectly elected. Members of
Parliament are elected directly by the people.
13.3 Division of Administrative Powers
Out of many characteristic features of the Federal form of Government in India,
some features make the Federation strong. It is clear from the division of power that the
Union has been given exclusive powers on important subjects; it has also been given
importance in respect of laws; Laws to be framed under the Concurrent list. Besides,
such subjects which do not find place in any of these lists, they are also with the
jurisdiction of Union Government. These powers of the Union are known as residual
powers.
Inspite of clear division of powers between the Union and the States, it is necessary
that there should be proper cooperation between the Union and the states for successful
administration. There are certain provisions in the Constitution through which the Union
exercises effective control over the states.
1. Directions to the State Governments - The Central Government gives
directions to the State Governments on Subjects of national importance and the States
follow these directions. Subjects like national defence, political relations with foreign
countries, come under this category.
2. Entrust some works of Union Subjects to the States- The Union executive
can entrust some works to State Governments. The Union can give directives to the
states to follow any international treaty or agreement. Such instructions can also be
given in respect of subjects like security of railway tracks etc.
3. All India Services - In India certain services are All India Service like the
Indian Administrative Service (I.A.S.), the Indian Polic Service (I.P.S) etc. Selection to
these services is made by the Union Public Service Commission. The service conditions
of these services are decided by the Central Government. Besides serving in their
respective States, these officers serve in the Centre from time to time. Thus the Central
Government exercises control over the States.
4. Financial Assistance - The money which State Governments receive from
taxes is insufficient. Important sources of income are with the Central Government. The
Centre gives grants to State Government from time to time. Through such grants the
Center exercises control over the States.
5. Powers of Parliament - The Parliament has powers to divide a State or form
one State by integrating two States or some parts of these states and form a new State.
Parliament has power to increase or decrease the area of a State or change the
boundaries of a State.
6. Make laws on subjects mentioned in the State list- The States have the

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power to frame laws and administer them but this power is not exclusive. The Parliament
can enact laws on State subjects in the following circumstances:
a) In cases where Rajya Sabha (Council of States) declares a subject of State list
as subject of national importance.
b) When the President declares Emergency.
c) When the State is under President's rule and the legislative powers of the
State have been transferred to the Parliament.
d) If the State Legislative Assembly itself passes a resolution that Parliament
should enact a law on a particular subject.
These characteristics of the Constitution indicate that the Union government is
more powerful. Although the subjects under the Union and State have been decided into
three lists but such subjects which are not there in any of these lists, such powers are
residual powers.
13.4 Organs of Government
There are three organs of the Organs of Government
Government. That organ of the
Government which frames Laws is
called Legislature, that organ which Legislature Executive Judiciary
enforces the laws and ensures that
they are followed is called the
Executive and the organ which punishes those who do not follow (obey) them is called
the Judiciary - these three organs make Government.
Legislature - The Legislature may have one or two Houses. Where there are two
houses, the first one is called the Lower House and the second one, Upper House. The
Legislature performs many important functions, important ones are:
1. Framing Laws - The Legislature prepares laws for properly governing the
country.
2. Amendments in the Constitution - The Constitution has given powers of
amendments in the Constitution to the Legislature. Parliament makes necessary
amendments as per needs.
3. Administrative Functions - The Legislature also dicharges the important
function of exercising control over the Executive. In the Parliamentary form of
Government the Executive is responsible to the Legislature. Thus Legislature exercises
control over the Executive.
4. To decide policies for State and the Government - The Legislature does the
work of deciding policies and giving directions to the State. It gives sanction to the
policies formulated by the Executive.

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 5. Functions relating to Finance - The Legislature does the work of imposing or
reducing taxes and according sanctions to expenditures of Executive.
Thus it exercises control over the money received from the people.
6. Discussions of subjects presented in the House - The members delibrate on
different subjects and problems placed before the House. They discuss all aspects of the
proposed law before passing it so that the law may really benefit the public.
7. Judicial functions - In many countries the Legislature does the work of
judiciary also. The Legislature only can remove the president by Impeachment. In
America also the legislature, takes decision on the motion of impeachment against the
President.
8. Constitution of Committees and Commissions - Such subjects in which there
is a necessity of giving a deep thought or where minute examination from all points of
view is needed, the Legislature appoints committees and commissions and officers for
them.
9. Control over Foreign Policy - In many countries treaties and agreements with
other countries cannot be enforced without the approval of Legislature. In many
countries, permission of the Legislature is necessary for waging a war with another
country.
10. Work relating to Elections - In India the President is elected by the elected
representatives of the Parliament and Legislative Assemblies. In many countries the
Legislature does the work of Elections.
Indian Parliament
In our country the Legislature at the Centre is the called sansad (Parliament), it has
two Houses.
1. Loksabha (House of the People) - It is also called the lower house.
2. Rajyasabha (Council of States) - Qualifications of Members of the
It is also called the Upper House. Although House of the People Loksabha
there are two houses of Parliament, He/She -
President of India is their integral part. ● should be citizen of India.
Thus the Parliament comprises of the ● should be 25 years or more.
House of the People, the Council of States ● should not be on any office of profit
and the President. in the Central or State Governments.
House of People - It is the lower ● is not declared insane or insolvent by
house, maximum number of members of any competant court of Law.
this house is 545. Its members are elected ● has not been declared disqualified to
by direct election by the voters of the contest election by any law of
respective constituency. If the House is Parliament.

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not dissolved premature, its tenure is for 5 years. In the House of people 29 elected
members are there from Madhya Pradesh. Any Citizen of India who has competed 18
years of age can vote for the election to the House of People. Although the tenure of
House of People is for 5 years, the President may, on the advice of the Prime Minister,
dissolve the House before 5 years. The officers of House of People are Speaker and
Deputy Speaker. The Lok Sabha elects the Speaker and Deputy Speaker from amongst its
members. Following are the functions of the Speaker of House of People-
● To preside over the sittings of the House
● To conduct business of the House
● To ensure peace and order in the House
● To decide whether any bill is a money bill or not.
● To constitute committees of House of People
● Protect the rights of members
● To allocate time for discussion on a subject in the House.
In the absence of the Speaker, the Deputy Speaker conducts the business of the
House.
Powers of the Loksabha (House of the People)
The powers of the House of the People are as under:
Legislative Powers
Main function of the House of People is framing of Laws. As per the Constitution,
powers of House of People and Council of States are equal in respect of framing of laws
but in practice the House of People is more powerful. Generally all important bills are
presented only in the House of People.
Financial Powers - The Constitution has made the House of People powerful so
far as financial matters are concerned. Finance bills are initiated in the House of People
only - Although finance bills are sent to the Council of States after passing by the House
of People but the Council of State have to accord sanction to the Finance bills within
14 days.
Control over the Executive - According to the Constitution the Council of
Ministers is responsible to the House of the People. The Council of Ministers can be
functional till it enjoys the confidence of the House of People. The members of the
House of People exercise control over the Government by asking questions in the
House, bringing motion of adjournment or no confidence in respect of Government
policies.
Amendment in Constitution - The House of People (the Lok Sabha) and the
Council of States (the Rajya sabha) together can make amendment in the Constitution.
Election of the President and the Vice President - The President is elected by

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the members of an electoral college consisting of the elected members of both houses
of Parliament and the elected members of the Legislative Assemblies of the States.
The Vice President shall be elected by the members of an electoral college
consisting of member of both houses of Parliament. The election shall be in accordance
with the system of proportional representation by means of single transferable vote and
voting shall be by secret ballot.
Forum of People's views - Since the House of People is the house of members
elected by the public therefore, the views expressed by the members are considered to
be the views of the people. House of the People is the mirror of peoples' aspirations and
feelings.
Miscellaneous functions -
a. Lok Sabha can bring a motion of impeachment of the President.
b. It can discuss the proposal passed by the Council of States for removal of the
Vice President.
c. It can discuss the proposal for impeachment of the Judges of Supreme Court
and High Courts.
d. It is necessary for the Lok Sabha (House of People) to confirm the
emergency proclaimed by the President wihtin a month otherwise such
proclaimation shall automatically be nullified.
The Council of States (Rajya Sabha)
The second house of Parliament is known as Council of States (Rajya Sabha). It is
also called the Upper House of Parliament. It is a permanent House. It cannot be
dissolved.
Membership -
1. Maximum number of the members of Council of States is 250.
2. Out of these 238 members are elected by the Legislative Assemblies of the
state.
3. Remaining 12 members are nominated by the President of India in consultation
with the Cabinet of Ministers. These members are from amongst famous
personalities in the field of literature, art, culture, social service or public
life.
4. There are 11 members from Madhya Pradesh in the Council of States.
Qualifications of Members - The qualifications for members of Council of
States are the same as are for the members of the House of People. The only difference
is that the age limit for member of Council of States is 30 years as against 25 years for
members of House of People.

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 Procedure for elections of Members - Members of the Council of States are
elected by members of Legislative Assemblies of the States by proportional representation
system.
The Council of States shall not be subject to dissolution (like the House of
People). The tenure of its members is 6 years. One third of its members retire after
every two years and in their place new members are elected. Thus there is continuity in
the tenure of Council of States.
Officers of Parliament - There shall be a Chairman and a deputy Chairman of the
Council of States. The Vice President of India is the ex officio Chairman of the Council
(Rajya Sabha_). The members of the Council of States elect one member from amongst
them as Vice Chairman. The duration of office of the Vice Chairman is 6 years. The
functions of the chairman are to preside over the meetings of the Rajya Sabha and
conduct the business of the House.
Powers of the Council of States - Except financial matters the Council of States
normally enjoys all the powers of the House of People.
1. Legislative Powers - The Council of States enjoys the powers of Legislation
which vest in the House of People. Any Bill can be initiated in either of the House; but
unless both the Houses pass a Bill it cannot become an Act.
2. Financial Powers - Any Finance Bill is initiated only in the House of People.
In respect of financial matters, powers of the Council of states are negligible. Any
money bill is sent to the Council of States only for consideration after it is presented
in the House of People and it has to be passed by it within 14 days.
3. Control over the Executive - The members of the Council of States exercise
control over the cabinet of ministers by asking questions on the matters of public
interest.
4. Like the members of the House of People the members of the Council of
States have the right to participate in the elections of the President and the Vice
President.
5. They have power to discuss the motion of impeachment of the President, Vice
President, and Judges of the Supreme Court and High Courts.
6. Emergency promulgated by the President has to be confirmed by the Council
of States within one month.
7. The Council of States has two special powers which are not available to the
House of People:-
a) The council can declare a subject from the State list, a subject of national
importance; under such circumstances the Parliament acquires the power to
frame law on that subject of the State List.

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 b) The Council of States, in the national interest, may pass resolution for
organisation of All India Services. Such resolution has to be passed by two
third majority of votes of members present, who have right to vote.
Principally both the Houses of Indian Parliament have equal powers but in practice the
House of People is more powerful because -
1. The Council of Ministers is responsible to the House of The People
2. The House of People is powerful in respect of Finance Bills.
The procedure of framing laws by the Parliament -
Most important function of the Parliament is to frame laws for the Country. The
Parliament has power to frame Laws on subjects contained in Central List, Concurrent
list and during Emergency on subjects from the state list. The bills for enactment are
presented in the Parliament. The Bills are of two types:
1. Ordinary bills
2. Money bills
Ordinary bills can be presented in any of the Houses but money bills can be
presented only in the House of People with the permission of the President.
The procedure of passing a Bill
1. First reading or presentation of the Bill - Any member of Parliament after
giving one month's notice can present a bill with prior permission of the chairman of
council of States/Speaker of the House of People. At the time of the first reading only
the caption of the Bill is read. Normally no discussions take place at the time of first
reading i.e. mere presentation of the bill is its first reading. After presentation of the bill
it is published in the Gazette of India.
2. Second reading - Before the commencement of second reading copies of the
bill are distributed among the members. At this stage every section of the bill is not
discussed in details, only the basic features of the bill are discussed. At that stage no
amendments are suggested either. If necessary the bill is sent to the combined Select
committee.
3. Committee stage - For deliberations the House is divided into small committees.
Members of the Committee study minutely every article/para of the bill and deliberate
on it. The committee may consult subject specialists if needed. The Committee has also
the powers to make amendments in the bill. After due consideration the committee
submits its report to the Chairman of the Legislative Council/Speaker of House of
People (as the case may be).
4. Report Stage - Copies of the Report of the Committee along with the
amendments suggested are given to the members of the House. The House may accept
the report of the Committee as it is. Discussion takes place in the House on the Bill.
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Detailed discussion take place on every section of the Bill . In the end voting takes place.
If the bill is passed after voting then this stage is deemed to be over.
5. Third reading - After the report stage, the stage of passing of the bill is called
the last stage or the third reading. At this stage deliberations take place only on the main
features of the bill and not on every section of the Bill. At this stage no changes are made
in the draft bill. If the bill is passed by the House it is sent to another House under the
signature of the Speaker or Chairman of the House.
6. Sending bill in the second House - When a bill is passed in one House it is
sent to another House in the aforesaid manner.
7. Assent of the President - When the bill is passed in both the Houses of
Parliament it is sent to the President for assent. After the assent of the President the bill
becomes the Law, and it is published in the Government Gazette. On ordinary bills the
President may give assent or send it for reconsideration of both the Houses. If both the
Houses again pass the bill the President has to give assent.
Money Bill- Money bills are passed in a different manner, Money bills are
introduced only in the House of People. The House of People after passing a Money bill
sends it to the Council of States for consideration. It has to pass it within 14 days. Even
if the Council of States suggest some amendments, the Bill is deemed to have been
passed in the same form in which it was passed by the house of people. In respect of
financial matters, powers of the Council of States are negligible. After passing of the
Bill in the House of People and after consideration of the Council of States, the speaker
of the House of People after its signature and authentication sends it to the President;
it is necessary for the President to put his signature i.e. give his assent.
Executive - The Executive is another important organ of the Government. For
efficient functioning of all the organs of the government, it is the Executive which is
responsible. In our Country we have Federal System, therefor the Executive is of two
types - Central Executive for the Central administration and State executive for
administration in the States. The Central Executive comprises of the President, Prime
Minister and the Cabinet of Ministers. First President of India was Dr. Rajendra Prasad
and first Prime Minister was Pt. Jawaharlal Nehru.
The President - The head of the Indian Union is the President. The President is
elected by an Electoral College. It comprises members of both the Houses and elected
members of the State Legislative Assemblies.
Qualifications for the post of President -
1. He/She should be citizen of India
2. Should have attained 35 years of age,
3. Should have qualifications to become Member of Parliament

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 4. Should not be on any office of profit in the Union or any State Government.
Powers of the President - According to the Constitution all the powers of the
Central Executive vest in the President. He/she will use these powers or cause to be used
by the subordinate staff. As per 42nd amendment of the Constitution it has been provided
that the President shall function only according to the advice of the Cabinet and such
advice shall be binding upon him.
Powers of the President are of two types -
1. Under ordinary conditions or powers during peace time.
2. Under extra ordinary conditions or powers during Emergency.
Powers of the Executive -
Apointment of the Prime Minister and other Ministers
1. After the election to the House of People the President appoints the leader
of such party as Prime Minister which has won the elections with majority. If any one
party has not secured majority then the President at his /her discretion appoints such
person as Prime Minister who can give a stable government after obtaining vote of
confidence from the House. The President appoints other ministers as per the advice of
the Prime Minister.
2. Work relating to Appointments - The President appoints Governors of
States, Ambassadors for foreign countries, Attorney General of India, Chairman and
members of the Union Public Service Commission, Comptroller and Auditor of India
and officers on other importmant posts. The President makes appointments only on the
advice of the Prime Minister and Council of Ministers.
3. Legislative Powers - The President is an integral part of the Parliament. The
President has following powers in respect of the Legislature-
a.. To Summon the Parliament to hold a session, to adjourn it and to dissolve it.
b. To address combined session of both the Houses of Parliament after every
general election and thereafter every year.
c. To nominate 12 members to the Council of States from amongst persons
having special quality in the field of art, literature, music or any other such
field.
d. To give assent to the bills passed by the Parliament.
e. To promulgate ordinances when the Parliament is not in session.
4. Financial Powers - Prior approval of the President on money bills is
necessary before presentation in the House of People. Every year the President causes
to be presented a statement of Income and Expenditure (Budget) for the country.

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 5. Judicial Powers -
a. The President appoints Chief Justices of the Supreme Court and High Courts
so also other Judges of these courts. The President also has the power of
giving pardon.
b. Powers with respect to armed Forces - The President is the Supreme
Commander of the Armed Forces (Navy, Army, Airforce).
c. Political Powers - The President entertains the Heads of States, diplomats
and other political delegates from foreign countries. The President represents
India in foreign countries. Treaties and agreements with foreign countries are
done in the name of the President.
Emergency Powers of the President -
1. The President may declare emergency in the Country in cases of external
aggression, internal armed uprisings. constitutional failures in States or financial crises.
The emergency can be declared by the President only on the advice of the cabinet,
ratification of both the houses of Parliament is necessary within two months of such
declaration. Under such circumstances the Parliament acquires the powers of enacting
Laws for the whole country or a part thereof. The Union Government can, under such
circumstance, give directions to the States.
2. From the Report of the Governor or from any other source when the
President has reason to believe that the administration of a State is not running as per
the provisions of the Constitution then the President, with prior approval of the Central
Cabinet, may impose Presidents rule in that State - approval of both of the Houses of
Parliament is necessary on any such declaration within two months of such declaration.
During this period complete or partial administration of that State comes in the hands
of the President. He/she may delegate the power of administration to the Governor.
During such period the power of framing laws vests in the Parliament. During this period
the Governor enjoys all the administrative powers of the State except the powers of the
High Court.
3. When the President has reason to believe that severe financial emergency
has arisen in the country he/she may impose financial emergency in the country.
The Prime Minister and the Cabinet of Ministers -
The executive power of the Government vests in the President and the Council of
Ministers whose real head is the Prime minister. In the parliamentary form of Government
the post of the Prime Minister is of special significance.
Appointment of the Prime Minister -
The appointment of the Prime Minister is made by the President. The President
invites the leader of that political party which has secured majority in the elections. If

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any party has failed to secure majority then the President, at his discretion, may appoint
such person as the Prime Minister who can secure vote of confidence in the Lok Sabha
and can provide stable Government.
Powers of the Prime Minister -
Real powers of the Government vest in the Prime minister because he is the head
of the Cabinet of Ministers. So long as he/she enjoys majority in the House the Prime
Minister has unlimited powers.
1. Leader of House of People - The Prime Minister makes pronouncement
of important policies of the Government in the House. The bills presented in the House
are prepared under the direction of the Prime Minister. It is the Prime Minister who gets
the annual budget prepared. Other important Government functions are performed under
his directions.
2. Formation of the Cabinet - Appointments of members of the Cabinet are
made by the President only as per the advice of the Prime Minister.
3. Allocation of Departments / changes in the departments of ministers is
done by the Prime Minister.
4. Intervention in the departments and functions of the ministers -
Although the ministers of the respective departments function and do work as per the
policies of the Government but the Prime Minister may intervene in the work of any
department as per need, he / she may give suggestions/ directions or guidance to the
concerned minister.
5. Removal of ministers - The members of the Cabinet can remain in their
office only till they enjoy the confidence of the Prime Minster. The Prime Minister can
ask for resignation from any minister. In case a minister refuses to tender resignation,
he/she may ask the President to dismiss (remove) the minister.
6. Preside over the meetings of the Cabinet - The Prime Minister presides
over the meeting of the Cabinet. The Prime Minister also approves the subjects to be put
up before the Cabinet. Normally , in case of differences of opinion decisions are taken
by majority and majority decision is deemed to be unanimous decision.
7. Work relating to appointments - The President of India has powers of
making appointments but all appointments are made only on the advice of the Prime
Minister. Ambassadors of India in other countries, chairmen of different commissions
and members, are appointed by the President on the advice of the Prime Minister.
8. Authorised spokesperson of the Government - The Prime Minister is
the authorised spokesperson of the Government in the country so also in foreign
countries.
9. General Election, actually Prime Minister's election - The Prime
Minister is the popular leader of the country and normally the elections are contested

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in his/her name, thus it can be said that the Prime Minister is the highest leader and
administrative head of the State.
The Council of Ministers and the Cabinet -
The cabinet is a small but more effective part of the Council of Ministers. The
council of ministers comprise the Prime Minister and all other members. Ministers are
of three categories: 1. Cabinet Ministers 2. State Ministers and 3. Deputy Ministers. The
Council of Ministers is jointly responsible to the Parliament. Head of the Council of
Ministers is the Prime Minister. Real power of the Government vests in the council of
Ministers.
Special features of the Cabinet or Council of Ministers -
1. Supremacy of the Prime Minister - The Prime Minister is the head of the
Council of Ministers. He/She presides over the meetings of the Council of Ministers.
Selection of ministers, distribution of work among them their removal from their post
is the privilege of the Prime Minister. He/ She plays an importance role in framing of
policies of the Government. No member of the Cabinet can act against the wishes of the
Prime Minister.
2. Joint responsibility - The Council of Ministers are jointly responsible to the
Parliament. For any act of a minister, only minister of the concerned Department is not
responsible, but the whole Council of Ministers is responsible for that act.
3. Secrecy - Whole proceedings of the Cabinet are secret. No minister can make
it public. A minister has to take oath of secrecy before taking over the post.
Powers of the Council of Ministers -
1. Formulation of Policies - With regard to the problems and matters relating to
economic, social foreign and political, the Council of Ministers frame suitable policy
for their solution.
2. Matters relating to appointments - All important appointments in the Country
and outside, like the Governors, Ambassadors, Chairmen and members of various
commissions, Attorney General etc. are made by the Council of Ministers.
3. Matters relating to finance- The Council of Ministers exercises control over
the income and expenditure of the country. The Finance minister drafts the budget,
presents it before the Council of Ministers and after its approval it is presented in the
House. If the budget is not passed by the Parliament the whole Cabinet has to tender
resignation.
4. Advice to the President - The Council of Ministers advises the President from
time time. The President has to accept the advice of the Cabinet.
Judiciary
The Judiciary is an important organ of the Government. In our country different

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Judicial systems for Centre,
The Judicial System of India
the States and other Units have ↓
not been adopted but one The Supreme Court
unified system has been ↓
High Courts of States
accepted for the whole ↓
country as shown in the Subordinate Courts of The districts
illustration. ↓
↓ ↓ ↓
Important function of Civil Courts Court of Sessions Revenue
the Judiciary is to safeguard ↓ ↓ Courts
the rights of the citizens and District Judges Sessions Judges ↓
↓ ↓ Revenue
to safeguard the Constitution.
Add.Session Judges
It prevents the Government Add.Distt. Judges ↓ Board
from becoming unrestrained ↓ Asstt.Session Judges ↓
or uncontrolled. Civil Judges ↓ Commissioner
Organisation of the Class-1 Chief Judicial ↓
↓ Majistrate (C.J.M.) Collector
Supreme Court
Civil Judges ↓ ↓
At the apex level there Add.Chief Judicial
Class-2 Tahsildar
is a Supreme Court under the Magistrate.
Indian Judicial System. The ↓
Supreme Court is the final Judicial Magistrate-class I
↓
and supreme court of India. Judicial Magistrate- class II
All the courts of the country
are subordinate to it.
1. Number of
Judges- As per Article 124(1) of the Constitution the Parliament by making a law can
make changes in the number of the Judges. Presently there are 29 Judges and a Chief
Justice in the Supreme Court.
2. Appointment of Judges - appointment of Judges of the Supreme Court are
made by the President of India. The President consults the Chief Justice of India before
making such appointment.
3. Qualifications of the Judges - A judge of the supreme court should have
following qualification -
a. He/She should be citizen of India.
b. Should have worked as a Judge in any high court or two or more courts
continuously for atleast 5 years, or should have acted as an advocate in one or more than
one high courts for at least 10 years.
c) In the opinion of the President, should be a distinguished jurist.
4. Tenure of Judges and procedure of Impeachment - Judges of the Supreme
Court can remain in their post till the attainment of 65 years of age, but they may if they
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so wish, resign from their post before this period. If both the Houses of Parliament, in
same session, request the President , by passing a resolution by two third majority of
members present and voting, to remove a judge on the ground of proved misbehavior or
incapacity, in that case the President may order the Judge to tender resignation from his/
her post.
5. Pay allowances and pension of Judges - The Parliament by law decides pay
and allowances of the Judges so also the Judges are entitled to facilities like monthly
allowance, travelling allowance, house allowance, staff car etc. They are also entitled to
pension and gratuity as per rules.
6. Immunities of Judges - No person or institution can publicly criticise the
works of the honorable Judges. Even the Parliament or Legislative Assemblies cannot
criticise any of their judgements individually or in a combined manner.
7. Oath by the Judges - Every Judge has to take an oath in the format laid down
by the Constitution before assuming office. The President administers oath of office to
the Chief Justice and in respect of other Judges, it is the Chief Justice who administers
them oath of office.
8. Ban on practising by Judges - After retirement a Judge of the Supreme
Court can not practice in any court of India or appear before any authority as an advocate.
Jurisdiction and powers of the Supreme Court -
The powers of the Supreme Court are as under :-
1. Original Jurisdiction - Such disputes which do not go in other courts of the
country are put up only in the Supreme Court of India.
a) Disputes between states -
● Dispute between the Union Government and one or more States.
● Such disputes where Union Government and one or more States are on
one side and one or more states on another side.
● Disputes between two or more States
b) Disputes in respect of fundamental Rights - The Supreme Court has power to
take action for protection of fundamental rights of citizens.
2. Appelate Jurisdiction - The Supreme Court is the highest and final court of
appeal of the country. The Supreme Court has the power to hear following appeals :
a) Constitutional appeals c) Criminal appeals
b) Civil appeals d) Special appeals
3. Consultative Function - Under article 143 of the Constitution if the
President seeks advice on any constitutional or legal matter, the Supreme Court may give

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such advice to the President.
4. Jurisdiction as to Judicial review - The Supreme Court has the power to
examine the validity of laws and administrative orders passed by Parliament and State
Assemblies and see whether they are in accordance with the constitutional provisions or
not. Through this power the Supreme Court protects the constitution.
5. Court of record - Supreme Court is also a court of record, i.e. all its
Judgements and records are in writing and published, and they are kept as record. In the
subordinate courts these judgments are produced as examples and the subordinate courts
follow them.
6. Other works - The Supreme Court, besides the above, does following work:
a) Inspections and enquiry of subordinate courts,
b) To decide service conditions, promotion and termination of services of its
own staff as well as subordinate officers and staff.
c) Power to punish any person found guilty of contempt of court.
The work and conduct of Supreme Court have strengthened the roots of democracy
in the country and the rights of the citizens have been protected.
13.5 Administration of the State -
Under the Federal form of Government the Central Government and State
Governments discharge legislative, executive and judicial functions under their jurisdiction.
Legislative Assemblies - Under the Federal form of Government the Central and
State Governments discharge their function in respect of Legislature, Executive and
Judiciary according to their jurisdiction.
State Legislature - As per the Constitution there shall be a State Legislature in
every state which shall comprise of the Governor and the State Legislatures.
In some states there are two Houses of Legislature and in some states there is only
one House. There are two Houses in Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and Maharashtra. The first
house is called the Legislative Assembly and the other one in known as Legislative
Council. In Madhya Pradesh there is only one State Legislature.(Vidhan Sabha)
Constitution of the Legislative Assembly (Vidhan Sabha) -
In the Legislative Assembly of a State there are maximum 500 and minimum 60
members. However Sikkim, Goa, Mizoram and Arunachal Pradesh are exceptions where
the number of members of the Legislative Assemblies is less that 60.
Organisation of Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly and reservation of seats -
The number of member in Madhya Pradesh Legislative Assembly is 230. In the
Legislative Assembly of State, seats are reserved for Schedule castes and Schedule

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Tribes.
Election of members of the Legislative Assembly -
Members for the Legislative Assemblies are elected directly by secret ballot on the
basis of adult suffrage - one member is elected from each constituency. In the election
a candidate securing highest votes is declared elected.
3. Qualifications of voters -
a) Should have completed 18 years of age
b) Should be resident of that State and his/her name should be in the voters list.
c) Should not have been been declared unfit to vote by any competent court.
4. Qualifications of the candidate -
a) Should be a citizen of India
b) Should have completed 25 years of age
c) Should not be on any office of profit in the Union or State
d) Should not have been declared unfit to contest election
e) Fulfills the conditions laid down by Parliament or Legislative Assembly.
5. Tenure - A member of Legislative Assembly is elected for 5 years but the
Governor, on advice of the Chief Minister can dissolve it before completion of the term.
Council of States is a permanent House.
6. Rights of the Legislative Assembly - The members of the Legislative
Assembly elect one speaker and one Deputy Speaker from amongst its members. The
Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Legislative Assembly enjoy the same rights as
enjoyed by the Speaker and Deputy Speaker of the Parliament.
Powers of the Legislative Assmbly
The legislative Assemblies of the Sates have the following powers -
1. To frame Legislations - The Legislative Assemblies have the power to frame
Legislations on subjects incorporated in State list and concurrent list; if the Parliament
has already framed a law on a subject listed in the Concurrent list, then the Legislation
framed by the State Legislative Assembly can not be contrary to it.
2. Functions relating to the Executive - The Legislative Assembly has full
control over the Executive. The Cabinet is jointly responsible to the Legislative Council.
The Legislative Council can cause the Cabinet to resign by passing a vote of No
Confidence. The Cabinet can function only till it enjoys the confidence of the Legislative
Assembly.
3. Financial functions - The State Legislative Council has financial powers.
The Executive cannot impose any tax nor can it spend public money without the sanction
of 'Vidhan Sabha'.

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 4. Other powers - The elected members of the Legislative Assembly take part
in the election of the President. Besides approval of the Legislative Assemblies of the
States is essential for making amendments in certain provision of the Constitution.
The State executive -
As per the Constitution, the Executive powers of the State vest in the Governor but
in practice the Governors of the states are constitutional heads. In practice complete
administration of the State is run by the Council of Ministers whose head is the Chief
Minister. The Cabinet is jointly responsible to the Vidhan Sabha for all its actions.
The Governor - Appointment of the Governor is made by the President. In
practice appointment of the Governor is made by the President as per the advice of the
Union Council of Ministers. In the absence of the Governor, the Chief Justice of the
High Court of the State holds the post of the Governor of the State.
Qualifications for the post of the Governor -
Following qualifications are necessary for the post of Governor :-
1. He/She should be citizen of India.
2. SHe/He should have completed 35 years of age.
3. Should not be on any office of profit of the Union or the State.
4. Should not be a member of Parliament or Legislative Assembly.
Assumption of office by the Governor -
The oath of office is administered to the Governor by the Chief Justice of the State
High Court. The term of office of the Governor is for 5 years. The President can remove
a Governor before the expiry of the term.
Pay, allowances and special privileges of the governor -
Pay and allowances of the Governor are decided by the Parliament. The pay and
allowances of the Governor can not be reduced during his/her tenure. No suit can be
filed against his deeds as Governor, in any court of Law. Governor is also the Chancellor
of the Universities of the state.
Powers and functions of the Governor -
The Governor is the constitutional head of the State. The position of the Governor
is the same in the State as is of the President in the Centre. The powers of the Governor
are as under :-
1. Powers in respect of the Executive - The Governor appoints the Chief
Minister. He appoints the leader of the party which has won by majority as Chief
Minister. He appoints other ministers at the advice of the Chief Minister and allocates
works to them. The Governor appoints the Advocate General, Chairman of the Public
Service Commission and other senior officers of the State.

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 2. Legislative Powers -
a) The Governor is an essential part of the government. He summons meetings
of the Legislative Assembly, suspends them and adjourns them. He can
dissolve the Assembly on the advice of the Chief Minister. After the elections
and in the beginning of a Session of the Legislative Assembly he addresses it.
As per need he can send messages to the Legislatures.
b) Governor's assent is essential on the bills passed by the Legislative Assembly
for reconsideration. If again the Bill is passed by the Legislative Assembly
and sends it to the Governor, it is necessary for the Governor to give assent
to it.
c) To promulgate ordinance - When the Assembly is not in session the
Governor can promulgate ordinance. Approval of the Legislative Assembly is
necessary within 6 weeks of the promulgation of the ordinance.
d) Financial Powers - The governor causes the State budget to be presented
every year in the Legislative Assembly. He also causes to be presented the
Report of the comptroller and Auditor General in the House.
e) Other powers - When the Governor feels that the administration in the State
is not running in accordance with the provisions of the constitution then he
sends a report to the President regarding failure of constitutional machinery
in the State. It is only on the basis of the Governor's Report that the President
makes emergency in the State. Under such circumstances the Governor
functions as the Presidents representative.
The Chief Minister
The Chief Minister is the head of the State Council of Ministers. The chief
minister is the actual head of the executive power of the State. The leader of the majority
party in the State Legislative Assembly is appointed as Chief Minister by the Governor.
Powers and Functions of the Chief Minister -
The Executive powers of the State vest in the Chief Minister. They are as under :-
1. Constitute the Cabinet - The Chief minister selects the ministers and hands
over the list of such persons to the Governor. They are appointed as ministers by the
Governor. It is only on the recommendation of the Chief Minister that portfolios are
allocated to the ministers. The Chief Minister may ask the ministers to tender resignation
if need be. The Chief Minister presides over the meetings of the Cabinet. He can give
directions to the ministers with regard to the functions of their allocated departments as
per. When a matter relates to two ministers, the Chief minister can give directions/
guidance to concerned ministers.
2. Leader of the Legislative Assembly and the State - The Chief Minister is

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the leader of the Legislative Assembly. He announces the policies of the Government in
the House. Whenever needed he gives explanation on the statements made by minister.
He represents the State at the national and other levels. He is the Chief spokesperson of
the State.
3. Link between the Council of Ministers and the Governor - The Chief
Minister functions as a link between the Governor and the Council of Ministers. He
keeps the Governor informed of the decisions of the Council of Ministers.
Council of Ministers
Head of the Council of Ministers is the Chief Minister. The Council of Ministers
comprises the Chief Minister and other ministers. the ministers are of three categories
about which a mention has already been made previously. The special features of the
Council of Ministers are:
1. Collective responsibility - Members of the council of ministers are
collectively responsible to the Legislative Council. All the ministers have to follow the
decision of the Council of Ministers. A decision against any one minister in the House
is considered to be a decision against the whole Cabinet.
2. To decide policies of the government - It is the duty of the Council of
ministers to formulate policies of the State, prepare schemes for the development of the
State, to maintain Law and order in the State, and make efforts to fulfill the aspirations
of the people of the State.
3. Legislative powers - In the Parliamentary form of Government, the Council
of ministers and the Legislature are closely related. Therefore in the legislative matters
the cabinet of ministers is all powerful. Subjects on which Government wants to make
laws, the Cabinet prepares the draft of concerned legislations and puts it up in the
Legislature and gets them passed.
4. Financial Powers - The council of ministers decides financial policies and
implements them. To prepare annual budget and get it passed is the responsibility of the
council of ministers.
Thus it is clear that the real power of the State is not with the Governor but with
the council of ministers and its head, the Chief Minister.
Judiciary - the High Court
As per the Constitution, every State of the Union has a High Court. As per the 24th
amendment of the Constitution, the Parliament if so wishes, may set up only one High
court for two or more States and Union Territories. The High Court of Madhya Pradesh
is situated in Jabalpur; for the convenience of the people there are two benches, - one
in Gwalior and the other in Indore.

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Organisation of the High Court
1. Number of Judges - Appointment of the Chief Justice of the High Court of
the State is made by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court and the Governor of the concerned state. Other Judges of the high court are
appointed by the President in consultation with the Chief Justice of the Supreme Court,
Governor of the State and Chief Justice of the High Court of the State.
2. Number of Judges - As per the Constitution, the number of Judges of the
high courts of the State can be increased or decreased by the President as per needs.
3. Functions and pay and allowances - The judges of high courts can remain
in their office till the attainment of 62 years of age. They may resign from their post
even before this age if they so wish. The President may remove them through the process
of impeachment. Their pay and allowances are decided by the Parliament. Their pay and
allowances cannot be reduced till they are in their posts.
4. Qualifications of the Judges - He/she -
a) Should be a citizen of India.
b) Should be less than 62 years of age.
c) should have worked as a district and session judge for 10 years or worked
as an advocate in one or more high courts for 10 years, and in the
President's view should be a renowned jurist.
5. Other matters -
1. The Judges have to take an oath of office before occupying their post.
2. The President may, in consultation with the Chief Justice of the Supreme
Court, transfer the Chief justice or Judges of one high court to another high
court.
3. A retired judge of the high court cannot practice in the state from where he
has retired or in a court subordinate to the high court. But a judge can practice
in the high courts of other states or in the Supreme Court.
4. The works or posts of Judges cannot be criticized. The decisions of these
courts cannot be criticized in the Parliament or Legislative Assemblies. The
High Court has the power to punish a person found guilty of contempt of
court.
Powers and functions of the High Courts -
The High Courts have the following powers:-
1. Primary Jurisdiction - Primary Jurisdiction means such cases which can be
presented only in the high courts.
a. Constitutional disputes - A dispute arising out of a Constitutional matter can

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 only be submitted in a high court.
b. The high courts give permission to go to the Supreme Court in an appeal
against any decision given by it.
c. Any matter or point relating to Constitutionl interpretation, if is lying in any
of the subordinate courts it can call for such a case and decide it.
Disputes relating to Fundamental Rights - The high courts have a right to take
necessary action to protect the Fundamental Rights of citizens. Matters relating to
infringement of Fundamental Rights are presented in the high court.
2. Appellate Jurisdiction - The high court has the right to hear appeals against
the decisions given by its subordinate courts. Such appeals are of two types:
1. Civil appeals 2. Criminal appeals
Such civil appeals against the decisions of the district judges where the sums
involved exceed 20 thousand rupees can be filed in the high court. Criminal appeals
where the District and Sessions court has given punishment of 10 years or more or has
given capital punishment; the implementation of death sentence can take place only when
the high court approves it.
3. Administrative jurisdiction - The High court exercises control over its
subordinate courts. It can decide the mode of functioning of the subordinate courts. It
also decides the policy of recruitment and promotion and service conditions in respect
of the judges of the subordinate courts. The High court can call for any case being tried
in a subordinate court.
High Court conducts inspections of the subordinate courts. The High Court acts as
a court of records in its jurisdiction.
Right of judicial review - The High courts have a right to enquire (hear) any
Central or State Law or administrative order to see whether it is as per the Constitutional
provisions. If the court feels that the concerned law or order is against the Constitution
then it may declare it as null and void.
From the above it is clear that the High courts, like the Supreme Court, act as
protector of fundamental rights and the Constitution. To maintain the independence and
impartial character of the high courts. The judiciary is independent and has been kept
away from the influence of the Executive and the Legislature.
13.6 Local Administration
The democracy of our country is based on this concept that the people should be
able to participate in the government functioning at every level. The democracy achieves
permanency by peoples' participation. India is a country of villages and development of
villages is necessary for the progress of the country. Local government and development
is the responsibility of the states. The towns and villages are situated hundreds of

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kilometers away from the State Capital, therefore some of its functions and powers are
delegated to local administration. To make administration aware about the wellbeing of
the people and to solve the local problems of the people locally, local administration is
necessary.
In India the government functioning is not limited only to Central and State
governments; but the local government. The local government is also based on the
democratic system. The local people of a town or a village are more aware of the
problems of their town or village. The function of the local government is to solve the
local problems locally.
In Indian administration at the Union level there is Central Government, at State
level the State Government and at the local level there is Local administration. To fulfill
the needs of the local people is the responsibility of the local government. The
importance of local administration has been recognised from ancient times. If we study
the ancient history of India we see that in every period the local administration was
active.
There are two reasons why the local administration is useful. Firstly, due to local
administration the democratic system is set up locally. Secondly - by peoples' participation
the government gets all the information which is necessary in framing suitable policies.
Many problems of villages, towns and cities are related with public utility services
like facility of water, drainage system, roads, cleanliness, garbage disposal, prevention of
diseases etc. With the increasing population the problems of villages and cities are
assuming vast proportions. For fulfillment of local economic and social needs and
solving local problems, there is a need of local administration. The local administration
and the Government of the concerned area work together.
The Local Government system is not uniform in rural and urban areas. In our
country the local government institutions in rural and urban areas are of three types. In
rural areas there are village Panchayats, block (level) Panchayats and District Panchayats.
In town areas 'Nagar Panchayats' Municipalities, and Municipal Corporations are there.
These units of local administration work under the guidance and control of the elected
representatives who are elected by the people. This arrangement of local government is
known as Local Self Government.
The Panchayati Raj system for rural India Panchayati Raj System
Gram Panchayats have been formed for the villages in India
of the state for maintaining cleanliness, providing health District Panchayat
services, lighting, drinking water and other similar ↓
facilities. If the size of the villages is small then one Janpad Panchayat
Gram Panchayat is formed for two or more villages. The ↓
people of rural areas manage the affairs of their villages Village Panchayat

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through the Gram Panchayats. Such arrangement is popularly known as 'Panchayati Raj
System.' Mahatma Gandhi was great exponent of the Panchayat Raj System. He believed
that so long as the village life is not based on democratic system, real democracy in the
country can not come. The local government in different states of the country has been
organised according to the laws framed in this respect by the Legislative Assemblies of
the respective states. Therefore the system of Local Government in all the states is of
different type and not uniform.
The system of Panchayati Raj in Madhya Pradesh is as under :
1. Gram Sabhas and Gram Panchayats for villages
2. 'A Janpad Panchyat' for every Development Block
3. A Jila Panchayat (district - Panchayat) for every district.
Thus there are three tiers of Panchayats
The Gram Sabha -
There is a Gram sabha in every Gram Panchayat. All the voters of the Gram
panchayat are members of the Gram sabha. At least two meetings of Gram Sabha are
organised in an year. The Sarpanch presides over the meeting of the Gram Sabha. If for
any reason the 'Sarpanch' is not there then the 'Upsarpanch' presides over the meeting.
In the Gram Sabha annual statement of accounts of the Panchayat budget, audit report etc.
are presented. The Gram Sabha proposes new schemes for development for the Gram
Panchayat.
The Gram Panchayat -
The smallest unit of the local administration is the village Panchayat. Members of
the gram Panchayat are directly elected by people. Every gram Panchayat is divided into
atleast ten wards. From every ward one 'Panch' is elected by the voters . The 'Sarpanch'
is also directly elected by the people. Seats are reserved for the scheduled Castes,
Scheduled tribes and other backward classes, in the gram Panchayats, in proportion to
their population. The 'Sarpanch' is called the head of the gram panchayat.
The Sarpanch presides over the meetings of the panchayats. The tenure of the
panchayat is for 5 years.
Functions of the Gram Panchayat -
Main functions of the Gram Panchayat are maintaining cleanliness and construction
of roads, wells and tanks in the village. The Panchayat also looks after the management
of fairs, weekly hats, markets etc. organised in the villages. Registration of births and
deaths, vaccination against infectious diseases etc. are other functions of the village
Panchayat.
The Janpad Panchayat -
Every district is divided into Development Blocks. For every Development Block
there is a Janpad Panchayat. The block is divided into wards and every ward has

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population of 5 thousand, so far as possible. There are 10 to 25 wards in a Block. One
candidate from each ward is elected. In the Janpad Panchyat also, seats are reserved for
the Scheduled Castes, Scheduled tribes, other backward class and women.
There is a President and a Vice President of the Janpad Panchayat. The members
of the Janpad Panchayat elect the President and Vice President from amongst them.
Reservation is available to Scheduled Cast and Scheduled tribes for the post of President
of the Janpad Panchayat.
Functions of the Janpad Panchayat -
Every Janpad Panchayat oganises programmes in the block in the sectors of
integrated rural development, agriculture, social forestry, animal husbandry, adult
education, cottage industry, youth and child welfare, rural employment etc. It provides
assistance during the times of floods, drought, epidemics etc The Janpad Panchayat also
arrange faris, festivals etc.
The District Jila Panchayat -
The apex unit of Local Government at the district level is the district Panchayat.
This is a local body at the district level, which implements and supervises the development
schemes in the district. The Sate Government constitutes one ward on a population of
nearly 50,000. One member is elected from each ward. The number of a district
Panchayat can be minimum 10 and maximum 35. Seats are reserved for the Scheduled
Castes and Scheduled tribes in proportion to their population in the district. Reservation
is also made available to women and other backward classes in the Jila Panchayats.
Tenure of District Panchayats is 5 years. A District Panchayat is constituted comprising
following representatives :
1. All the elected members of the Jila Panchyat,
2. Chairman of the District Central Cooperative Bank and Land Development
Bank,
3. Member of Parliament representing that district
4. Member of the Legislative Council of the State if his/her name appears in the
voters list of a Gram Panchayat of that district.
5. All the members of the Legislative Assemblies of the district.
Functions of the Jila Panchayat -
1. To exercise control over the Janpad Panchayats and Village Panchayats,
ensure coordination among them and guide them.
2. To coordinate the schemes of Janpad Panchayats
3. To forward to the State Government, demands for grant for special purposes.
4. To implement such schemes of the district which fall in the area of two or

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 more Janpad Panchayat.
5. To advise the State Government in the matters of development related
activities, social forestry, family and child welfare and games and sports.
6. To do such other work which the State Government directs.
The 73rd Constitutional amendment is a revolutionary step in our country in
respect of Local Government. Now people of remote areas take part in the formulation
of schemes, decision making process and in the implementation of such schemes which
affect their lives. Panchayats play an important role as an agent for implementing the
scheme of the State Government. There is a constitutional arrangement in the country to
ensure free and impartial elections of the Panchayat. 'Gram Sabha' is an important body.
It can function efficiently by working in a coordinated manner with other related bodies.
The Scheduled Castes, Scheduled tribes, other backward classes and women are entitled
to reservation in the Panchayat Raj institutions. Thus efforts have been made to bring
about changes of far reaching importance in the social structure of villages. When we
study the functioning of the Panchayats we see that although participation of different
sections of the population has been ensured but their participation is not as effective and
independent as it should be.
There is a need of education and regular training of Panchayat representatives. The
Panchayats need to be further strengthened to enable them to perform their role
effectively in the democratic set up. The Panchayats need to be given more financial
powers and rights. It is only through awareness and effective participation of the rural
people that the benefits of local administration can be reached to them.
Urban administration -
As per the population of 2001 Census, the population of the Country was 102.5
crores out of which 28.49 crore people live in the towns. Local urban bodies have been
created for the towns and cities. These bodies solve the problems of their area relating
to water supply, health, drainage, waste (garbage) management, cleanliness, lighting etc.
These local bodies are democratic. In these bodies local citizens are elected by direct
election process.
Types of local urban bodies -
In every state of the country there are following types of urban autonomous bodies-
a. Urban Panchayats or 'Nagar Panchayats
b. Municipalities and c. Municipal Corporations
Nagar Panchayat -
Such rural areas which are transforming into urban areas, 'Nagar' Panchayats are
organised there. Such places are a mixed form of a city and a town and the population
there is not very large. There are 263 'Nagar' Panchayats in the State. The Nagar

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Panchayats are divided into wards. There are minimum 15 and maximum 40 wards; one
member from each ward is elected to the Nagar Panchayat. The President of the Nagar
Panchayat is also elected directly by the people. There is reservation for the Schedule
Castes, Scheduled tribes, backward classes and women for the seats of members and the
post of President of the Nagar Panchayat.
Municipalities -
In small cities in the State, there are Municipalities. Members of a Municipality are
elected by the people. Every city is divided into wards. From every ward one person is
elected. A citizen who is a resident of that ward and whose name appears in the voters
list is entitled to vote. The minimum prescribed age limit for a Municipal member is 25
years. There is President of the Municipality, who is also elected by the people.
Reservation in seats is available to the members of the Scheduled casts, Scheduled
tribes, O.B.Cs. and women in the election for the post of President and member of the
Municipality. There is an administrative officer in every municipality who is known as
Chief Municipal officer who exercises administrative control over all other officers and
staff of the Municipality.
Municipal Corporation -
In big cities the institution for local governance is called Municipal Corporation.
There are Municipal Corporations in big cities of the state like Bhopal, Gwalior, Indore,
Ujjain, Jabalpur, Rewa, Sagar etc. The State Legislative Assembly decides in which city
there should be a Municipal Corporation. Important organ of the Municipal Corporation
is its council. Its members are elected by the people. Every Corporation is divided into
small wards and one member is elected from each ward. In the Municipal Corporation
there is a Mayor. In Madhya Pradesh the mayor of the Municipal Corporation is directly
elected by the people. There is an administrative officer of the Corporation who is
known as Commissioner. The Commissioner of the Corporation is appointed from the
Civil Services cadre. Funds are given to the Corporation by the State Government.
Besides, the Corporation has a right to impose taxes. The Corporation imposes taxes like
water tax, property tax, octroi etc.
Functions of Local Bodies
The functions of Nagar Panchayat, Municipalities and Municipal Corporation are
same; these institutions perform following functions in their area of operation -
1. To make arrangement for lighting in public buildings and roads.
2. To keep the town/city clean and suitable arrangements are made for this.
3. To make suitable arrangement for stray cattle and manage cattle pounds.
4. Registration of births and deaths
5. Arrangement for water supply

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 6. Construction and maintenance of roads and public buildings.
7. Fire protection and fire fighting and arrangements for vehicles and equipments
for the people
8. Organise fairs etc. for the people.
The local bodies provide several facilities to the citizens and fulfill their local
needs.

Terms
Parliament(Sansad) - Sansad (Parliament) comprises both the houses of Parliament
under the Indian Federal System.
Council of Ministers - All ministers together form the Council of Ministers.
Enactment - Framing laws
Bill - Draft of the law proposed to be enacted by the Legislative
Assembly or Parliament
Single or one House - Where there is only one house of the Legislature.
Advocate General - Legal Adviser of the State Government
Annual Financial Statement - Statement of estimated income and expenditure of the
Government (Budget)
Select Committee - When a bill is sent for examination by the Speaker of the
Lok Sabha or Rajya Sabha for examination to a Committee,
this committee is known as Select Committee.
Councillor - Elected member of the Municipal Corporation or Municipality
Exercises
Select right option
1. The number of members of the Legislative Assembly of Madhya Pradesh.
(i) 320 (ii) 270
(iii) 250 (iv) 230
2. Who is empowered to nominate members to the Council of States?
(i) The President (ii) Prime Minister
(iii) Governor (iv) Supreme Court

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 3. Who from amongst the following is empowered to promulgate ordinance in
a State?
(i) Governor (ii) Home Minister
(iii) Chief Minister (iv) Council of States
4. The Governor of a State is an integral part of -
(i) Parliament (ii) Legislative Assembly
(iii) Judiciary (iv) Council of States
Very Short answer type questions :
1. What is the age of retirement of a Justice of the Supreme Court?
2. What is the number of members of Parliament from Madhya Pradesh?
3. Who elect the Speaker of the House of People?
Short answer type questions :
1. Write qualifications of a member of the Loksabha (House of People).
2. Describe functions of district Panchayat.
3. Write functions of the Prime Minister.
4. Write functions of the Council of States.
5. Write four functions of the Governor of a state.
Long answer type questions :
1. Describe the special features of Federal form of Government.
2. How has division of administrative powers been made between the Central
Government and State Government?
3. Write the procedure of passing a bill in the Parliament.
4. Write the emergency powers of the President.
5. Describe functions of the Council of Ministers.
6. Describe the powers of the Supreme Court of India.
7. Explain the Panchayat Raj System and describe the functions of Local bodies.

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-14
Main Challanges before Democracy
India achieved independence on the 15th
We shall learn  of August 1947, during last 6 decades the
14.1 Population explosion Country made great progress in many sectors.
14.2 Unemployment problem Many reforms were brought about in the social,
14.3 Communalism economic and political sectors. However the
14.4 Terrorism pace of progress has been rather slow because
14.5 Drug addiction there are many challenges which the country is
14.6 Impediments in the way of facing. Because of the problems like
development of democracy communalism, casteism, regional feelings,
14.7 Steps to remove the terrorism, poverty, unemployment etc., the
hinderances in the way of country is facing; it has not become possible
democracy for the government to pay whole hearted
attention only towards developmental activities and utilise all the funds earmarked for
them. The above mentioned problems are unnecessarily increasing differences and a
sense of distrust among people of the country. This is unnecessarily disturbing peace and
harmony in the country. Moreover certain old traditions, customs and beliefs which are
not in conformity with the present day situations are prevalent even today in the Indian
society. Violence by terrorists some times assumes serious situation. It is time that
serious thought is given to these challenges and efforts are made to combat them.
14.1 Population Explosion-
When the rate of growth of the population becomes very fast and assumes such
proportions that the available resources fall short of the needs of the people, such
situation is termed as 'Population explosion.' All the efforts directed towards economic
development of the country are nullified because of the fast growth of the population.
The geographical area of the Country is 2.4 percent of the total geographical area
of the world whereas, the country's populations is 16.87 percent of the world's population
India is second in the world so far as population is concerned while its place is seventh
in the world in respect of the geographical area available. Because of the population
explosion the problems of food, clothing and shelter have become grave.
As per the 1901 Census the population of the country was 23.8 crores which
has increased to 102.7 crores as per the census of 2001.
The death rate of the country has reduced considerably due to expansion of health
facilities and spread of education in the country although the birth rate is also reducing

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but its pace is rather slow. The adequacy or otherwise of the natural resources of the
country is dependent on the size of the population of that country. Increase in population
is more that proportionate and is a curse for underdeveloped countries. The rate at which
the population increases, the national production does'nt increase in that proportion, as
a result of this, per capita average income reduces and the standard of living of the
people becomes low.
The efficiency and capacity of people to work is also affected adversely. In our
country a family with two children has been considered ideal where as in our neighboring
country China, a family with only one child has been considered to be ideal. The pace,
at which the population of our country is increasing, it may soon exceed the population
of China.
Causes of population explosion -
Following are some of the main reasons of increase in population:-
1. Social reasons -
1. Due to joint family system, it is not difficult to bring up and look after more
children.
2. More children are born to a couple due to child marriages and the age of
marriage being less.
3. The Indian society believes in old traditions where birth of a male child is
given more importance.
4. The social condition of women is deplorable.
5. Birth of a child is considered a boon and God's grace.
2. Economic reasons -
1. Due to poverty more children are considered to be an economic asset.
2. Dependence on agriculture - Children of people engaged in agriculture help
them in agricultural operations, grazing the cattle and protecting the crops
etc.
3. Faulty economic vision - The rural people feel that every new child in the
family brings a pair of hands to work, he will prove to be a helping hand in
the household work. They consider children a boon.
3. Other reasons -
1. Illiteracy (Lack of education )- Illiterate people are not able to appreciate the
problems of over population and large family. They therefore, do not pay any
attention towards this problem.
2. Climate - The climate of India is hot. The girls here attain puberty in early
age, due to early marriage they give birth to child early.

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 3. There is dearth of birth control means. Due to ignorance and lack of easy
availability, people do not make use of birth control measures to the desired
extent.
4. Diminishing death rate - The death rate is fast diminishing in India therefore,
the population growth is not being checked..
Effect of population explosion
1. Per capita income comes down.
2. The level of savings and investment goes down.
3. The pressure on land increases and the yield of food grains from the
agricultural land also diminishes proportionately.
4. Shortage of food grains - Because of increase in the population, food
scarcity is faced.
5. Increase in population also gives rise to the problems of housing and
education.
More agricultural land is diverted for housing and therefore availability of
land for agriculture is adversely affected.
6. It is not possible to provide adequate and efficient health services.
7. Due to increase in population demand for commodities increases and their
supply falls short of demand therefore the prices of commodities go up.
8. Increase in unemployment - The supply of labour is more and the number of
unemployed persons increases.
9. The use of energy increases, more electricity is needed and therefore need
for power increases.
The above factors hinder our development process, it is therefore, necessary to
remove these hinderances.
Steps to solve the problem of population explosion-
The only way to arrest population growth in India is to drastically control the birth
rate. The Government has formulated a 'population policy' to arrest the growth of
population in the country.
Following steps are being taken in this direction: -
1. Family planning programme has been implemented and constant propaganda
and publicity is being done for its success.
2. Family Planning centres have been set up in cities and villages.
3. The age of marriage has been increased to 18 years for girls and 21 years for
the boys.

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 4. Family planning programmes are being promoted and training programmes
are being organised to make the programme effective.
5. Promotion of the philosophy of two children in a family.
6. Pay attention towards basic maternity facilities.
7. Immunisation and vaccination against certain diseases.
8. Pay more attention towards women education.
9. To associate social institutions in the family planning programme.
Inspite of constant efforts of the Government in this direction desired results are
not being achieved; therefore there is a need to put up this issue before the people as
an issue of national importance. There is also a need for bringing awareness among the
people.
14.2 Unemployment
Unemployment is a situation where people are willing to work on the prevalent rate
of wages / salary but they do not find work. In the situation this gap between the available
labour supply and opportunities for employment increases.
The supply of labour is more as compared to the demand; i.e. people are willing to
work but they are not able to get work. In India unemployment is both in urban areas so
also in rural areas.
1. Urban unemployment - The number of educated unemployed youths is increasing
because of two reasons- youths acquire higher education in the hope of getting better
employment opportunities so also there is an influx of working population from villages
to urban areas. On the other hand due to mechanisation and modernisation need for large
number of employees has diminished, as a result, employment opportunities have
diminished; so also unemployment in the industrial sector has also increased.
2. Rural unemployment- In the agriculture sector opportunities of gainful
employment throughout the year are not there; farmers are unemployed for about six
months in an year. Cottage industries have also not developed due to lack of capital;
consequently they are unable to employ themselves round the year and their income is
also not increasing.
Causes of unemployment in India -
Main reasons for unemployment in India are as under:-
1. Fast rate of population growth - Population is growing at very fast rate but
employment opportunities are not increasing in that proportion.
2. Pressure on agriculture - The pressure on land and agriculture is increasing
resulting into latent unemployment. Consequently income of marginal farmers so also
the per capita income has diminished.

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 3. Defective education system - The education system is not employment
oriented and professional education system has not developed to the desired extent. As
a result a large number of arts graduates (B.As and M.As.) are unemployed.
4. Defective planning - Adequate attention has not been paid to increase employment
opportunities in our plans and therefore it can be said that the planning process has been
defective.
5. Absence of mobility of labour- The rural population even today has faith in old
traditions and beliefs and they do not want to move out to other places where employment
is available, they stick to their ancestral places.
6. Slow economic growth - The pace of economic growth during the five year
plans has not touched the targetted level therefore, employment opportunities have not
increased.
7. Absence of capital mobilisation - The income of the rural cultivators is low,
savings are not generated, level of investment is low and therefore employment is not
generated.
8. Industries are making use of modern technologically advanced machinery for
production, which requires less manpower.
9. Those who are qualified (non technical qualifications) are reluctant to take up
jobs involving physical labour, they prefer to sit idle than take up jobs of physical labour.
10. There is dearth of employment information system and proper guidance
facilities for unemployed people.
The above factors lead to following adverse effects -
1. Waste of manpower - In the absence of fruitful employment the manpower of
the country is wasted; they become victims of frustration and are attracted towards
crimes and anti social activities.
2. Hindarance in economic development - Unemployment in agriculture and
other sectors leads to low income; level of savings and investment becomes low and
consequently economic development is hampered.
3. The country spends sizeable amount on health services and education, money is
spent on training programmes but it all goes a waste due to unemployment.
4. Social problems - Unemployed people become victims of dissatisfaction and
crimes like theft, dacoity, dishonesty and social evils increase. The social order is
disturbed. Government has to spend lot of money to check crimes and curb the social
evils.
5. Political instability - Unemployment gives rise to dissatisfaction and anger
against the Government resulting into political instability.

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Ways and means to remove unemployment -
1. Control the rise in population - the rising population should be controlled,
this is necessary along with steps to increase employment opportunities.
2. Development of small and cottage industries - These industries help people
engage themselves in part time employment. Capital investment is less and family
members themselves run these industries. These industries help the farmers to work in
their spare time according to their capacity and fruitfully put to use their labour and
craftsmanship. They can invest their small savings and earn additional income for their
family. The Government should also promote such industries by providing them capital.
3. Vocational education - There is need of change in the education system of the
country. The students should be encouraged and helped to opt for employment oriented
courses after passing high school examination; this will enable them to get employment.
4. Increase in investment - Investment in public sector should be made on a large
scale to remove unemployment. In the private sector also large industrial units which are
labour intensive should be set up. Government should control and regulate setting up of
capital intensive large industrial units where less human labour input is needed otherwise
it will give rise to unemployment.
5. Development of subsidiary occupations - In the rural areas subsidiary
occupations like dairy development, pisciculture, poultry, horticulture and floriculture
should be encouraged.
6. Training facilities - Facilities for training of unskilled workers should be
organised, for this training centres should be opened as per the demand for labour in
specific trades / sector. mobility of labour should be encouraged by giving them
necessary help and assistance.
7. Extension of rural employment schemes- Development schemes for the rural
areas should be extended further. More agriculture service centres should be opened.
Self Employment programme, 'Jawahar Rojgar Yojna ', 'Samriddhi Yojna' etc. should be
extended further. The 'Prime Minister Rojgar Yojna', Employment guarantee scheme etc.
should also be extended in cities.
8. Development of agriculture - New schemes in the sector of agriculture should
be introduced. Multi cropping, improved seeds, fertilisers, improved agricultural
implements and new techniques in agriculture should be introduced. Timely loans should
be provided for agriculture so that income form agriculture may increase and the
agriculturists may save money for investment in agriculture itself.
14.3 Communalism -
India is a secular country where people of different castes, religion and sects live.
Communalism implies respecting only one's own religion, spreading hatred for others'

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religion, working only with the narrow end of respecting own religion and not caring for
the larger national interest may be termed as communalism.
Before Independence the Hindus, Muslims, Sikhs and Christians all took part in the
freedom struggle in a united manner and succeeded in achieving Independence. The
British people adopted the policy of divide and rule and spread hatred amongst different
communities. The country was divided into two, on the basis of religion. A sense of
distrust developed and communalism took roots which is present in the country even
today.
In our country all sects and religions have existed and all the sects and religions
have played a role in the development of the Country. Beautiful monuments like
Tajmahal, Fatehpur Sikri, Red Fort, Meenaskhi Temple, Temples of Khajuraho and Sun
Temple of Konark, Vivekanand Memorial, Sanchi etc are gifts of different religions and
we Indians are proud of them. Communalism is a curse for national unity and humanity.
Factors responsible for communalism -
1. The British policy of dividing the country is responsible for the spread of
communalism in the country, as a result of which a sense of distrust has
developed among people of different religions who were earlier living in
harmony in the country.
2. The politicians and political leaders accept the unreasonable demands of the
people of different sects and religions and please them for winning the
elections and political gain.
3. Some political leaders also, for their selfish motives, do not make efforts to
spread education amongst the illiterate people to eradicate unemployment and
poverty, and only encourage the people to take religious education of their
sects.
In the absence of right education, rational thinking does not develop among
them and their living standard does not improve.
4. Some countries make exaggerated propaganda of small events and arouse
communal feelings among the people of the country.
5. Sometimes the government also does not take right action timely; if this is
done, the events taking a grave turn can be checked and riots can be prevented.
6. Separatist tendencies of different religions and sects are also responsible for
spread of communalism.
Due to communalism and the resultant riots and disturbances, great loss of lives
and property, both private and public, takes place. Situation of political instability also
arises. Communalism also affects election, people elect even unsuitable and undesirable
candidate of their community .It affects the unity and harmony in the nation. The pace

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of economic and industrial progress slows down and there is threat to national security.
The army is to be deployed in disturbed areas, whereas the need of the army is more for
the security of borders of the country.
Measures to combat communalism -
1. Prayers of all religions - The State should organise combined prayers of all
religions.
2. Value education and spiritual values should be included in education from the
very beginning.
3. While framing laws the Government should ensure that they are equally
applicable to people of all the religions, there should be no discrimination in
their application on the grounds of caste, religions, language, sex etc.
4. At the time of election a candidate should not be elected on the grounds of
religion. Influence of religion on politics hampers the secular feelings. The
leaders should give importance to the national interests and not communal
interests.
5. Special attention should be paid towards spread of education so that people
are able to discriminate between what is good and what is bad. Illiterate
people become fanatic easily.
6. Government should not act in a manner which encourages communalism. We
should strike a proper balance between the limited interests of the community
and larger interests of the nation, only then we shall be able to save ourselves
from communal feelings and inculcate a feelings of patriotism.
14.4 Terrorism -
Violence by some people or group of people against humanity is terrorism. It is a
crime against democracy. Terrorism has become a universal problem these days. The
terrorists are spreading their activities in the world to terrorise people and a sense of
insecurity is developing among them. They justify unethical means also and try to pose
a danger to the unity and integrity of the country. Some foreign elements, extremists and
people with separatist tendencies are encouraging terrorism. They want to terrorise
people by disturbing peace in the whole world. A few years back the terrorists had
destroyed the World Trade Centre in a prosperous country like United States of America.
Thousand of people died and the whole world was stunned by this act. The country
suffered huge financial loss and a sense of insecurity spread among the people. They
explode bombs and adopt such practices which divide the society. In India terrorism can
be seen in three forms -
1. Religious terrorism - The terrorism we see in Jammu and Kashmir is an
example of this.. The intention of the terrorists there is to kill people, abduct them, rob

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them and disrupt the law and order situation in the State. The terrorists coming from the
other side of the border are carrying out terrorist activities in the name of religion. They
are compelling the people of a particular community to abandon their homes and rob
them. The terrorist activities are continuing unabated and India was compelled to fight
3 wars with Pakistan because of these types of activities.
2. Naxalite activities - The activities of the Naxalites are also disrupting the law
and order situation in the country. Such activity first started in a village called Naxalbadi
in West Bengal; therefore it is called Naxalism. They also are engaged in the same type
of anti social activities. Their activities are spreading in Andhra Pradesh, Chhatisgarh,
West Bengal etc. They claim that they are followers of Marxist and Maoist ideology.
3. Communal Terrorism - In the States of North-East India tribal and non-tribal
communities constantly fight with each other. They are posing a law and order problem
before the country.
Impact and effect of terrorism -
1. A sense of insecurity prevails amongst the people.
2. Economic progress is hampered, instead of paying attention towards
development activities, the Government has to pay attention towards combating
terrorist activities and helping affected families, this adversely affects the
government schemes.
3. There is considerable loss of life and property. Innocent people are killed.
Public and private property is damaged.
4. Terrorism poses a situation of undeclared war. Some countries are using
terrorism as a diplomatic tool.
Factors responsible for terrorism-
1. Colonial rule - The colonial rule and the oppressive policies and activities of
the colonial rulers are also responsible for terrorism. The citizens resort to terrorist
activities to resist the activities of the colonial rule and achieve freedom.
2. Modern means of information and technology are being used by the terrorists in
their activities; these means are television, internet, mobile, fax etc.
3. Hatred between two nations - Now a days one nation conducts terrorist
activities in another country and it imparts training and makes available to them money,
weapons and other facilities to spread terrorism in that / those countries. This is also
known as cross border terrorism. India is also a victim of cross border terrorism. The
neighboring nations of our country are helping terrorists in different ways and help them
to spread terrorism in our country. Certain countries in the world resort to terrorism to
let other countries down and weaken. Terrorists use different types of weapons, chemical
and bio chemical weapons and also resort to highjacking of aeroplanes, mass killing,

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abduction etc.
Terrorism has now become a universal problem. All the nations should therefore
come together to find solution to this problem. India should adopt stern attitude to check
terrorism in Kashmir. All the citizens of the country should unite to fight terrorism.
14.5 Drug addiction
What are drugs?
Drugs make the brain inactive, blood circulation becomes fast and such kick gives
momentary pleasure. When intoxicating things are taken, the person loses control over
himself, the brain becomes inactive and the body also becomes inactive when the effect
of the intoxicant is gone.
These days the trend of drug addiction has increased which is a cause of concern.
Drugs production takes place only in a few countries but their consumption (use) is
worldwide. They are smuggled because they fetch very high price. Following commodities
may be included in the category of drugs:
Liquor, Cigarettes, 'Ganja', 'Bhang', opium, 'Charas', Cocaine, Morphine, Haroin etc.
Effects of drugs
1. Drug addiction adversely affects the health of the concerned person. The body
becomes inactive and the person suffers from several diseases.
2. The physical and mental efficiency deteriorates and the person is incapable to do
more work.
3. His financial condition also deteriorates. A major portion of the income is
wasted on drugs which, otherwise, could have been utilised for family needs. Domestic
quarrels increase and the development of children is adversely affected.
4. Social status of the drug addicts is also adversely affected. They are not looked
upon in the society as good people. The whole family has to suffer.
5. Due to consumption of drugs quarrels, thefts, sex crimes increase, and the law
and order situation also deteriorates.
6. Smuggling of drugs increases and the Government has to spend its energy and
resources to control drug trafficking.
Causes of drug addiction -
1. The deplorable condition after the effect of intoxication is over, leads the person
to consume drugs again. The physical and financial condition of the drug addict further
deteriorates
2. Some people become drug addicts because they feel it will relieve them of their
mental problems. These days the life has become so troublesome that people think drugs
can relieve their mental stress. Sometimes friends also persuade people to take drugs.

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 3. Drinking in parties has become a fashion, Bars and dances in the bars, their
exhibition through electronic media, impact of western culture, all these together have
lead to more drug addiction.
4. Films have also influenced the youth of today and they have started drinking and
smoking. The youth both boys and girls take drugs in the parties taking place in hotels.
5. To imitate like the elite society, contacts with persons of the so called elite
society, and business parties, have increased the use of drugs.
Check on drug consumption -
If consumption of drugs is stopped or reduced, mental equilibrium of the person
will be maintained and economic prosperity will increase. There will be peace and
happiness in the family and crimes will be reduced. The work efficiency will improve,
production will increase, and health will improve. Our future generation will be healthy
and prosperous.
It is necessary that the citizens have sound health so that the country may progress.
Our future generation will be healthy and prosperous. Every country has framed policy
and rules to prevent drug addiction. Social institutions are also working in this direction
to arouse social awareness. In our country also efforts in this direction are being made.
Mahatma Gandhi had started a campaign for prohibition. The Governments have also
taken steps in this direction and adopted policy of prohibition but expected success has
not been achieved, some causes of this are as under:
1. The state Governments get a sizeable revenue by way of excise duty and
therefore they are not much interested in total prohibition.
2. Effective steps are not being taken to arouse awareness amongst the people in
this direction. Mere printing of statutory warnings on packets of cigarettes and liquor
will reduce consumption of these commodities is a wrong notion. More concentrated
efforts are needed for this.
3. In the media also consumption of liquor is being shown, therefore, the efforts
in this direction are not proving effective.
The evil effects of drugs should be propagated from the primary education stage.
Thus we can save the future generations from drug addiction. Drug trafficking should be
checked and the culprits should be severely punished. Social awareness should be
increased.
14.6 Impediments in the way of success of Democracy:
democratic form of government has been considered to be the best amongst all
other forms of Government. The structure of Indian democracy is based on its Constitution
and this system is functioning with the cooperation of different political parties.

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 With the passage of time some defects have crept in, which pose a threat to the
present democratic system. The challenges our desmocracy is facing are hurdles in the
way of success of our democracy.
Hurdles in the way of Indian democratic system.
1. Poverty and unemployment - About 26% people of the total population of the
country are living below the poverty line. Crores
of educated and uneducated youth of the country
have no perennial source of employment. This Impediments in the way of
section of the people have problems of their success of Democracy.
own, consequently smooth functioning of 1. Poverty and rising number of
democracy is rendered difficult. Poverty and unemployed people.
unemployed citizens are conservative and have
2. Casteism, regional feelings
no inclination to adopt modern ideology. This
and Linguistic problems.
section of the population instead of contributing
to the progress of the nation are only worried 3. Illiteracy
about their belly filing. 4. Social evils
2. Casteism, regional feelings and 5. Role of the media.
linguistic problems : In our country all the
citizens have been given the rights of freedom
and equality of opportunity but other feelings of casteism and regionalism come in the
way of enjoying the rights of equality and freedom. The people who believed in the
democratic system felt that cast feelings will gradually disappear but the political
parties are making use of caste feelings for their selfish ends and consequently caste
feelings are predominating in the political system of the country. When people give
priority to caste in the political matters then proper functioning of democracy is
hampered.
Besides casteism there are other problems like regional and linguistic feelings. The
people even today prefer to identity themselves with their region. People work on the
basis of regional feelings consequently impartiality in the state is affected. People of a
particular region want that only their region should develop. The Britsishers, during their
rule, developed some specific areas, here, good facilities were available in the field of
education, communication etc. Such areas developed economically also. Those areas
which lagged behind are now trying for the development of their area. Such regional
feelings give rise to the demand for a separate state for themselves. In Andhra Pradesh
people are asking for a separate Telangana State. Demand for a separate Bundelkhand
State and 'Brij Pradesh' are also made from time to time. When regional interests are
given importance over national interests then the democratic values are given less
importance,

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 Sometimes it is said that a particular region is for the people of that region only.
This ideology is not only undemocratic but against the sprit of national integration and
the Constitution.
Diversity in languages spoken are also at times proving a hurdle in the way of
democracy. Even after reorganisation of states on linguistic basis, there were movements
against the national language Hindi, in many states of South India. When political parties
instigated people on the basis of their regional language it adversely affected the
development process in democracy. It is only because of language politics that, the
feelings of meanning between north and south has developed several times.
3. Illiteracy - Democracy can be successful if the citizens are literate and
educated. According to Census 2001 the percentage of literacy in India was 64.8,
whereas women literacy was only 53.7 percent. Although both men and women enjoy
equal rights, lack of education pose many problems in successful running of democracy.
Due to lack of education the citizens are not able to participate actively and efficiently
in the democratic processes and this hampers the progress of the country.
4. Social evils - Indian society is a traditional society. The people do not freely
express themselves, free expression of ideas is a prerequisite in democracy.
Even today social evils like untouchability, discrimination against women, feeling
of caste supremacy, superstition etc. are prevalent in the society; these social evils do
not allow democracy to become a part of our system.
5. Role of media - In democracy media plays an important role for communication
of ideas. Press plays an important role but today television and internet have become
more important. The media influences the minds of the people so also it affects the
Government and the administration. The right to information of government activities
has been given to the people by a law in this respect. The media keeps the people
informed as to what the government is doing for them and in what manner.
Media acts as a link between the government and the people. Government implements
many welfare schemes and plans for the people. Their propaganda and publicity is done
by the media only on professional basis (through government advertisements) and not
publicising Government schemes and their achievements by assuming a positive role;
whereas the media can play a positive role in formulating public opinion and giving it
proper direction.
14.7 Measures to remove bottlenecks in the way of democracy -
In the preamble of the Constitution, the objectives of the state policy have been
clearly defined. These objectives are: democratic secular republic, equality, liberty and
fraternity for all the citizens; social, economic and political justice, dignity of the
people, and protecting the unity and integrity of the people. Soon after independence the

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Government, administration and the people are making constant efforts to achieve these
objectives. But certain factors are coming in the way of achieving the above objectives.
For removing poverty and unemployment, social awareness is also necessary
besides government efforts. Individual and the society together should come forward to
take the benefits of government schemes. Vocational education and self-employment
schemes need to be given a boost. Public awareness is necessary for spread of education.
Casteism and caste feelings, regional feelings, linguistic issues, all these are related to
the mental make up of the people. There is need to take steps to ensure that people
follow the law. The election system also needs improvement; therefore steps to improve
the system are also necessary.
In democracy it is necessary that corruption is eradicated and crimes are controlled.
The culprits should be punished immediately. For this there is a need to reform the
judicial system. The number of political parties should also be reduced by making a law
in this respect. Training of morality and moral values should be organised for political
leaders on our basis. New laws are needed to improve political parties. There is a need
to make laws and formulate guidelines for the media.
People of India believe in the supernatural power (One God) but they are generally
not communal. Therefore educated and enlightened people should save people from
communal feelings. It is high time people understand that caste based politics only
divides the people.

Terms
Party in power and - The party or parties who form Government are party in
opposition - power and those who are not in Government, oppose the
party in power/Government, for their policies and action, are
called opposition.
Constitutional ways - The procedures to oppose the Government in the House of
to oppose People or Legislative Assemblies under the constitution are
through: Adjournment Motion, Vote of no confidence and
criticizing the policies or actions of the Government or
government work and schemes on the floor of the House.
Investment - To invest money in some business to earn income.
Prohibition - Restriction on the consumption and trading of into....cation.

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 Exercises
Select the right option :
1. Indicate place of India in comparison to other countries of the world in
respect of total population.
(i) Third (ii) Second
(iii) Seventh (iv) Fifth
2. Which mode do the terrorists adopt to carry out their terrorist activities?
(i) Peace talks (ii) Education
(iii) Politics (iv) Murder and abduction
3. Who started the prohibition Movement against liquor consumption in the
country?
(i) Jawaharlal Nehru (ii) Mahatma Gandhi
(iii) Swami Vivekanand (iv) Lalbahadur Shastri
4. To remove unemployment, steps should be taken by the Government for the
students after they pass their high school examination.
(i) Vocational education (ii) Spiritual education
(iii) Political education (iv) Moral education
Match the following :
1. Legislative Assembly Supreme Court
2. Description of Constitution Central Government
3. Union List State Legislature
4. Member of Parliament President
5. To issue ordinance Citizenship of India
Very short answer type questions :
1. What is the place of India in the world with respect to population?
2. What are the challenges before democracy?
3. What is communalism?
4. What is a drug or intoxicating thing?
5. What is the meaning of unemployment?
6. Illiteracy is a hurdle in the way of healthy public opinion. Explain.
7. What is Urban employment?
8. What is social inequality?

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Short answer type questions :
1. What do you mean by population explosion, explain.
2. Write four reasons for the spread of communalism.
3. Why should there be ban on drugs?
4. Write four reasons of increase in population.
5. Write four reasons why terrorism is resorted to?
Long answer type questions :
1. What is the effect of drugs on the body?
2. What measures should be adopted to remove unemployment in India?
3. How does regionalism affect the National unity?
4. What measures should be adopted to arrest population growth?
5. What are the effects of terrorism on the society? What measures should be
adopted to fight terrorism?
6. What steps should be taken to remove unemployment form the country.
7. Describe the factors which are adversely affecting the success of democracy
in the country. Write about the measures which should be adopted for the
success of democracy in the country.

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-15
Economic Development & Planning
In modern age, everyone desires to have a
We shall learn  house to live, food to eat, clothes to wear and
15.1 Concept of Development facilities like education and health for their
15.2 National & per Capita children. But all this is possible only when they
Income get employment so that they can earn enough
15.3 Indicators of Development and thus can fulfil their needs. This process is
15.4 developed and developing known as economic development in Economics.
state Thus this can be said that economic
15.5 Economic Planning development is such a continuous process as a
15.6 Success and failures of result of which all the factors of production of
Planning in India a country are used efficiently. In this process
15.7 Vision India 2020 the national income and per capita income
increase continuously and leads to long term
growth. Following are the opinions of the ancient and modern economists regarding
economic development -
15.1 Concept of Development
In ancient times India was known as 'The Golden Sparrow'. It means that at that time
India was a prosperous and developed country. Here the economy was mainly based on
simple living, hard work and mutual brotherhood. Sufficient food grains were obtained
from fertile land and cottage and rural industries made their living easy. Trade was done
on large scale due to which along with people, the state and villages were happy and
prosperous. In ancient times under economic development along with materialistic
facilities human values were also given important place. The great thinker, Kautilya,
described these thoughts in detail in his book 'Arthshastra'.
In ancient time a special place was given to materialistic prosperity under economic
development at global level. The mercantile thinkers of Germany and France considered
gold and silver as the basis of development. The concept of development kept on
changing with time.
According to classical economist Adam Smith, economic development has been
defined as increase in goods and services of a country. Karl Marx considered economic
development as the establishment of socialism J. S. Mill's opinion about economic
development is totally different. He considered economic development as to follow the
principle of cooperation for welfare of people and economic development.

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 Among the new economists Paul Albert considers economic development as the
increase in real national income by use of all productive resources by a country. While
in the opinion of Williamson and Bustricks- development is the increase in the per capita
income of the people of a country. The opinion of D. Bright Singh is different from all
these, in that economic development involves not only increase in money income but
also improvement in social welfare. Prof. Amirtya Sen, honored by Nobel Prize has also
given special importance to social welfare.
Meir and Baldwin have defined economic development as "Economic development
is a process whereby an economy's real national income increases over a long period of
time".
The knowledge of characteristics of economic development is necessary to
understand the economic development easily. The main characteristics of development
are as below-
1. Continuous Process - Economic development is a continuous process as a
result of which the national income gradually increases. There is continuity in demand
and supply of a commodity in an economy as the result of this process.
2. Increase in National Income and Per capita Income - National income and
per capita income as a result of economic development increases continuously.
3. A long period process - Economic development is a long term process because
development cannot be called a short term or short period increase or change. For
example - If in any one year agricultural production increases due to good rains thereby
national income will also be increased, but it cannot be called as economic development.
4. Proper Utlisation of Resources - In economic development all the resources
available in the country are utilised efficiently.
5. Improvement in standard of living and social welfare - In economic
development, the standard of living of the common people improves due to increase in
per capita income. Economic disparity decreases and the public welfare programmes
such as education, public health etc. are increased by the government. It improves the
standard of living of people. Increase in the income of a country and its people is the
result of economic development which are known as national income and per capita
income.
15.2 National and Per Capita Income -
National Income - National income is the income of a country. It is obtained by
adding the monetary values of the commodities and services produced in a country in a
year.
Defining national income. Marshal writes - "The labour and capital of the country
acting on its natural resources, material and non material including services of all kinds

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produce annually a certain net aggregate of commodities. This is the real net annual,
income or revenue of the country or the national dividend."
Following facts related to national income are important-
1. National income is related to all the quantity of the goods and services
produced in a particular period or in an year.
2. Market prices of all kinds of goods and services are included in national
income in which price of one commodity is counted only once.
3. Income from foreign countries is added to it and income earned by the
foreigners from the country is deducted from it.
Per Capita Income - When the National income of a country is divided by its total
population then what we get is its per capita income.
The following formula is used to calculate the per capita income of a country-
National Income
Per Capita Income = ____________________________
Total population of the country
Per Capita income gives us an idea of the standard of living of the people of that
country. If the per capita income is increasing in a country it means that the lives of the
people of that country are becoming happier. It means their standard of living is
improving.
15.3 Indicators of Development -
Gross national income is accepted as measure to compare the level of development
between different countries for a long period of time. According to this measure
countries having higher income are considered to be more developed as compared to the
countries having lower income, because the people of these countries consume more
goods due to higher income. But the national income is not a proper measure for the
comparing different countries. The reason behind this is the population of different
countries is different and the importance of the size of population is accepted for
measuring the level of development. As a result of this per capita income is considered
a good measure for measuring the level of development, but national and per capita
income are not considered a good measure from the view point of total development,
because it gives importance only to the average income. Actually facilities of health,
education, housing, nutritive food, drinking water etc. provided to common people
should be included in the development. Therefore as an alternative for the national and
per capita income, importance is given to human development indicators for measuring
economic development.
Professor Morris developed a physical quality of life index (or PQLI) in this
direction. Similarly, Professor Paul Streetan emphasised on accepting the Basic Need

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Approach. In the year 1990 United Nations Organisation published 'Human Development
Indicator or Index' by giving absolute form, to these thoughts. After this, these indicators
of economic development were published in the reports of Human Development
Indicators.
Both physical and non physical factors are included in Human Development Index.
Gross domestic product such as physical factor and child mortality rate, life expectancy
and educational achivements as non physical factors are included in it.
Construction of Human development Index.
Three basic factors of life are utilised in the construction of Human Development
Index.
These factors are-
1. Life expectancy at time of birth for measuring a long and healthy life.
2. Rate of adult literacy and total enrolment ratio.
3. Per Capita Gross Domestic Product.
First of all indicators of these three Indian situation referred to
factors are prepared separately to calculate Human Development Index
Human Development Index. Then after their
Country Human Rank in
average is calculated whose value is Development World
presented between 0 to 1. The indicator of Index (2004)
most developed country stands near 1 and Norway 0.965 1
most undeveloped country's indicator stands Australia 0.957 3
near 0. On this basis, the countries of the China 0.768 81
world are classified into the following three Srilanka 0.755 93
classes according to their level of Indonesia 0.711 108
development- India 0.611 126
1. Highly developed countries - Pakistan 0.539 134
Those countries whose indicator is measured Bangladesh 0.530 137
0.8 or more are considered highly developed. Nepal 0.527 138
2. Medium Developed Country - Mozambie 0.390 168
Those countries are considered to be Nizer 0.311 177
Medium human developed countries whose
indicator is measured from 0.5 to 0.8
3. Less Developed countries - Those countries are considered to be low human
developed countries whose measure of index is below 0.5
Under the development programme of United Nations Organisation; Human
Development Index has been published for 177 countries. According to these indexes 63
countries are Highly developed. 83 are medium and 31 are low human developed

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countries. Among these countries India ranks 126th. According to Human Development
Reports 2006, Human Development Index of some countries of the world are shown in
the table above. On the basis of these, Indian government has prepared Human Development
Index for different states.
15.4 Developed and Developing Countries:
Developed countries are those countries, where the citizens easily fulfill their
needs of food, clothing and other human requirements. Poverty and unemployment are
under control in these countries. Japan, America, England etc. are considered as
developed countries. On the contrary, there are also such countries where citizens do not
get sufficient food, clothing is also in limited quantity and their standard of living is very
low.
In these countries unemployment and illiteracy are found on large scale. These
countries are called
underdeveloped or Basis of difference between
developing countries. developed and developing country
India, Pakistan,
Measure Developed Developing
Bangladesh, Srilanka
country country
and Myanmar etc. are
Agriculture Not agriculture Agriculture based
placed in this category.
based
These underdeveloped
Natural Resources Full utilisation Under utilisation
countries are also
Per capita Income More Less
called poor, backward
Capital formation High Low
developing or under
Industry Majority Less effective
developed countries.
Unemployment Minimum More
It is difficult to
Banking and Developed- Less developed
determine whether a
Insurance sufficiently
country is a developed
Birth rate and Low Comparatively
one or developing one.
death rate high
Even then the
Rural population Less More
developed and
Life expectancy More Comparatively less
developing countries
Technical education Developed- Not developed
can be distinguished on
extensively extensively
some basis as shown
Literacy Almost total literacy literacy level low
in the table.
What is the difference between developed and developing countries? United
Nations Orginisations has defined it in this way - "Developing countries are those
countries whose per capita real income is less as compared to United States of America,
Canada, Australia and Western European countries."

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 The World Bank in its development report of 2006 has used the measure of per
capita income to distinguish between developed countries and developing countries.
According to this report those countries having per capita income Rs.4,53,000 or more
are considered as developed countries and countries having per capita income Rs.37,000
or less are considered as developing (low income) country.
As among different countries of the world some are fully developed while others
are underdeveloped. In the same manner a country is made up of different states together
in which some states are developed while others are developing states. If we look at India
on the basis of per capita income measure of economic development then we find that
in India some states are comparatively developed states and some states are developing
or backward states. We can classify 15 big states of India into two classes on the ground
of per capita income i.e. developed states and developing states Punjab, Maharashtra,
Haryana, Gujrat, West Bengal, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh, are
included in list of developed states while Madhya Pradesh, Assam, Uttar Pradesh,
Rajasthan, Orissa and Bihar etc. states are in the list of developing states. According to
the Census of 2001, 90 percent of total population of the country resides in these states.
Out of this 48 percent population resides comparatively in developed states and 42
percent population resides in the developing or backward states. A comparative study of
the developed and developing states is shown in following table.
Developed and Developing States of India
Statewise Per Capita Net Gross Domestic Product 2004-2005
(On The Basis Of Present Prices)
Developed State Per Capita Develolping State Per Capita
Income(Rs.) Income(Rs.)
Haryana 32,712 Rajasthan 16,212
Maharashtra 30,170 Uttar Pradesh 14,477
Punjab 30,701 Madhya Pradesh 14,069
Gujrat 28,355 Assam 13,633
Kerala 27,048 Orissa 13,601
Tamil Nadu 25,965 Bihar 5,772
Karnataka 23,945
Andhra Pradesh 23,153 Complete India 22,946
West Bengal 22,497 Source - Economic analysis 2006-07 Indian
government
The above table shows that in India those states are comparitively developed states,
whose per capita income of that year is more than the per capita income of whole India,
while developing or backward states are those whose per capita income is less than per
capita income of whole India.
Among the developed states the top most position is of Haryana on the basis of the

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per capita income in 2004-05. While among the developing states the per cpita income
of the state of Bihar is lowest one.
15.5 Economic Planning
Economic planning is a process in which economic resources are used to obtain
some clear and defined aims in a specified period of time. Thus it can be said that two
things are essential in economic planning such as-
1. Pre decided aims which have to be accomplished.
2. Description of the use of available resources to obtain the pre determined
aims.
In Economic Planning the government decides how will the economic resources be
utilised for the maximum satisfaction of the society. The economic resources of the
country are estimated before planning. The available resources from foreign along with
domestic resources are included in it. After this economic objectives are determined and
efforts are made to obtain the target by using available resources of the country in best
possible manner.
Planning in India and aims of planning
In India the national leaders and experts emphasised on the need of construction of
the nation before achieving independence. In 1934, Sir Vishweshvariya presented a ten
years plan for the economic development and reconstruction of India for the first time.
After that in 1944 The Bombay Plan by the major industrialists of the country and The
Gandhian Plan (Gandhiwadi Yojna) by Shriman Narayan was presented, but these plans
could not be implemented due to some practical reasons.
After the independence, in order to make plans for the country the Planning
Commission was set up on 15th March 1950 for the country. By now 11 five-year plans
have been prepared by this commission and implemented by government of India. At
present the eleventh five year plan is being implemented from 1st April 2007.
The main guiding principles of the five year plans in India are economic equality,
social justice, self dependence, improvement in efficiency and productivity. In different
plans out of above directive principles, emphasis has been laid on different facts due to
changes in situations and problems. In brief the basic objectives of Indian plans are as
below-
1. To obtain high rate of development
2. To obtain self dependency
3. To obtain economic stability
4. To ensure social welfare
5. To obtain social and economic justice
6. To increase the opportunities of employment

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 7 To increase the standard of living
8. Poverty eradication etc.
Various Five Year Plans in India-
Ten five year plans have been completed till now under the economic planning in
India and eleventh plan is in progress. The description of these five year plans is as
below.
Tenure/ Duration of various five year plans in India.
Plan Tenure
First Plan 1st April, 1951 to 31st March 1956
Second Plan 1st April, 1956 to 31st March 1961
Third Plan 1st April, 1961 to 31st March 1966
Three 1 year Plans 1st April, 1966 to 31st March 1969
Fourth Plan 1st April, 1969 to 31st March 1974
Fifth Plan 1st April 1974 to 31st March 1979
Break of one year 1st April, 1979 to 31st March 1980
Sixth Plan 1st April, 1980 to 31st March 1985
Seventh Plan 1st April, 1985 to 31st March 1990
Two 1 year Plan 1st April, 1990 to 31st March 1992
Eighth Plan 1st April, 1992 to 31st March 1997
Ninth Plan 1st April, 1997 to 31st March 2002
Tenth Plan 1st April, 2002 to 31st March 2007
Eleventh Plan 1st April, 2007 to 31st March 2012
15.6 Success and Failure of Planning in India
Economic Planning in India began from 1st April' 1951 and till now 10 five year
plans have been completed. During this period industrial framework of the country
strengthened and self dependency in agriculture was obtained. Rapid expansion occurred
in fields of education health and other social fields. Following are the major success of
planning in India
1. Increase in National and Per capita Income - At the current prices the
national income of India was only 9142 crore in 1950-51 which rose upto 28,46,762.
Crores in the year 2005-06 In similar manner, during this period the per capita income
increased from Rs. 255 to Rs.25,716. Thus it is clear that the national income as well
as per capita income both have increased rapidly during the five year plans.
2. Increase in rate of saving and investment - Some portion of the national
income is invested (used for production) for the economic development. In each plan

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high targets of saving and investments were fixed, which have nearly been achieved. The
gross saving and investment rates in the year 1950-51 (on current prices) were only 8.9
and 8.7 percent of gross national product which increased to 32.4 and 33.8 percent in
the year 2005-06.
3. Development in Agriculture Sector - Agricultural production has increased
extensively due to economic planning. The production of food grains increased to 2083
lakh tons in the year 2005-06 which was only 508 lakh tonnes in 1950-51. During this
period as a result of green revolution high yielding seeds, chemical fertilizer, pesticides,
irrigation facilities etc were expanded. Along with this in agricultural sector infrastructure
developed too.
4. Industrialisation - There has been a remarkable increase in industrial sector
during various five years plans. Today India has become the tenth largest industrial
country of the world. India's progress can be estimated by the fact that the contribution
of manufactured goods in the foreign trade is gradually increasing. Iron and steel,
engineering goods, chemical and cement etc.; basic and heavy industries were set up in
the country during the earlier plans. During this period role of public sector became
important. In the year 1950-51 the number of public enterprises was only 5 which rose
upto 242 in March 2006.
5. Increase in Power Generation- During planning period production of electricity
increased considerably. Power generation which was only 5.1 billion kilowatt in 1950-
51 rose upto 623.2 billion kilowatt in 2005-06. Along with power generation, consumption
of power has also increased in the country. Per capita consumption of electricity in
1950-51 was 2.4 kilowatt which has now increased to 83.6 kilowatt. Similarly, by end
of March 2005, 85 percent villages of the country were electrified.
6. Increase in the Sector of Transport and Communication - During period of
planning the means of transportation and communication made enough progress. In
1950-51 rail route was only 53.6 thousand kilometer in the country which rose upto
63.3 thousand kilometer. Similarly the length of roads was 4 lakhs km in 1950-51 which
has increased to 33.2 lakh km. Similarly, the waterways and airways sector also have
expanded rapidly. As far as communication is concerned, there were 36,000 post offices
in the country, number of which increased to 1,55,516 today.
7. Education and Health - Prior to first five year plan, there were 27 universities,
but now they are 389 in number, the literacy rate of the country in 1950-51 was 16.6
percent which increased to 64.8 percent in 2001. Similarly, the number of primary schools
were 2.3 lakh in 1950-51 in the country which has become more than 7.10 lakh now. In
1950-51 graduate and postgraduate colleges were 578 in number, but now there are 46,796
in number. In 1950-51 42.6 percent children of 6-11 years of age used to go to school,
which has now gone up to 98.31 percent. In 1950-51, 12.7 percent children of 11-14 years

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of age used to go to school, which is now 62.49 percent.
The country also ensures special progress in health services. In 1950-51 there were
9209 thousand hospitals in all which rose to 27,770 lakh in January 2005. Similarly the
number of registered doctors in the country was 61.8 thousand in 1950-51 which rose
to 6.56 lakh in 2004-05. As a result of increase in health services the average age has
gone up to 65.4 years which was only 32.1 years in 1950-51.
8. Progress in Banking Sector - The banking services have expanded considerably
during the planning period. In December 1951, the number of branches of commercial
banks in the country was 2,647 which by the end of June 2006 increased to 69,616.
9. Increase in export and import - During planning period the imports and
exports of the country has increased significantly. In 1950-51 the import and export of
the country were of Rs.608 and Rs.606 billion respectively which have increased to
Rs.6, 60,409 and 4,56,418 billion respectively in 2005-06.
15.6 Shortcomings of Economic Planning in India
As a result of economic planning the country has achieved significant achievements
in various sectors. But inspite of these achievements, the objectives determined in the
various plans could not be achieved fully. Therefore, several economists consider that
planning has failed to give desired results in India. The failure of planning in India can
be understood in the following ways-
1. Slow progress in per capita income - In spite of economic planning in India,
the growth in per capita income has been very slow. Still today 21 percent of population
in India is living below poverty line.
2. Regional imbalance - As a result of planning, the regional imbalance in the
country should have decreased, but there has been no significant change. Uttar Pradesh,
Orrisa, Bihar etc. states are still backward states while the states of Maharashtra, Tamil
Nadu, West Bengal, Punjab, Haryana etc. are included under the category of comparatively
developed states.
3. Increase in prices - The prices are continuously increasing since the period of
planning. On the basis of 1993-94, the whole sale price index number has risen to 2079
in December 2006. It is estimated that during the period of planning the prices increased
near about 27 times.
4. Increase in unemployment - An important objective of economic planning was
to reduce unemployment. But the unemployment kept on increasing at the end of each
plan. In the beginning of first five year plan, where 33 lakh people were unemployed
which is now estimated to about 4 crore.
5 . Increase in the disparity of income and wealth - An important objective of
economic planning has been removal of centralization of wealth and to increase the

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economic equality. But in spite of planning the rich have become more rich and the poor,
more poor.
6. Failure of public enterprises- The number of public sector enterprises is 242
in the country. Out of these several units are running in loss. Therefore the public sector
enterprises are not able to give results according to the expectations.
Thus, in this manner as a result of five year plans agricultural production,
industrial production, and per capita income have increased markedly and the percentage
of poor has also decreased, but on the other hand the economy is in the grip of poverty,
unemployment and regional imbalance. Therefore, we have to make solid efforts to solve
these problems in the next plans.
15.7 India Vision 2020
In January 2003, The Planning Commission of India issued an important document
named India Vision 2020. According to this document till the year 2020, India will be
included in the category of developed countries. As a result of this, unemployment,
poverty, illiteracy will be completely eradicated from the country.
The Planning commission has estimated that by the year 2020, 135 crore of
country's population will be better nourished, will have good living standard and be
completely healthy. Average age of the population will increase.

Terms
Economic Welfare - Economic welfare is that part of social welfare, which can be
measured directly by the measurement of money.
Mercantilism - Mercantilism is that economic thought which was popular in
the European countries during sixteenth century to eighteenth
century, according to which the basis of development was to
aquaire gold and silver.
National Income - The labour and capital of a country along with its natural
resources, produce annually a certain net aggregate of
commodities, material and services of all kinds. This is the
real net annual income or revenue of the country or national
dividend.
Per Capita Income - The result obtained by dividing the national income of a year
by the population of that year is called per capita income.
Life Expectancy - Average life span of a person.

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Planning - Planning is a process of achieving the determined objectives
by the available resources in a country in a fixed period of
time.
Poverty line - People whose annual income is below 15,000 rupees are
considered to be below poverty line.
Child Mortality Rate - Death of a child under one year of age is called Infant
Mortality Rate. Child mortality rate is the number of infant
deaths out of per thousand alive born infants per year.
Regional Imbalance - When industries are centralised in certain parts of the country
and rest of the parts are backward then it is called as Regional
Imbalance.
Wholesale Price - Price of a commodity prevailing in their wholesale markets
are called wholesale prices.
Public Sector - The industry owned by the government is called the industry
of public sector.
Human Development Index - The measure adopted by United Nations Organisation to
measure the level of development of various countries is
called Human Development Index.
Investment - Money used for productive purposes is called Investment.
Exercise
Choose the right answer :
1. The economic planning results in -
(i) Improvement in living standard
(ii) Increase in economic welfare
(iii) Increase in life expectancy (iv) All of above
2. The per capita income of the country is calculated on the basis of :
(i) That country's population (ii) The world's population
(iii) States ' population (iv) Other country's population
3. Prof. Amartya Sen has considered basis of development as -
(i) Prosperity (ii) Self dependency
(iii) Public Welfare (iv) Foreign Trade
4. The developed countries utilise natural resources -
(i) Very little (ii) Do not use
(iii) Little bit (iv) To a large extent
5. How many five years plans have been completed in India till now?

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 (i) 5 (ii) 10
(iii) 15 (iv) 11
Fill in the blanks :
1. The standard of ……….. increases by economic development.
2. India Vision 2020 was published in the year ……….. .
3. …………. constructed physical quality of life index.
4. According to World Bank that country is developed country whose per capita
income is ……….. rupees or more per year.
5. The period of tenth plan was from ……… to ……… .
Very short answer type question :
1. What is the meaning of economic development according to Mercantilism?
2. During which period of time is national income calculated?
3. What are the basis of calculating Human Development Index?
4. According to the World Bank, what must be the per capita income of the
developed countries?
5. What are the main measurements of measuring economic development?
Short Answer type question :
1. What is national Income? How is it calculated? Write.
2. What is per capita Income? Write the formula for calculating it.
3. What is the main objective of making Human development Index?
4. Which are the developed and developing states of India?
5. What is India Vision 2020?
Long answer type questions :
1. Explain the old and new concepts of economic development.
2. State the meaning of Human Development Index and discuss its components.
3. Distinguish between developed and developing economics.
4. Explain the meaning of Economic Planning and state the main objectives of
planning in India.
5. State the success and failure of planning in India.

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-16
Rural Development and
Employment Guarantee Scheme
We shall learn  Gandhiji said many things about the villages
of India; we shall ponder over certain things
16.1 The need for National here : firstly real India lives in villages and not
Employment Guarantee in its cities. Second - if the villages are harmed,
Scheme India will suffer". Real India lives in the seven
16.2 Objective of the National lakh villages of India - have we ever thought
Rural Employment whether the people of these villages get adequate
Guarantee Scheme food to eat or have clothes to cover their
16.3 Characteristics of National bodies". Thus real development of India is
Employment Guarantee possible only if the economy of rural areas
Scheme develops. As per the census 2001, a large
16.4 Special features of the proportion of the population of India i.e. 74.27%
scheme lives in villages. Therefore the rural areas should
16.5 Works taken up under the be developed in such a manner that the rural
scheme people get employment locally; i.e. they are not
16.6 Importance of the National required to move out of their villages for
Rural Employment employment. Employment opportunities and
Guarantee Scheme other social amenities and basic necessities
should be available locally so that migration of
rural population could be checked.
16.1 The need for the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
Last three decades (1973-2003) have witnessed many major economic changes in
the Indian economy. As a result of these changes there has been a considerable change
in the share of agriculture, secondary activities and services sector in gross domestic
product. The contribution of secondary sector has increased eight times and that of
service sector by about eleven times but commensurate with that, employment
opportunities have not increased. In the secondary sector employment opportunities have
increased only about two and half times and in the service sector employment opportunities
have increased only about three times. In the year 1973, the share of agriculture sector
in the Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) was about 45%, that of secondary sector it was
30% and the service sector contributed about 25% to the Gross Domestic Product but,
there were 75% people employed in the agriculture sector, only 10% people were
employed in the secondary sector and service sector provided employment to 15%
people. However during 2003 the contribution of service sector increased to 50% of
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G.D.P. the secondary sector contributed about 30% to the G.D.P. but the share of
agriculture was reduced to only about 22%. But even then the agriculture sector gives
employment to about 60% people. It is thus clear that the number of people employed
in the agriculture sector are more than the needed number. Therefore, if some of the
manpower is diverted from agriculture to the other sectors, agricultural production will
remain unaffected. This indicates the type of unemployment in our rural economy - it
may be called disgiused unemployment; other types are partial unemployment and under
employment. This situation gives rise to following problems in the rural areas :
1. Due to inadequate avenues of employment and more than require number of people
employed in the agriculture sector, the rural people are not getting proper return
for their labour. Consequently the rural people are facing problems of poverty and
hunger.
2. The people are economically insecure due to limited employment opportunities in
rural areas.
3. Due to non availability of employment opportunities in rural areas, the people are
forced to migrate to urban areas; this gives rise to many social and economic
factors.
4. Limited opportunities of employment for women in rural areas gives rise to the
twin problems of non/under use of women power and improper payment for their
labour.
5. Lack of infrastructural facilities needed for employment, new avenues of
employment are not available; due to this, the standard of living of rural families
does not improve.
The solution of the aforesaid problems lies in providing economic security to the
rural people. Therefore it is necessary to provide employment to the rural people as and
when they need. Besides, new and the perennial employment avenues need to be
developed in the rural areas. The National Rural Employment Guarantee Act has been
enforced keeping these objectives in view.
16.2 Objectives of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
● To provide atleast 100 days employment to the adult members of each family
living in rural areas who are willing to do unskilled labour.
● To create permanent assets in rural areas.
16.3 Characteristics of National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme
● Availability of employment under the scheme is based on the principle of
'first come first served'.
● Employment is given on works which are already going on in the area or new
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 works are started from the shelf of schemes prepared at the panchayat level
and people are employed there. Besides, employment can also be given on
works implemented by other agencies.
● While providing employment it is borne in mind that the work site is within
5 kilometers radius from the residence of the applicant. If it is not possible
to provide work within a radius of 5 kilometers then the Janpad Panchayat
provides employment and an additional amount to the extent of 10% of the
minimum wages is paid to the applicant over and above the minimum wages.
● Women are given preference while giving employment; there is a provision in
the scheme that one third of the people employed are women.
● Old, infirm and disabled people if apply for labour then they are provided
work according to their qualification and capacity; thus there is a provision of
giving employment to all the people.
● Every worker is entitled to the minimum wages fixed by the State Government
or a competent officer of the State Government under the Minimum Wages
Act 1948. No discrimination is made in the rates of wages paid to men and
women. Wages are paid weekly or maximum on fortnightly basis.
● There is a provision for free treatment in case of an injury sustained during
the work and compensation is given for disability or death during the work.
● Under the scheme the works taken up related to water, forests, land and
agriculture or construction and improvement / repairs of roads. There is a ban
on giving the works on contract.
● Under the scheme use of labour saving / displacing machines is prohibited but
it is ensured that the quality and safety standards are maintained
● There is a provision of social audit to ensure transparency and people's
participation in the works.
● To supervise and keep an eye on proper implementation of the works, there
is a vigilance and evaluation committee in the village. This committee
supervises and inspects the works. The 'Gramsabha' will supervise and enquire
as to what works have been done how many labourers were employed and
whether all the workers were paid proper wages.

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 ● Arrangements are made to make available to the people all accounts and
records relating to the works for inspection.
16.4 Main features of implementation of scheme
❒ Procedure to procure work
All adult members of the families living in the rural areas notified by the Central
Government are eligible to get benefit of this scheme. Under the scheme, a family shall
be eligible to get work for 100 days in one financial year. According to the availability
of works (employment), the 100 days work may be divided among all the adult workers
of a family. Thus all the adult members of registered family who apply for work
(employment) shall be eligible to get employment upto a period of 100 days. For
obtaining employment it is necessary that -
1. The family should be local resident of the Gram Panchayat.
2. The family should be registered in the local Gram Panchayat.
3. The family should obtain a job card from the Gram Panchayat.
4. The family should apply for work as unskilled worker on the basis of the Job
Card.
5. Family should be ready to work as unskilled labourer.
All the adult members of a registered family
of the Gram Panchayat to whom job cards have
been issued will be eligible to apply for unskilled
work.
◊äÿ¬˝º‡Ê ‡ÊÊ‚Ÿ
Job Card
● A job card is issued to registered
families in which all the information
¡ÊÚ’ ∑§Ê«¸U
(⁄UÊc≈˛UËÿ ⁄UÊ¡ªÊ⁄U ªÊ⁄¥U≈UË •ÁäÊÁŸÿ◊ wÆÆz ∑§ •ãê¸Ã)
relating to the family is given. The
job card is valid for five years from
the date of issue and is renewed by ⁄UÊc≈˛UËÿ ª˝Ê◊ËáÊ ⁄UÙ¡ªÊ⁄U ªÊ⁄Uã≈UË S∑§Ë◊-◊.¬˝.
the Gram Panchayat within one month flÒœÃÊ •flÁœ-wÆÆ|-Æ} ‚ wÆvv-vw
from the date of expiry.
● The job card is issued on the basis of the B.P.L. survey. The Gram Panchayat
is competant to make any change in the job card.
● If the card is lost or mutilated a new card can be obtained on payment of
prescribed fees.
❒ Facilities provided on work sites
Certain basic facilities are to be provided to the workers at the sites of works
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started under the Employment Guarantee Scheme like:
● Safe drinking water and shelter for rest.
● First aid facilities and medicines in case of injury, accident or sickness.
● If there are 5 or more children below 6 years of age with the working women,
a separate women worker shall be entrusted the job of looking after such
children.
● If a worker is injured during the work necessary facility for treatment and in
case of physical disability or death during the work compensation is given.
❒ Unemployment allowance
If a person doesn't get work within 15 days from the date of application, he/she is
entitled to unemployment allowance. But the aggregate amount of unemployment
allowance and the minimum wages already paid to that family will not exceed an amount
which is equal to 100 days minimum wages.
A person who has applied for work, does not do the entrusted work, and does not
present him/herself on the work within 15 days and remains absent for a week or more
or for more than a week in one month without the permission of the implementing
agency, such person shall not be entitled to unemployment allowance for a period of 3
months.
❒ Role of the Gram Panchayat, Janpad, District & State level Institution
Gram Panchayat's role is important in the implementation of this scheme. The gram
Panchayat has to perform following functions-
● Registration of families of the village and to give Job Cards to families whose
names have been registered.
● To accept applications from people for employment and give them information
as to where the work will be made available.
● To prepare proposals for works as per the decesions of the gram Sabha.
● To get the estimate of the proposed works prepared from a Sub-engineer.
● To indicate estimate of expenditure on labour, material and other heads of
expenditure in the proposal.
● To start works approved by the Programme Officer or Chief Executive
Officer of the Janpad Panchayat
● To supervise the works being implemented in the Panchayat area.
The Janpad and Zila Pachayats play an important role in formulation and
implementation of schemes. These Panchayats play a role in the supervision of the

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works. The collector of the district accords administrative approval to the schemes
formulated for the district and gets the evaluation of the works done; the collector also
makes arrangements for redressal of complaints relating to the works being implemented
in the district.
At the state level a body viz. State Employment Guarantee Council has been
constituted to, supervise and advise the State Government regarding the implementation
of the scheme. It also does liaisoning with the Central Employment Guarantee Council.
The responsibility of implementation of the National Rural Employment Guarantee
Scheme in the state has been entrusted to the Panchyat and Rural Development Department.
For proper implementation of the scheme, this department has constituted M.P. Rural
Employment Guarantee Council it is a powerful body and its decisions are final with
regard to implementation of this scheme.
❒ Social Audit
For the success of any scheme or project its audit is very important. Audit is a
process under which a checking is carried out of the work/scheme implemented and
expenditure incurred on it. In the social audit of the works taken up under the National
Rural Employment Gurantee scheme, details of the works undertaken, expenditure
incurred on them, labour employed and material used on the works is given.
Importance of Social Audit - It is a wellknown fact that in the absence of
provision for inspection of a work/project, there is every likelihood of slackness in the
work, irregularities in the accounts, corruption and other irregularities; so also people
with selfish interests take undue advantage of the ignorance otf the people. Therefore
its is necessary to carry out regular social audit of the schemes so that benefits of those
works reach the target groups and possibilities of slackness in work and corruption are
avoided. Really speaking schemes and their social audit are integral to each other. Only
effective social audit can help in ensuring the ultimate success of the works.
Importance of Social Audit -
1. Transparency in the schemes - All the facts are known to the people and
nothing is hidden; it is like an open book before the people. This eradicates the
possibilities of corruption.
2. Important in ensuring participation of common people- It helps in
increasing the participation of the common people. Under this, there is a provision of
group discussion and interviews to elicit information about the implementation of the
scheme. There is also a provision of verification of documents by the labourers present.
In case of irregularities the labourers put their signatures on the written notes. This helps
in ensuring participation of the people in the scheme and they are alert about its proper
implementation

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 3. It helps in realisation of responsibility - Gram Sabhas and Gram Panchayats
have been given responsibility of implementation of the scheme. Workers' participation
is also there; this helps in making them aware of their responsibility towards the works.
4. It helps in making them aware about their rights - Social audit helps people
in making use of their rights and arousing awareness in them.
5. Helpful in making the scheme effective - If people are aware and alert the
people responsible for its implementation are alert and they are not only afraid of the
consequences of delay in the work but are encouraged to complete the work in time.
6. Helpful in controlling irregularities - There is a check on irregularities and
the persons responsible to implement the works, keep proper record of the work,
material used, workers employed, wages paid etc.
Committees for redressal of complaints -
Arrangements have been made for attending to the complaints under the scheme, at
every level - i.e. from Gram Panchayat level to district level. Complaint books have been
kept in these offices and any body can register complaints in these books.
Gram Panchayat Level - Every six months the Gram Sabha carries out inspections
of the works executed and in case of any irregularity, the matter is forwarded to the Sub
Divisional Officer (S.D.M.) after passing a resolution to that effect. On receipt of a
complaint the sub Divisional officer constitutes an enquiry committee. The enquiry
Committee comprises of a Panch of the same Gram Panchayat (who is not a member of
the construction and development committee) sub-engineer of the Janpad and a social
worker nominated by the Sub Divisional Officer. The Janpad member and a block level
officer of the same Janpad Panchayat are also included as members of this committee.
On receipt of enquiry report, it is read out in the Gram Sabha by the Secretary. If the
Gram Sabha decides, the case may be filed by the Sub Divisional Officer. If the Gram
Sabha feels that there has been an irregularity, it may send it to the Sub divisional Officer
for taking action in the matter. The Sub Divisional Officer takes necessary legal action
under sections 40, 89, 92 or 100 of the Panchayat Raj and Gram Swaraj Act, 1993
Janpad Level - If a complaint is received relating to the Janpad level or programme
officer (C.E.O. Janpad) the District Programme Coordinator (Collector) constitutes an
enquiry committee. The committee submits its report to the District Programme
Coordinator and if any officer is found guilty, the District Programme Coordinator him/
herself takes disciplinary action or sends the report to the concerned department for
suitable action.
District Panchayat Level - In case of a complaint against the chief executive
officer of the district Panchayat or the District Programme Coordinator (collector) or

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the Additional District Programme Coordinator, the divisional commissioner constitutes
enquiry committee. In case the concerned officer is found guilty the divisional
commissioner him/herself takes disciplinary action or sends the report for suitable
action to the concerned department.
At the State level the complaints are disposed by the M.P. State Employment
Guarantee Council.
In case of a complaint against an implementing agency the district Proramme
Coordinator (Collector) constitutes a committee and if the agency is found guilty in the
enquiry, takes suitable action in the matter. If a government officer or employee is found
guilty, the divisional commissioner sends the case to the concerned department for
suitable action. A copy of the report is also sent by the commissioner along with
comments to the Principal Secretary Panchayat and Rural Development Department.
Complaints in respect of non payment of wages and irregularities in the muster role are
attended first. There is a provision that such complaints should be disposed off within
15 days. If a grave financial irregularity (corruption) is detected, F.I.R. is filed in the
police station. Action taken on the complaint is reported immediately to the Principal
Secretary, Pachayat and Rural Development Department.
16.5 Works taken up under the scheme
For providing employment to the people of rural areas, certain works have been
specified under the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme. The works specified
in the Act are under -
1. Augmentation and conservation of water resources
2. Afforestation/plantation programme to prevent drought conditions.
3. Canals and small/medium irrigation projects
4. Irrigation facilities, horticulture development and land improvement programme
on the lands of scheduled casts and scheduled tribes, families living below
poverty line beneficiaries of land development programme or beneficiaries of
the 'Indira Awas Yojana'.
5. Development and improvement of traditional water resources
6. Land development works
7. Flood control/protection, drainage arrangements in areas of water clogging
8. Perennial roads in rural areas
9. Any other work notified by Central Government in consultation with the state
government.
In Madhya Pradesh projects have been formulated under the state plan; these
projects have been formulated keeping in view the guidelines of this scheme. They
are:

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 Provision
Beneficiary orientted schemes
Schemes included in list-1
para 1 (4) of the National
Rural Employment
Guarantee Act.
For Community Development
Schemes included in list-1
para 1 (4) of the National
Rural Employment
Guarantee Act.
Details Name of the Project
❒ Irrigation facility ❒ Kapil Dhara
❒ Horticulture/fruit ❒ Nandan Falodyan
plantation
❒ Land improvement ❒ Bhoomi Shilp
❒ Plantation ❒ Silk sub-plan
❒ Plantation ❒ Nirmal Vatika
❒ Irrigation ❒ Meenakshi
❒ Water harvesting ❒ Shail Parn
and augmentation of
water resources
❒ Plantation ❒ Vanya Sub-plan
❒ Construction of canals ❒ Sahastra Dhara
❒ Irrigation ❒ Nirmal Neer
❒ Irrigation ❒ Construction chain
on streams

16.6. Importance of National Rural Employment Scheme

The National Rural Employment scheme fulfills many objectives like : (1) It helps
in solving the problems of poverty unemployment and starvation in rural areas; (2) It
helps in reducing migration of rural population to urban areas; (3) It provides opportunities
of employment to women and makes them self dependent economically. (4) Useful
assets are created in rural areas. It helps in improving the economic condition of people
of lower income bracket and they get the ownership of assets/ infrastructure created
under the scheme. (5) Panchayati Raj Institutions are strengthened and they get an
opportunity to play useful and important role in the scheme. (6) This scheme will help
develop a system where the rural social setup will develop in such a way that there would
be equality among different sections of the population (because of employment
opportunities provided to rural unemployed poor.)
Thus this scheme is an important step towards improvement in the rural economy.
This scheme has been formulated by the Central Government which is important
for rural development. The responsibility of its successful implementation, however, is
of the respective state Governments.
Under section 4 (1) of the National Rural Employment Guarntee Act, a state plan
has been formulated in Madhya pradesh. Madhya Pradesh has predominance of scheduled

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tribes population. Most of these tribes live in remote areas where there is a great need
for facilities like employment, education, agriculture, irrigation facilities and safe
drinking water. Thus this scheme is all the more beneficial for this state. The state of
Madhya Pradesh is making all efforts to bring about improvement in the living conditions
of the poor people and scheduled tribes families by giving them employment under this
scheme.

Terms
Adult - A person who has attained the age of 18 years.
Applicant - The head of a family or an adult of that a family who has
applied for employment under the scheme.
Family - The member of a family who have blood relation or relation
due to marriage in the family or by virtue of adoption in that
family who live together and have common kitchen and
normally have one ration card.
Minimum wages - The minimum wages fixed for a particular area for the
agricultural labourers under section 3 of the Minimum Wages
Act 1948.
Notification - A notification brought out by the Government in the
Government Gazette
Programme Officer - Any officer who is appointed to execute works under the
scheme under section 15, sub-section (1) of the Act (National
Rural Employment Guarantee Act).
Rural Area - An area in a state which is outside the area of an urban local
body or a Cantonment Board.
Unskilled physical labour - Any physical work which a person can do without any skill
or special training.
Wage rate - Rate of wages under section 6 of the relevant Act
Partial employment - Partial employment is a situation where the worker is
employed for a part of the year and for the remaining period
he/she is unemployed.
Under employment - Where the workers do not get wages/salary according to
their qualifications and/or capacity.

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Latent unemployment - This is a situation which is normally seen in a family carrying
out a business or agriculture or running a cottage industry
and where all the members of the family do one or the other
work although there is no need of all the persons of the
family for that work, i.e. more number of people engaged in
that work in comparison to actual manpower needed for it.
Financial year - Government for purposes of financial accounting, the year
commences from 1 April of the year and ends on 31 March;
this is called 'financial year'.
Job Card - It contains description of the person registered for securing
employment.
Sources of permanent employment - Such sources of employment where employment is
always available and wages can be earned regularly.
Transparency - There is a proper system laid down for implementing a
scheme / working, its timely inspection and monitoring and
where facts, information etc. about the scheme / any other
matter is made public or is made available on request; i.e.
facts are not kept confidential.
Excercises
Choose the right option :
1. The National Rural Guarantee Act is -
(a) Right to work (b) Responsibility of work
(c) Right to information of a work (d) All the above
2. The National Rural Guarantee Act was formulated -
(a) In 1948 (b) In 1985
(c) In 2001 and (d) I 2005
3. Employment under National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is made available
for -
(a) 100 days (b) 150 days
(c) 200 days and (d) One year
4. Scheme relating to irrigation is -
(a) 'Nirmal Neer Yojna' (b) Sahastra Dhara Scheme
(c) 'Vanya Upayojna' (d) Bhoomi Shilp Yojna

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Fill in the blanks :
1. Aim of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme is to generate ...........
2. Such members of families are given work under the National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme who have .............
3. If it is not possible to provide employment to a person holding a Job Card, then
................. he is given to him.
4. Wages are paid to a Job Card holder as per .......... Act of 1948.
5. To arrest rain water from draining out from the hillocks devoid of vegetation, the
work is done under ........... Scheme.
Match the following
1. Job Card Construction of recharge pits
2. Five Year Plan Silk Sub-plan
3. Nirmal Neer Yojna Registered family
4. Beneficiary Oriented development works Long term plan
5. Community development 'Vanya' Sub-Plan works
Very short answer type questions -
1. Which law has been enacted by the Government of India to enforce 'right to work'?
2. Which type of work is provided for giving employment under the National Rural
Employment Guarantee Act?
3. How many women out of the total number of applicants are benefited under the
National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme?
4. Who does the work of redressal of complaints relating to Job Cards?
5. When is the applicant paid extra amount towards minimum wages?
6. Who is paid unemployment allowance?
7. Please name any one Scheme under community development works programme.
Short answers type questions :
1. State the objectives of the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme.
2. Explain about the availability of employment under the National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme.
3. Explain the procedure of formulation of the Five Year Plan.
4. State the special features of any four schemes under Community Development
works.

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5. Please state the role of Gram Panchayat in the National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme.
6. What is a Job Card? How is it obtained? What is the procedure for getting
unemployment Allowance?
7. State, which are the Schemes under the community development works?
Long answer type questions :
1. State the meaning, objectives and special features of the National Rural Employment
Guarantee Scheme.
2. What is National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme? Explain its importance?
3. What is the meaning and importance of Social Audit?
4. Explain the arrangements made for redressal of complaints at different levels under
the National Rural Employment Guarantee Scheme.

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 Chapter-17
Money and Financial System
17.1 Introduction and Development of
We shall learn  Money -
17.1 Introduction and development The word money is derived from the
of money Latin word Moneta. It is said that in Rome
17.2 Definition and functions of Goddess Juno herself was called Moneta, in
money the beginning. In Rome the work of coinage
17.3 Financial system and was done within the solemn temple of Juno,
institutions the goddess of gold. 'The money ' in Latin was
17.4 Chief financial institutions called 'Pecunia' which has originated from the
17.5 Types of Banks word 'Pecus' the meaning of which is 'Animal-
Wealth.'
But it is very difficult to say when, where and under what circumstances money was
invented. The history of the development of the form of money, which we have today, is
very long. In ancient times the man too could not produce all the commodities of his
requirement. Therefore he started to exchange the goods produced by him with goods
produced by other persons. It is known as 'Barter System' of exchange. This system of
Barter prevailed for a long time. Several difficulties of barter - system arose with time.
The major problem of this system was availability of such a person who could accept the
commodity produced by a person and could make available the commodity required by
him. So such goods were discovered which could be accepted by all. In the beginning
cow, goat shells, fish, bones, skin of animals ivory etc. were accepted as a unit of money.
But this system also brought many difficulties with it; for example lack of standardization,
difficulty of storing etc. So this system inspired the use of metals. As a result the use
of metal started in the form of coins, which solved many problems. The kings and
emperors fixed the weight, size, colour and shape of the coin to keep check on forgery.
These coins were certified by the
government through stamping. Gold silver A.T.M. Any Time -Money
copper etc metals were extensively used as As it is clear by its name, A.T.M. is a
coins. system in which money can be withdrawn
The difficulties of metallic currency at any time. The A.T.M. card is made of
arose with the time. As a result along with plastic and consists of a metal chip, on
the development of banking system, paper which all the details related to bank
currency was also developed. accounts are entered. A.T.M has made the
Expansion of paper currency took banking function very easy and convenient.

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place in various ways, such as written certificates, representative paper currency,
convertible paper currency, inconvertible paper currency etc. The development of credit
money, in the form of cheque, hundi, drafts etc. took place with development of Central
bank and commercial bank. At present credit cards and A.T.M. cards are prevailing in the
form of plastic currency. Thus it is clear now that the money which is seen today has a
long history. It can be understood by the following chart-
Evolution of Money

Barter Metallic Money Paper Currency Credit money Plastic money

System Cheque, Hundi, Credit cards,
Drafts ATM Cards
etc.
Consumption Capital goods Jwellery and gems
goods (grocery, [Shells, Valuable metal
salt, fish, animals etc.
etc.)

Written Representative Convertible Non-convertible

documents paper money paper money Paper money
(Bank notes) (Bank notes) (Bank notes)

17.2 Definition and functions of money -

Scholars have defined money in several ways on the basis of functions and nature
of money. The main definitions of money are as follows -
According to Prof. Marshall, "Money includes all those commodities which in
particular time or place undoubtedly can be accepted as consideration for goods and
services as means of deferred payments." According to Prof. Ely - "Money is that
commodity which as a means of exchange can be freely transferred and ordinarily
acceptable as a means of final payment of debts."
It is apparent from the above definitions that money has an important place in
modern age. The money performs several functions in the economy. The main functions
of money are as follows-
1. Medium of exchange - The goods and services are brought and sold through
money.. The producer gets money by selling his commodity and then he purchases his
required goods through this obtained money.
2. Measure of value - At present value of every commodity and service is
measured by money. Prices of all commodities and services in the market are expressed
in terms of money only. It is an important function of money.

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 3. Transfer of purchasing power - Money can be transported from one place to
another. In case of purchasing commodities from another place, the payment of its price
can be done through money or bank draft, cheque, money order etc. Rupees can be
transferred easily from one place to another through banks.
4. Store of purchasing power - According to human nature, man saves money to
deal with major crisis. Now saving for future through medium of money has become very
easy. Storing of purchase power by depositing money in banks or post offices has
become very common now.
Along with this the process of lending and taking loans has become very easy now.
A consumer obtains maximum satisfaction and a producer increases the quantity of his
product through money only. In brief, money does several important functions in human
life.
17.3 Financing system and Institutions
People, in their daily life need money to fulfill their daily requirements. Similarly,
money is required for implementing different types of work related to industries
business and agriculture. To fulfil these requirements people, business man and farmers
everyone has to take loan in the same way when we have income more than our need we
need financing institutions to save that money safely and to earn profit from that. Thus
the financing institutions keep our surplus income or saving as deposits and lend it,
known as financing system. Thus the process of keeping balance between demand and
supply of wealth or capital in the economy is called financing system.
In a financing system, the institutions or people exchanging money are called
financing institutions. These institutions provide interest to attract the depositors and
charge interest from the people who take loans. This system of exchanging money is
prevailing since ancient times. The various institutions running in the country can be
divided into two parts, first, financing institutions of public sector and second, institutions
of private sector.
The ownership of the financing institutions of public sector rests in the hands of
the government. These institutions are run in accordance with the benefits of common
man. In 1969 major commercial banks in India were brought under pubic sector by
nationalisation. Today, along with commercial banks, insurance companies and several
non banking institutions are working under public sector.
The institutions which are owned by private people or institutions, are kept under
private sector, for example. Zamindar, Chit funds etc. At present, several commercial
banks and insurance companies are functioning under private sector.
17.4 Major Financial Institutions
Major financial institutions of public and private sectors functioning in India are of
following types -
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 Banks - Under the financial institutions banks have special importance in the
modern age. Generally banks are known as the institutions which accept deposits
(money of people) and lend money to the needy people. Today all the major economic
activities are done by means of banks. Along with the exchange of money, construction
of credit is also a function of bank.
In simple words it can be said that bank is an institution doing business of credit
and money. Banks such as State Bank of India, The Allahabad Bank, Canara Bank, Bank
of India etc. are functioning under public sector in India.
Several banks were established under private sector after the year 1991. For
example- ICICI Bank, HDFC Bank, Axis Bank, Indus Bank etc. are the banks of private
sector. At present the scope of private banks has increased tremendously.
Insurance Companies - Insurance is a system to provide security against the
consequences of risks. Commodities , services and business activities are also insured
along with human lives. Insurance companies invest the obtained amount of money in
different productive works which leads to economic growth. The sector of insurance has
opened for the private sector since 1991.
Sahukar (Indigeneous Banks) - Sahukar or Mahajan is one who provides loan to
his customers from time to time. Sahukaras are of two types - (a) Farmer sahukars and
Zamindars (b) Commercial Sahukars. Farmer Sahukars are those persons who mainly do
farming but being rich they do the job of lending money as a secondary business. Those
Sahukars are called commercial sahukars whose chief business is only lending money.
The functioning of sahukars is very simple. They provide loans of all three types i.e.
short term, medium term and long term loans. They provide loans for production and
consumption both purposes. Loans are of both types; loans with security and loans
without security.
The Sahukars play an important role in agricultural financing today. The Sahukars
fufill about 25 percent requirements of agro financing. But they have a bad name. The
main reason for this is their defective system of functioning in which (a) high rate of
interest (b) advance interest (c) manipulation in calculations etc. are included. Although
the government has kept control over the Sahukars even then they have got an important
role in rural areas
Zamindars - In the year 1793, Lord Carnwallis started this system in Bengal.
Zamindars were the big landlords. Their work was collection of revenue from the
farmers. They collected the revenue from the peasents and gave it to the government.
Zamindars provided loan to the farmers whenever required to fulfill their needs. The rate
of interest on loans provided by them to the farmers used to be very high. The conditions
of loans provided by them were also very strict. During loan recovery, they used to
misbehave due to which the farmers were exploited. As a result all the states have banned

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the system of Zamindari through law. But the loans are still provided by Zamindars in
rural areas.
Self Help group - Self help group is a voluntary organisation of poor people.
These groups are formed for the solutions of their problems by mutual co-operation.
This group motivates it members for small savings. These savings are deposited in banks.
The account of bank in which the amount is deposited is in name of the group. Generally,
the maximum number of members of a group is 20.
Generally, the members of a group are those people who do not have any approach
to the financial institutions such as banks etc. Therefore, the group teaches its members
that method of saving which is appropriate for satisfying their needs. The group makes
small loans easily available to its members on lower rate of interest. These groups have
played an important role in the field of empowering women.
Objectives of the formation of self help group - Following may be the objective
of formation of any self help groups -
1. To develop feeling of working together unitedly.
2. To develop among the members the habit of saving for better future.
3. To creat the oppurtinity of self employment by lending money to members.
4. To develop the feeling of self-reliance in its members.
5. To develop awareness towards the subjects like health, nutrition, education,
domestic violence.
6. To conduct welfare activities with the help of government, loans and other
self service institutions.
Bangladesh has achieved success in the expansion of financial facilities for the
rural class people through self help group. In India, it is being expanded in the entire
country. A mobile bank has been set up in the district of Khargone of Madhya Pradesh.
This institution named 'Laxmi Vahini'
functions in a mobile van. The capital of Rural Bank of Bangladesh
this institution is Rs. One crore and it A solid process of Rural bank have
provides various types of banking
been developed in Bangladesh through Self
facilities available to villages by going
Help Groups. There are 60 lakh people under
from village to village.
debt in these banks who are spread in 40,000
Chit fund - In south Indian states villages of Bangladesh. This programme was
there has been a long history of Chit started by Mohammad Yunus in 1970. These
Fund Plans. It is much popular in the Rural banks have significantly contributed
villages of South India. There it runs in for the fulfillment of loan related needs of
both the forms- organised and poors. Mohammed Yunus was honoured by
unorganised. It is a sort of saving plan Nobel Prize in 2006 for this work.

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found in India. The members of these chit funds are made in a fixed number. After a
prefixed interval of time these members meet at a fixed place and collect the fixed
amount of money. After this collected amount of money is auctioned among the
members. The collected amount of money is given to that member who bids the highest
amount in the auctions. this type of chit funds are also run by some registered financial
institutions or some friends or between relatives in groups together. Chit fund plans
running in the country are of various types and with different objectives.
17.5 Types of Banks
1. Commercial Banks - Commercial Banks are those type of banks which make
arrangements for short term loans for commercial purposes. These banks do some other
banking functions also other than accepting the deposits of people and providing loans
to them. After the nationalisation of banks in the year 1969, the functioning of banks has
changed significantly. Now the commercial banks are providing short term and medium
term loans for the development and expansion of agriculture and small scale industries.
At present several banks of private sector are running along with banks of public sector.
2. Industrial Banks - The institutions which make arrangements of medium and
long term loans for industries are called industrial banks. Apart from providing loans to
the industries these banks also help them to seek capital from other resources. The
institutions such as Industrial Development bank, Industrial Credit and Investment
Corporation, Industrial Finance Corporation have been established in India to meet the
requirement of industrial finance.
3. Foreign Exchange Banks - Institutions which exchange foreign currencies and
make arrangements of foreign exchange for foreign trade are called Foreign Exchange
Banks. These banks set up their branches in foreign countries, which make the exchange
of foreign currencies simple and easy. As it is well known that an exporter of a country
wants the price for his commodity in the form of the currency of his own country,
therefore, the problem of foreign exchange arises. The foreign Exchange banks solve
this problem. At present the foreign exchange banks like the commercial Banks do all
the functions of banks. Therefore, banks which with other banking functions do the
functions of foreign exchange are called Foreign Exchange Banks.
4. Agricultural Banks - Agricultural system is different from trade and industries.
Therefore its loan-related needs are different from trade and industries. This is the
reason due to which agricultural banks have been established to fulfil the needs of
farmers. Following banks are fulfilling the requirement of agricultural finances-
(a) Agricultural Cooperative Banks - Agricultural co-operative banks provide
the facility of short-term loans to farmers at low rate of interest. In India the cooperative
banks have three-tier structure. At the village level are the Primary cooperative societies.
Above these societies are district Central Cooperative banks which provide loans to

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these societies on demand. Above these Central Banks are State Cooperative Banks. The
State Cooperative Bank meet the loan requirements of District Central Cooperative
Banks. Whenever State Cooperative Banks need loans, the National Bank for Agriculture
and Rural development which is also called NABARD helps them.
(b) Land development Bank - Land Development Banks provide long term loans
to farmers. These banks provide loans for a period of 15-20 years at a low rate of
interest for land reform, for digging wells and tube wells, to purchase agricultural
equipments, tractors etc. As these banks provide loans on the security of land so these
banks are advantageous for the big farmers.
(c) Regional Rural Banks - The Regional rural banks were set up in 1975. These
banks were set up with the main objective of providing banking facilities to the people
of distant rural areas. These banks provide loans to small and marginal farmers,
agricultural labourers, rural artisans, small entrepreneurs. On 30th June 2005, 14,484
branches of regional rural banks were running in the country.
5. National Bank for Agriculture and Rural Development - National Bank for
agriculture and rural development was established on 12th July 1982 for the purpose of
making the loans available for development of agriculture. Briefly is called NABARD.
It functions as the apex bank in the structure of credit in the rural areas. It provides the
facility of refinancing to various finance institutions such as state Development Banks,
State Cooperative Banks, Commercial Banks and Regional Rural Banks. NABARD
obtains wealth from other institutions. Government of India, World Bank etc. to fulfil its
credit related needs.
6. Kendriya (Researve) Bank - Kendriya bank is the supreme institution of the
banking system of any country. It has no direct relation with the people. The management,
supply and control of the currency of the country is done by this bank only. It is the
banker of the government. It maintains the record of all types of accounts of the
government and whenever needed provides loan to the government also. It is a 'Bank of
the Banks.' All kinds of the banks of the country have to keep a fixed percent amount of
their total deposits in it. The bank lends loan also to other banks whenever it is needed.
Other than this, it keeps check on the quantity of the currency and credit in the country.
All the other banks have to follow its orders and policies. In India this Bank is known
as 'The Reserve Bank of India'.
7. International Bank - Those banks are known as international banks, which have
been established to solve the international economic problems and to provide economic
help to their member countries. In this direction two institutions namely World Bank and
International Monetary Fund (I.M.F.) were set up in 1945.

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 Terms
Barter system - To obtain a commodity in exchange of another
commodity or to exchange goods is called Barter
Exchange.
Money - The commodity which is accepted by all to purchase
goods or commodities and to repay the loans.
Paper currency - Paper money is that money which is issued by Central
Bank on the credit of the government.
Convertible Paper Money - When paper currency is convertible to gold, then it is
called convertible paper currency.
Inconvertible Paper Money - When paper currency is not convertible into gold or
any other metal, then it is called inconvertible paper
currency.
Credit Money - Credit instruments such as Cheques, Bank Drafts, Credit
Cards, ATM Cards etc. accepted on the basis of the
name of issuing institution.
Nationalised Banks - Banks which were taken over by the government in the
years of 1969 and 1980. Now these are known as Banks
under Public Sector.
Foreign Exchange - To obtain the currency of a country in exchange of the
currency of another is called foreign exchange.
Banks of private sector - Those banks are called banks of private sector which
are owned by private institutions or persons.
NABARD - Its full name is 'National Bank for Agriculture and Rural
Development'. This institution fulfils the loans given by
the Land Development Banks, Cooperative Banks and
Commercial Banks etc. for the development of
agriculture and rural areas. It is a supreme institution
related to rural and agricultural credits
EXERCISE
Choose the correct alternative :
1. The primary function of money is
(i) Medium of exchange (ii) Storage of value
(iii) Standard of deferred payments (iv) All of above
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 2. The Sahukars have an important role in -
(i) Industrial finance (ii) Finance for development
(iii) Agricultural finance (iv) None of above
3. The main function of Foreign Exchange Banks is -
(i) To accept deposits (ii) To lend money
(iii) Exchange of money (iv) All of above
Fill in the blanks :
1. To satisfy the wants by exchanging one commodity with another commodity
is called ……. system.
2. In a financial system the financial institutions provide………. to other needy
persons by taking money on credit.
3. The maximum number of members in a self help group is ……….. .
4. The industrial banks provide short term and long term ……… to industries.
5. The saving banks collect the ……….. of public.
Very Short answer type questions :
1. What was the main problem of the Barter System?
2. In which part of India is the 'Chit Fund' very popular?
3. What are the major differences between banks and non banking institutions?
4. What is the term of the loan given by Land Development Banks to farmers?
5. What is the short name of The National Bank for Agricultural and Rural
Development?
6. Which bank does the function of issuing notes in country?
7. In which state of the country was the first mobile bank established?
8. Is ICICI bank a public sector bank or private sector bank?
Short answer type questions :
1. Which goods were used as money in ancient times?
2. State the demerits of Sahukari system.
3. Define money.
4. What are commercial banks?
5. What is meant by the finance system?
Long answer type questions :
1. Write an article on the development of money.
2. What are Self Help Groups? What may be the objectives of its formation?
3. Which financial institution are found in India? Explain.
4. What are the main types of banks? Write.
5. Describe the main functions of money.
6. Discuss about the institutions which provide loans to agriculture.
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 Chapter-18
Economy : Service sector and infrastructure
We shall learn  The manpower of any country performs
various types of activities for its livelihood.
18.1 Sectors of Economy Some do farming, some work in factories or
18.2 Sectors of economy and do trade or business. Therefore it is necessary
National Income to understand the economy properly and
18.3 Reasons responsible for should study those sectors of economy in
increasing the partnership of which people are working.
Tertiary or Service Sector Generally, those activities are called the
18.4 Importance of service sector activities of 'PRIMARY SECTOR' where
18.5 Meaning of Infrastructure natural resources are used directly, such as
farming, digging of coal from mines or to get
18.6. Main parts of Infrastructure
wood from forests. In backward and developing
18.7 Contribution of the Indian countries maximum population is involved in
services to the world this sector only. But as the development starts
in the economy the population shifts from
primary sector and gets involved in secondary sector. In the 'SECONDARY SECTOR', the
natural products are changed into several useful forms through manufacturing, for
example - making sugar from sugarcane or making cement from lime stone and then
constructing a house. All the industries of this type are kept in secondary sector.
Apart form Primary and Secondary sector, there is a third category also, which is
known as 'TERTIARY SECTOR'. The activities of this sector help in the development of
primary and secondary sectors. Transport, bank, education and health facilities are
included in this sector.
18.1 Sectors of Economy -
To understand any economy properly it is divided into three sectors namely primary
sector, secondary sector and tertiary sector. The detailed description of these sectors is
as below-
1. Primary Sector - The activities based directly on natural resources are called
primary sector. Agriculture can be taken as an example. We have to depend, mainly upon
natural resources like soil, rain, sunlight, air etc to grow crops. Therefore agricultural
crop is a natural product. In the same way forestry, animal husbandry, mining etc are also
included in the primary sector. It can be said in brief that when we produce any
commodity by using natural resources directly then these are called the activities of
primary sector.

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 Here the question arises that why these activities are called primary activities. The
reason behind this is that the primary sector is the basis of all those products, which we
manufacture afterwards. For example - iron ore is used in steel plants and various
machines are made of it: Maximum natural products are obtained from agriculture,
animal husbandry, fisheries, forestry and mining, therefore this sector is also called
agriculture and supporting sector.
2. Secondary Sector - Under the activities of this sector the natural products are
transformed into other forms through manufacturing system. For example to make
machine from iron or to make cloth from cotton etc is the next step after the primary
activities,. In this sector goods are not produced directly through nature but are
manufactured through human efforts. These activities can be done in a factory or in a
house. As this sector is related to sequential increase and various types of industries,
therefore it is also called INDUSTRIAL SECTOR.
3. Tertiary (Third) Sector - The activities of this sector are far different from the
primary and secondary sector. The activities of tertiary sector do not produce goods
directly, but assist in the process of production. For example - to sell the goods
produced by primary and secondary sectors, trains and trucks are needed to transport
them to the wholesale and retail markets, godowns are required to store the goods
manufactured by industries. Loans from banks are required for the production of goods
by the primary and secondary sectors. Telephones, Internet, post-offices, courier services
are needed for the convenience of production and trade.
"Thus the activities relating to transport, storage, communication, banks and trade
etc are included in tertiary sector. The economic growth has accelerated the expansion
of these activities. As the activities of tertiary sector create services in place of goods
and commodities, it is also called SERVICE SECTOR."
In the economy, there are such services also which instead of contributing directly
help in the production of commodities indirectly. The services of teachers, doctors,
advocates, accountants and administrative officers can be taken as examples. Services of
Washermen, barber and cobblers are also very important. At present, the service based
on information technology such as internet cafe, ATM booths, call centres, manufacturing
of softwares etc. are also very important in the activities of production.
18.2 Sectors of Economy and National Income
The primary, secondary and tertiary sectors of economy are considered as the basis
for calculating the national income and Gross Domestic Product (G.D.P.) of a country.
At first, the monetary value of the production obtained from all the three sectors
is calculated, then the monetary values obtained separately from all the three sectors are
added. Thus the data of Gross Domestic Income is obtained. When the net income from

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foreign is added to the Gross Domestic product then the National Income is found out.
For example - suppose in a country the income from primary sector is Rs.100 Crore:
Rs.75 crores from secondary sector and Rs.150 crores from tertiary sector, then the
gross Domestic Income will be Rs. 325 crores (100 + 75 + 150 = 325) By experience
we know that with economic development, the
income obtained from primary, secondary and tertiary • •
• •
• •
• • • ••
sectors increases and so their comparative • •
•
• • •
• • • •
•
• •
•
• • •
Secondary •• • • • •
•
contribution also changes It has been seen that Sector •
• • • •
Primary
• • • ••
• •
••
owing to the economic development in a country, (24.1%) Sector
• • •• •
•• • ••
• • • (21.7%) • • • • • •
• • • •
the contribution of primary sector gradually •
• • • • •
•
• • •
• • ••
• • •• • ••
•
•• •
•
•

decreases in the gross national income and the

contribution of secondary and tertiary or service Service
Sector
sector increases. (54.2%)
The national income of India during the last 58
years of economic planning has increased
tremendously. But alongiwht this contribution of
primary, secondary and tertiary sectors has comparatively changed during this period. In
1951, the contribution of primary sector was 60 percent which reduced to about 21.7
percent in the year 2006. On the contrary, contribution of tertiary sector or service
sector has increased to more than 54.2 percent in the year 2005 which was only 28
percent in the year 1951.Thus, it is clear now that in India the importance of tertiary or
service sector is increasing gradually.
18.3 Causes of increasing share of Tertiary or Service sector-
By the study of Indian economy it is clear that though the production of all the
sectors have increased during last 60 years, the share of tertiary sector has been the
highest one. Now the tertiary sector has come up as the largest producer and the creator
of income in the country.
The main reasons responsible for the rapid increase in the contribution of tertiary
sector in India are as follows-
1. After independence five-year plans were implemented in India. As a result the
public sector has expanded rapidly in India. The services like hospitals, educational
institutions, posts and telegraphs, transport, bank, insurance companies, local institution,
defence services, judiciary etc have expanded in the country. As a result, after
independence their share in the economy has increased.
2. The primary and secondary sectors have expanded rapidly during past years. The
green revolution along with industrial revolution have been successful in our country. It
has increased the demand for facilities like transport, trade, storage and banking which
has resulted in the rapid expansion of these facilities.

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 3. Generally, it is seen that with the increase in the income, the consumption of
various services by the people has also increased. The people are now spending more on
private hospitals, expensive schools, purchase of new goods, according to changing
scenearo, use of vehicles, due to increase in income. The demand for services has
increased in villages along with cities. The share of service sector in the country has
increased tremendously.
4. During last few years, several new services based on information and technology
have become necessary for living. Due to this the consumption along with production of
these services has increased enormously. Tube lights, televisions, cable connections,
mobile phones , motor cars, scooters and motor cycles, computers and internets, call
centres etc. have expanded the market of consumer goods in India. As a result the
contribution of services has increased.
5. Indians have had a great impact of western countries due to globalization and
their thinking has changed. Earlier people believed that wealth should be saved or
dumped at home but today materialism has flourished. Everybody wants to avail all the
comforts and modern facilities. Today cinema, shopping, home decoration, scooter car
etc. are considered as necessities. Now a days excursion tours are considered necessary
to spend holidays. Thus, the demand for bank, insurance, tourism, transportation, hotels
have increased tremendously. Therefore the contribution of tertiary sector has increased
rapidly.
18.4 Importance of Tertiary Sector - as a component of Income.
All the three sectors of economy contribute in creating National Income. Previously
the contribution of service sector was very small but today the situation has changed
from both the viewpoints of income and employment. The importance of service sector
has increased along with the development of economy. The importance of this sector as
a component of employment and income can be easily understood in the following ways-
1. Increase in employment - The service sector provides employment to public
directly and indirectly in both the forms. For example - 15.77 lakh people are employed
in Indian railways. This number is highest in comparision to any other enterprise of the
country. The contribution of transport, wholesale and retail trade, banks, teaching
institutions, health services, tourism and hotel business is providing job opportunities to
a large extent. Such business generates employment in the inaccessible and distant
places of the country like Laddakh. Thus tertiary sector is helpful in removing
unemployment and to increasing public income.
2. Increase in production - service sector is helpful in producing more quantity
of goods and increased quality in less cost and less time. This sector helps in two ways:-
one increases the quality of the product by making efficient, trained and healthy
labourers available and secondly it increases the quantity of production and income by

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increasing skill and efficiency. Importance of Tertiary sector
3. Helpful in expansion of market - 1. Increase in employment
Tertiary sector is helpful in the expansion of 2. Increase in production
market of the commodities produced by 3. Helpful in expansion of market
primary and secondary sectors. Have you ever 4. Arrangement of finance for
thought how do you get the apples of Kashmir industries.
or how do we know the price of camera to be 5. Safety of agricultural crops and
purchased from England? This is possible only development of agriculture.
because of Tertiary Sector. By the facilities of 6. Balanced economic development
transport the goods and passengers are carried 7. Security of country.
from one place to another. The decision of 8. Contribution to National Income.
business deals or booking of hotels are done 9. Earning of foreign currency
by means of communication. All activities
have become easy and convenient because of it.
4. Arrangement of finance for industries- Banks and other financial institutions
create credit and supply capital to all kinds of industries whether the need of finance may
be for short term, medium term or long term. Carrying of goods from the industries to
the market and their advertisement all the arrangements are done by tertiary sector. In
short, the tertiary sector by fulfilling the capital related needs helps in the development
of industries.
5. Safety of agricultural crops and Development of Agriculture - Saving the
poor farmers from natural calamities is also done through service sector. The uncertainty
and risk of agricultural crops is eradicated by 'Varsha Beema Yojna' (Insurance Scheme
against insufficient no rain 'Fasal Beema Yojna' (Crop Insurance Scheme) and 'Rashtriya
Krishi Beema Yojna' (National agriculture Insurance Scheme). Along with this, tertiary
sector is helpful in increasing the production by providing capital to farmers to buy high
yielding seeds, fertilisers etc. In this manner tertiary sector improves the economic
condition of farmers and helps in increasing farm production.
6. Balanced Economic Development - In every country some areas gets developed
comparatively while some areas are left behind as backward ones. The backward areas are
developed through the facilities of transport, communication and finance. The development
of inaccessible and hilly areas is also possible due to the constuction of roadways and
railways. The people of all the sectors start receiving the advantages of economic
development.
7. Security of the country - The tertiary sector has an important place in the
security of the country.. The means of transport and communications are required to
transport the army upto the borders and to make proper arrangements for them. The
contribution of tertiary sector is very important in several ways such as delivering army

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goods, making arrangements for food and living of the soldiers and conveying important
information etc.
8. Contribution to National Income - The importance of tertiary sector is
gradually increasing day by day with economic development .The activities of service
sector are increasing rapidly in all sectors whether it is urban or rural; that is the reason
more than half of the national income is obtained from tertiary sector.
9. Earning (Obtaining of) foreign exchange - A large amount of foreign
exchange is coming in the last few years through tertiary sector. We obtain foreign
exchange from tourism and financial services along with shipping and air services. In the
recent years, there has been significant development in the sectors of software, call
centres, education and health and now foreign currency is obtained through these
services also. In the coming years, there is a big possibility of obtaining a large amount
of foreign currency from the tertiary sector.
18.5 Meaning of Infrastructure
Infrastructure or foundation for an economy according to its name provides a basis
for the development of the primary and secondary sectors of production. The progress
of any country depends upon the progress of agriculture and industries. But agriculture
itself requires energy, finance transport etc for production. Similarly machinery,
management, energy, bank, insurance, transport etc means are required for production in
industries. All these facilities and services collectively are called infrastructure.
In other words 'infrastructure means all those basic facilities, activities and
services, which help in the execution and development of other sectors of production
and are helpful in our daily life'.
Types of Infrastructure
On the basis of the activities included in it the infrastructure is categorised into two
parts -
1. Economic Infrastructure - Infrastructure, which is mainly related to energy
transport and communication, is called economic infrastructure. Railways roads, ports,
airports, dams, power stations etc. are kept under economic infrastructure. They have an
important place in the economic development of a country therefore they are also called
basic economic facilities.
2. Social Infrastructure - Social infrastructure is helpful in the development of
human resource and in human capital formation. Education, health and medical facilities
are included in it as its main parts. These make efficient, skilled and healthy manpower
available to the society. It improves the working capacity of the manpower due to which
the production in the primary and secondary sectors increases rapidly and the economy
grows fast.

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18.6 Main components of Infrastructure-
1. Energy (Power)-
The economic development of any country depends upon the available means of
energy. The reason for this is that agriculture, industry, mining, transportation etc. all
require energy.
Sources of energy
There are many sources of energy as electricity, coal, lignite, natural oil and gas
etc. Among all these sources electricity is most important. The electricity is generated
with the help of three main sources water, coal and atoms and these are known as
hydroelectricity, thermal electricity, and atomic energy. Hydroelectricity is produced by
constructing dams on rivers. Coal is used to produce thermal power. Uranium and
thorium are used in the production of atomic energy.
In India 80 percent of total production of electricity is produced by thermal power,
which is mainly based on coal. The total store of coal in India is estimated to be 21 crore
tonnes, but here the quantity of ash is higher in coal. Therefore, high quality coal is
imported from Australia. Apart from the production of electricity the coal is used in
steel plants, railways and to make bricks.
Natural oil and gas is a leading source of production of energy. But India has to
import about 80 percent of total requirement of natural oil and petroleum.
Position of Electricity in India - The demand for electricity in India has
increased rapidly due to industrialisation, use of machines in agriculture, increase in
urban population, and electrification of villages.
The efforts to increase the production of electricity were made immediately after
Independence. As a result the production of electricity increased to about 143.8
thousand megawatt in the year 2005-06 which was only 2.3 thousand megawatt in the
year 1951. But the production of electricity has been low as compared to its demand and
so the power crisis arose. At present the position is such that industries and agriculture
both are not receiving sufficient electric supply. There is no continuous supply of
electricity to cities and villages. Now private sector has also been given permission to
meet the increased demands.
2. Transportation -
Transportation occupies an important place in the economy of any country. Transport
is important from economic and social both points of view. Actually, transport is a means
of linking producers with consumers. There are several means of transport such as
bullock cart, bus, truck, tractor, ship railway aeroplanes etc.
In the beginning, the transport in India was developed mainly from the point of view
of commercial and administrative facilities and conveyance. But after independence,

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during five year plans the expansion of transport was done with a view of total economic
development. In Short the development of means of transportation in the country can be
understood in the following ways.
a) Rail Transport - In India railway is the most convenient means of transportation
for transporting goods and passengers. The railways was started in 1853, when the first
train ran 34 kilometers from Bombay to Thana. After this all round development of
railways took place. Till 2005-06 63.3 thousand Kilometer railways lines were constructed
in the country. As a result, now Indian Railways is the fourth largest railway network in
the world.
b) Road Transport - Roads have a special importance in India. As India is a country
of villages, therefore, roads have an important place from the viewpoint of increase in
production and in the opportunities of employment. The total length of roads in India is
approximately 33.4 lakh Kilometer. At present, there are several ambitious schemes
being implemented in which the SWARNIM CHATURBHUJ ROAD' Scheme is the most
important scheme. The private sector is also now included in the construction work of
roads.
c) Water Transport - The water ways system of India is of two types- first internal
waterways and second coastal and oceanic waterways. The internal water transport is
done through deep rivers and canals and boats and steamers are used for this. The
coastline of India is about 7600 Kilometer long and there are 13 major ports and 187
small and medium ports on it. The major foreign trade of India is done through major
ports.
3. Communication -
The Indian communication system is the largest one in the world. The communication
service in the country was started first in 1837. But the expansion of these services has
been very rapid only after the independence. The economic reforms, started from the
year 1991, made revolutionary changes in tele communication. This sector has
tremendously developed due to the partnership of private sector. Due to this the number
of telephones have increased to 19 crores by the end of the year 2006 and this number
will reach upto 25 crores by the end of the year 2007 as estimated by a study. Now the
mobile sets have become very popular in urban as well as in rural areas.
Due to the expansion of telecommunication services, India is now improving fast
towards the knowledge based society. The rapidly increasing number of the customers of
internet broad band is an example of it. The popularity and expansion of computers and
communication technology has modernised the post-office system also. Due to this only
now the Indian Postal network has become one of the developed networks of the world.
India has developed the satellite system also, which is a multipurpose system. This is
used for weather information, television, radio etc.

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4. Banking, Insurance and finance -
Banking, Insurance and financical institutions have an important place for the rapid
economic growth of the country. The reason is that these institutions make the capital
available to the entrepreneurs for investment, by collecting the savings from the
economy. Due to this there is expansion of economic activities and as a result, income,
employment and the rate of development has incresed.
After the nationalisation of major banks of the country in 1969, the commercial
banks have shown an immense progress. By the year 2006, the branches of all the banks
of public sector have increased upto 70 thousand approximately. Along with banks of
public sector, several commercial banks and financial institutions of private sector are
also running in the country. These institutions also provide personal loans for domestic
purposes along with industrial and business purpose. The financial institution has
expanded rapidly due to decrease in rate of interest during last few years.
Cooperative banking system in the country has also expanded rapidly. In the rural
areas, co-operative credit committees provide loans for the development of agriculture.
The organisation of co-operative banks in India is three tier, at State level is Apex Bank,
at district level Central Co-operative banks are there and primary co-operative societies
are functioning at the third level.
5. Education and Health -
The experience of developed countries shows that without social infrastructure
such as education and health, economic development is not possible. But it is seen that
in the backward and developing countries due to lack of resources attention is not paid
on education training and health.
Education - Various programmes centered upon 'Education For All' have been
implemented in India, right from the beginning, for the expansion of education. From the
year 2004, an education cess of 2 percent has been imposed on all direct and indirect
central taxes to gather the financial sources for the expansion of education. Along with
expansion of basic education, schemes like mid-day meal, girls education, National
literacy mission etc. are being implemented with this money.
After the independence educational institution of every level have expanded rapidly.
The total number of schools in the country at each level are as follows - Primary School
7.67 lakh, Secondary School 2.74 lakh and number of higher secondary school is 1.52
lakh. Apart form this there are 3201 vocational education institutions and research
centres in the country.
Health - After independence the government has emphasized specially on the
expansion of health services in the country. The number of primary and community
Health centres was only 725 in the year 1951, which raised to 1.72 lakh in the year

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2005. The number of the doctors has increased from 0.62 lakh to 6.65 lakh. During this
period, programmes are being undertaken to control diseases such as malaria, leprosy,
tuberculosis, aids, blindness, cancer and mental deformity.
Due to expansion of health facilities in the country on one hand the treatment of
several serious diseases has become possible and on the other hand awareness has
developed among people towards health. As a result, life expectancy at birth has
increased rapidly in the country; for example the male life expectancy was only 37.2
years in the year 1951 which rose to 63.9 years in 2005. Similarly, the female life
expectancy during the same period increased from 36.2 years to 66.9 years.
6. Trade and Tourism -
According to the report issued by 'the World Bank', the Indian economy has
become the 12th big economy of the world on the basis of Gross Domestic Product.
Along with agriculture and industries internal and foreign, both the trades are also
significantly important for the growth of economy. Raw materials, machineries and
techniques needed for the economic development are obtained form foreign countries
only. For this, foreign currency is required which is obtained by exporting goods and
services available in the country. This is now clear that the foreign trade, increases
income, employment and rate of development.
The foreign trade of India has increased during last few years. During 2005-06 the
value of our imports was 69,5131 crores of rupees and exports were worth Rs. 465705
crores. India mainly imports petroleum and petroleum products, edible oil, chemical,
machineries etc. and exports minerals, gems and jewellery, ready-made garments, fish,
computer software etc. Most of the foreign trade of India is with America, United
Kingdom, Germany and Russia.
18.7 Contribution of Indian services to the world
Due to the development of tertiary (service) sector in the Indian economy, today
several types of services are being provided to different countries of the world by India.
As a result of new economic policy and liberalisation of foreign trade the importance
and share of Indian tertiary sectors within and outside the country is increasing
continuously.
The neighboring countries of India, Europe and the countries of the world like
America and England are being benefited by India through its tertiary sector.
During last few years, India has shown rapid progress in the export of its services.
The export of services during last few years, has increased thrice. The trade of service
sector has gone upto 61.4 million American Dollars in 2005-06. This increase in trade
is mainly seen in software services, business and communication services. In the year
2005, the share of India was 1.0 percent of total export of goods of the world, while the

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share of India in the export of services was 2.3 percent. The contribution of Indian
services to the world can easily be understood in following ways-
1. Computer, software (I.T. sector) services - India has substantially progressed
in the field of computers during last few years. The main centres in the I.T. sector are
- Bangalore, Pune and Mumbai, where a large number of softwares are made for export
purpose. The software is exported to several countries of the world from India. The
Indian computers are specially popular in the developed countries like America, England,
France, Germany etc.
2. Communication services - In the field of communication services, India is
equivalent to the developed countries and is earning foreign exchange by exporting
telecommunication services. Now India is rendering its cooperation to many countries
for the development of telecommunication service in their countries. The Digital Charts
of Maldives have been modernised and a communication satellite unit has been set up by
India. A joint company has been formed in Nepal for Tele communication services named
as 'United Telecom'.
3. Banking and financial services - 8 Banks of public sector and 2 banks of
private sector of India have started their branches in 42 countries of the world. Amongst
these, the State Bank of India, The Bank of Baroda and the Bank of India are the main
banks. In this way the banking and financial services are worth mentioning.
4. Technical and Guidance services - India has achieved technical and managerial
efficiency also in several fields. Therefore India is providing technical guidance services
to several developing and backward countries in the construction of railway tracks, roads,
and factories. India has taken the responsibility of implementing the projects on basic
infrastructure of Iran, Afganistan, Myanmar, Bhutan, Nepal, Maldives and many countries
of Africa.

Terms
Primary sector - That sector of the economy in which goods are produced by
exploiting natural resources.
Secondary Sector - That sector of economy in which goods are produced by
transforming one good into another through human activities
as an industry.
Tertiary Sector - That sector of the economy which co-operates in the process
of production through its services for example -

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 Transportation, sale, banking, education, health etc.
Infrastructure - Those facilities and activities which help in the process of
production of goods are called infrastructure for example-
energy, means of transport, dams, education and health
facilities etc.
Knowledge based society - The society in which all the activities are operated on the
basis of available knowledge. The concept of knowledge
based society is developed through the expansion of
telecommunication technique.
Education cess - The amount which is levied for the expansion of education
along with certain other taxes.
Import -Export - The goods that a country purchases from other countries are
called import and the goods which are sold to other countries
are called export.
Communication satellite unit - The communication service which are operated
through satellite. Measuring of ground water level, searching
of minerals and petroleum materials, preparing of maps, and
detective (spy) services are implemented by communication
satellite unit.
Software services - The programmes made to use computer in various ways are
included under software services.
EXERCISES
Choose the correct alternative :
1. As the economy develops, the share of tertiary sector in the national income-
i. increases ii decreases
iii. increases, first then decreases iv. decreases first, then increases
2. It helps in the expansion of market -
i. Means of transportation ii. Means of communication
iii. Banks and financial institutions iv. All of above
3. Agriculture is included in-
i. Primary sector ii. Secondary sector
iii. Tertiary sector
iv. Secondary and Tertiary both the sectors
4. The tertiary sector provides employment -

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 i. Directly ii. Indirectly
iii. Directly and indirectly both iv. None of above
5. The reason for continuous development of tertiary sector is
i. Government interference
ii. Development of agriculture and industries
iii. Change in thinking iv. All of above
Fill in the blanks :
a) The economy is divided into ………. sectors.
b) The service sector is the …………sector of an economy.
c) The total contribution of service sector in the year 2005-06 was ………. . in
the gross domestic product.
d) Education and health are the part of ………… infrastructure.
e) The energy commission was formed in March …… .
Match the following :
(a) (b)
a) Transport Primary sector
b) United Telecom Tertiary sector
c) Pisciculture Nepal
d) Cement Factory Maldives
e) Digital charts Secondary sector
Very short answer type questions :
1. What does that part of the total population of a country called, which involves
directly in the activities of production?
2. How does the percentage of occupational distribution of working population
remain always?
3. Name that sector of the economy which cooperates in the execution of
agriculture and industry.
4. Which type of services are called the services of doctors, teachers, barbers,
washermen and advocates?
5. What is tertiary sector?
Short answer type questions :
1. What is the relation between the sectors of economy and national income?

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 2. Explain the primary and secondary sectors of economy with the help of
examples.
3. Discuss the contribution of service sector to agriculture and national income.
4. Explain any four reasons for the development of Service sector in India.
5. Describe the types of infrastructure.
6. What is the contribution of Indian services to the world?
7. Explain in brief the importance of energy and transportation.
Long answer type questions :
1. Why the division of economy is needed? Describe the sectors of economy.
2. Explain the importance of tertiary sector as a component of income.
3. Explain the meaning of tertiary sector and describe the importance of tertiary
sector.
4. Explain the meaning of infrastructure and state about its parts in brief.
5. What is the contribution of education and health in the economic development?
6. Why is the tertiary sector in India expanding? Give reasons for it.

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-19
Consumers' Awareness
Consumers and producers are
We shall learn  complementary to each other. One produces
19.1 Need of consumer awareness goods and sells them, and the other utilises
19.2 Types of exploitation of them after buying. A person may or may not
consumer be a producer but every individual is a
19.3 Causes of consumers consumer. As soon as a person buys final
exploitation products and services to satisfy his/her needs,
19.4 Solution of consumers at that moment, his/her sharing starts in the
exploitation market. Thus a consumer is a person who
19.5 Consumers revolution buys commodities from the market.
19.6 Right and duties of In this age of capitalism and globalisation
consumers the main objective of each producer is to
maximise profit. In each and every possible
way the producers are trying to increase the sale of their products. Therefore in
fulfillment of their aim they at times forget the side of consumers and start exploiting
them. For example- overcharging, under weighing, selling of adulterated and poor quality
goods, misleading the consumers by giving false advertisement not providing proper
after sales service etc. Thus in order to save himself from being cheated it is necessary
for a consumer to be aware. "Thus consumer awareness means creating awareness
of a consumer towards his rights and duties."
19.1 Need for consumer awareness
It has been observed very often that a consumer does not get right goods and
services. He has been charged a very high price or adulterated or low quality goods are
sold to him. Therefore, it is necessary to make him aware. Following facts classify the
need of making consumers aware.
1. To achieve maximum satisfaction - The income of every individual is limited.
He wants to get maximum satisfaction from the goods and services with his income. He
gets full satisfaction only by good behavior of trader/producer. Therefore it is necessary
that he should get the goods which are measured appropriately and he should not be
cheated in any way. For this he should be made aware.
2. Protection against exploitation of producers - Producers and sellers exploit
the consumers in many ways as underweighing, taking more price than the market price,
selling duplicate goods etc. Big companies through their advertisment also mislead the
consumers. Consumer awareness shields them from the exploitation of producers and
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sellers.
3. Control over consumption of harmful goods - There are several such goods
available in market which cause harm to consumers. For example we can take goods like
cigarette, tobacco, liquor etc. The consumer education and awareness motivate people
not to purchase such goods, which is not beneficial for them.
4. Motivation for saving - The awareness controls people from wastage of money
and extravagancy and inspires them to take right decision. Such consumers articles which
are really of good quality and not merely attractive should be bought and not get attracted
by advertisement of, concession, free gifts, attractive paking etc. Thus people can use
their income in a right way and can save more.
5. Knowledge regarding solution to problems - The consumer class is cheated
due to illiteracy, innocence and lack of information. Therefore it becomes necessary that
the information about their rights should be provided to them so that they cannot be
cheated by producers and sellers. Through consumer awareness they are also made
known to the proceedings of laws so that they can solve their problems.
6. Construction of healthy society - Every member of the society is a consumer.
So, if the consumer is aware and rational, then complete society becomes healthy and
alert towards their rights. In such a situation it is not possible for producers and sellers
to cheat or deceive them.
19.2 Types of consumer exploitation -
Today a consumer faces difficulty in selecting the right commodity, due to
expansion of commercial activities and availability of varieties of goods and services in
the economy. The companies give attractive advertisement and information to attract
consumers but many times it is not proper and complete. Therefore the consumers are
cheated and exploited. Generally, the consumers are exploited in the following ways -
● High prices- Generally the shopkeepers take more price than the fixed retail
price according to their own wish. You might also have experienced that we buy a costly
commodity from a shop and the same goods are available at less price in another shop.
If we show him the printed price then he gives us some excuse such as - local taxes etc.
● Inferior quality - Some times the purchased goods are of inferior quality for
example medicine sold after its expiry date, sometimes electronic devices either burn
itself or the consumers are harmed by current. In this way the consumer is cheated and
exploited.
● Adulteration and impurity - Adulteration means mixing of some cheaper
material in a quality commodity. This causes harm to health of consumers. White stone
chips mixed with rice, colour in spices, Khesari in tuar pulse, mixing of harmful
substance in other costly items such as ghee, oil etc. so as to earn more profit.
Sometimes physical disability due to consumption of adulterated food.
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 ● False or incomplete information - Many times producers and sellers provide
wrong and incomplete information to the customers. Due to this, the customers are
trapped by purchasing wrong items and their money gets wasted. The correct and
complete information about the goods is not given to the consumers regarding the price,
quality, expiry date, impact on environment, conditions of purchasing the goods. Therefore
after purchasing the goods the consumer becomes harassed.
● Artificial scarcity, black marketing and hoarding - Some times at the time
of festivals etc., the traders in order to earn undue profit create an artificial scarcity of
goods through hoarding and then by black marketing, they charge higher prices.
Sometimes the traders say that a particular commodity is not available. But afterwards
on repeated request of the customers they provide goods at double price. Kerosene oil,
sugar etc. are such goods for which the sellers show scarcity and take high prices.
● Wrong measurement - The sellers do many mischiefs in weighing and
measuring goods for example to make the bottom of weight hollow, use of stone instead
of proper weights, making the bottom of the scale of litre dented upward or thick, to put
magnet under the weighing balance etc. Thus the consumer does not get the commodity
in proper quantity as per the payment he has made for that commodity.
● After sales service - The customers are attracted in many ways and several
attractive post sale services are offered to them until he buys the product, but after the
sale of goods after sales services are not provided in proper time and the problems of
the consumers are not allended. As a result the consumer is harassed.
● Misbehaviour and unnecessary conditions - Banks and the money lending
institutions etc. provide financial services to the consumers but staff members of the
banks do not cooperate with the depositors and many a times they even misbehave with
them. Similarly at the time of obtaining gas connection, new telephone line, licensed
goods, they impose unnecessary conditions and harass the consumer, compel him/her to
buy gas stove and other things with the gas connection.
19.3 Causes of consumer's exploitation
Why is a consumer cheated? Why he is exploited; these are worrisome question.
We are all consumers. It is necessary to know the causes of exploitation so that we are
not exploited. It is only after knowing the reasons by which can we find out the ways to
save ourselves from it. The main causes of consumers exploitation are as follows-
1. Lack of knowledge - The main reason for exploitation of consumers is lack
of knowledge. Several consumers do not have the knowledge about the price, quality,
services related to commodities. Therefore, they simply trust the facts told to them by
the sellers and purchase goods, thus become trapped and are exploited.
2. Limited information - In this age of globalisation the market is full of a
variety of products. Producers are free to produce. There are no fixed laws for quality
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and fixation of prices. There is lack of proper and correct information regarding
different aspects of goods such as - price, quality, structure, terms of their use, laws of
purchasing etc. Therefore the consumers selection becomes wrong and they have to bear
economic loss.
3. Monopoly - Monopoly means the right on the production and distribution of
a commodity of a producer or a group of producers. In the state of monopoly producers
have arbitrary behaviour regarding the prices and the quality and availability of the goods.
As a result, they succeed in exploiting consumers.
4. Consumers indifference towards the market - There is a large group of such
consumers who behave indifferently regarding purchasing. There are some consumers
who are themselves indifferent about their rights and feel, everything is alright, leave it,
why to take cash memo, whatever goods the shopkeeper gives is good, things should be
cheap, good and durable, what is the need of the standardisation mark viz ISI and
AGMARK etc. The producers take full advantage of such indifferent behaviour of
consumers and succeed in exploiting them.
5. Tele marketing - Today in the age of computers, tele marketing and E-
commerce have become very popular. You also must have seen the advertisement on TV.
The information about the goods and its prices is also given in the advertisement. The
consumer can send the required money and get the commodity through parcel. But very
often the consumers feels cheated in such deals. One orders for costly products on being
influenced by the advertisements but he does not get the due benefit from that goods.
6. Attractive and misleading advertisements - The consumers see and read the
attractive advertisements on T.V., Radio, magazines, journals and newspapers. For example
- for making complexion fair within 15 days. removing wrinkles from face, long and
black hair etc. are such advertisements. These advertisements are so attractive that
people are influenced by these and purchase the goods and are befooled.
7. Illiteracy and feeling of satisfaction - When the consumers are uneducated,
sellers cheat them very easily. The shopkeeper tells the resembling words as of branded
goods and sells the goods of poor quality - for example - if Godraj is written instead of
Godrej, the local producers sells it in the price of Godrej. Sometimes consumers are
placid. They think it was a loss, let it be or it was their fate, now who will fight for it
etc. This thinking also makes them prey of exploitation. The sellers know their mentality
and they exploit them freely.
19.4 Solutions of consumer exploitation
Following are the main measures to protect oneself from exploitation as consumer-
1. Consumers' education - Consumers education and awareness is the most
important measure for the solution of exploitation. The government has made several
laws for the protection of consumers. But it is observed that they are not known to
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general public. Therefore proper education of consumers' rights should be provided to
them.
2. Purchase of standardised goods - Several types of goods are available in the
market. But for the safety against exploitation consumers should always buy standardised
goods. Goods which are marketed as ISI, AGMARK and HALLMARK are considered
standardised goods.
3. Taking cash memo or receipt - To take cash memo along with purchase of
goods is very important. Due to this the legal action can be taken in case of the quality
of goods is inferior or does not work properly before the given period of time.
4. Not to be lured by advertisements - Big companies publicise their products
by attractive advertisements through television or other media. The advertisements are
shown in such a manner that it has a psychological effect on consumers and so they
become desperate to purchase the goods. But the reality is this that the consumer should
be alert and aware of advertisements. Before purchasing of goods the consumer should
completely verify its quality, price and quantity etc.
5. To complain collectively - A consumer alone cannot do anything against the
producers and seller, but if complaint is lodged collectively then it has more effect.
6. To verify the expiry date - Whenever we purchase a medicine, we should
always check the expiry date. After this date the medicine has no effect and there is also
a possibility of its bad effect; similar is the case with tinned food. Therefore, it is
essential to check the expiry date before purchase.
19.5 Consumer's movement
The consumers' movement was started due to the dissatisfaction of the consumers.
There were many reasons of consumers dissatisfaction like - lack of food stuff,
hoarding, black marketing, adulteration etc. In order to deal with such problems for the
first time in 1955, Essential Commodities Act was passed. Through this efforts were
made to control production, distribution, price and supply of essential goods. After this,
in 1976 Weights and Standard Measures Act was passed to systematise the measurement
and weights.
After that in 1986, the Consumers Protection Act was passed by the Government
of India. This act is famous as 'Copra'. The main objective of this act is to decide the
complaints of the consumers immediately and to make legal proceeding easy. A three-
tier judiciary system has been established under Copra at district, state and national
levels to resolve the disputes of consumers. The court at district level hears the cases
related to claims upto Rs. 20 lakhs. The claims from Rs. 20 Lakh to Rs. 1 Crore are
heard in the state level courts. The courts at national level hears the cases when the
claims are of more than Rs. 1 crore.

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 The Consumer Protection Act has contributed a lot in making the consumer
movement in India effective. These courts along with deciding the disputes of consumers
also guide them. The Department of Consumer Affairs of the Government of India has
launched several schemes to make the consumers aware, such as establishment of
consumer organisations in every district, and consumer clubs in schools etc. To bring
awareness towards the right of consumers, awareness camps are organised at different
levels. In India, 24th December, is celebrated as the 'National Consumers Day.'
As a result of consumer movement in India awareness has increased among
consumers sufficiently. Today, there are more than 700 consumer organisations working.
But due to the indifferent behaviour of consumers the number of effective and recognised
organisations is very less.
19.6 Consumer's rights and duties
Consumers have the right to buy good commodities and services from the market.
The protection of law has been provided to him so that a producer or seller cannot cheat
him in anyway. Generally a consumer has got the following rights :-
1. Right to safety - This is essential for producers that they should obey the rules
related to the safety of consumers. The reason is if the producers do not obey these rules
then the consumer may have to bear a big risk. For example - in pressure cooker there
is a safety valve which if is faulty can lead to a fatal accident. The manufacturers of the
safety valves should be of high quality. If manufacturers do not do this then the
consumers can take help of consumers' protection law.
2. Right to be informed - When we purchase any product we see that some special
informations are written on the packet. Such as - batch number of the commodity,
manufacturing date, expiry date, address of manufacturing company of the goods etc.
when we purchase any medicine, then we get the directions regarding its side effect and
dangers. When we purchase clothes, then we should have the washing directions. It is
necessary to provide this information because consumers have been given right to obtain
information about things and services which they get from the seller.
In the year 2005, the Government of India passed a law known as Right to
Information. This law provides the right to get the information about all the activities
of the government departments. The consumers also have right to get the consumers
education.
3. Right to choose - A consumer has the right to select any goods or services when
he buys it. Suppose you purchase a gas connection and the gas dealer compels you to buy
the burner also along with it, but you want to buy the gas connection only, and there is
no requirement of the burner. In this situation your right to selection is not followed. The
reason is that the seller pressurises you to buy that thing which you do not want to buy.
In this situation you can take legal action against the seller.
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 4. The right to redressal - The consumers have right to redressal against
exploitation. It can be understood by a simple example. A man named Mathew got
admitted in a private hospital for the removal of tonsils. An ENT surgeon operated for
removal of tonsils under general anesthesia. Due to improper anesthesia symptoms of
mental imbalance developed in Mathew due to which he became handicapped for the
entire life. Consumer Dispute Redressal Committee found the hospital guilty of negligence
in the treatment and directed to pay compensation. Thus, it is clear that if a consumer
sustains any loss, then on the basis of the quantum of loss the consumer has a right to
get redressal and compensation.
Duties of consumers -
Apart from the efforts of government, the consumers should also follow some
duties and responsibilities himself. Thus through bilateral efforts only the consumers
can be saved from exploitation.
Following are the duties of consumers-
1. To take bill, receipt, guarantee cards etc. and to preserve them carefully.
2. To increase or decrease the consumption according to the supply of
commodity.
3. To have the knowledge of consumer protection laws.
4. To discourage black marketing and smuggling.
5. One must complain about the actual problems whether the price of product
may be less. Due to this the cheating tendency of the sellers is curbed.
6. To purchase goods after checking the marks like ISI, FPO, AGMARK, WOOL
MARK etc.
The government of India has formed some such institutions, which standardise the
quality of goods. The mark of 'AGMARK' and 'ISI' is given to industrial and consumer
goods. Similarly, wool and woollen clothes are standardised by woolmark and the golden
jewellery by Hallmark. In order to save themselves from forgery the consumers must
buy these marked goods only.
The efforts which are being made to protect consumers from exploitation are not
sufficient. Still in the rural and semi urban areas it is a complicated problem. Consumer
here are mostly illiterate and ignorant. In the market of these areas, the rules and laws
regarding working are not obeyed completely. Maximum sellers do not provide cash-
memo at the time of purchase of goods. In this situation it becomes difficult to collect
proof against exploitation. Along with this, the process of the solution of consumer
exploitation is very complicated in our country. This system is also expensive and along
with this it moves in a very slow manner.

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 Many a times consumers have to take help of advocates. It takes lot of time for the
registration of cases and the proceeding of court. Therefore, a thought must be given in
this direction to make process of law simple and practical.
In the developing countries like India, the voluntary organisations along with the
government have an important role to play in protection of consumers from exploitation.
These institutions can do important job in the direction of making consumers aware.
With this it is also necessary that the consumers should understand their rights and come
forward to contribute actively in the consumer movement.

Terms
Consumer awareness - Consumer awareness means awareness of consumers
towards their rights and duties.
Monopoly - When the production or sale of a commodity is done by
only a single person or institution.
Agmark - The mark which standardises the quality of agriculture
products.
Mark of ISI - The mark guarantees the quality of industrial and consumer
goods.
Woolmark - The mark which standardise the quality of wool or woollen
clothes.
Hallmark - The mark that standardises the quality of golden jewellery
Standardised goods - Those goods which are standardised for best quality by
the committies formed by government.
Tele marketing and E-commerce - To sell and purchase the goods and services through
telecommunication technique.
Branded Goods - Such companies or producers whose products are
generally considered as quality goods.
COPRA - The Consumer Protection Act 1986 is also know as
COPRA. Under this act a three-tier judiciary system is
set up at National, State and District levels to decide
disputes of consumers.

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 Exercises
Choose the correct alternatives :
1. When was the Consumer Protection Act enforced?
(i) 1986 (ii) 1996
(iii) 1968 (iv) None of above
2. The meaning of consumer awareness is -
(i) alertness towards self rights (ii) alertness towards self duties
(iii) alertness towards both, self right and duties
(iv) None of above
3. The Consumer awareness is necessary for -
(i) Protection from exploitation (ii) High standard of living
(iii) To check harmful consumption (iv) All of above
4. The Producer can be arbitrary regarding quality and price of commodity in -
(i) competitive market (ii) Monopoly
(iii) Agro products (iv) None of above
5. The Agmark is a mark of safety for -
(i) Jewellery (ii) Agriculture products
(iii) Woollen clothes (iv) Electronic equipments
Fill in the blanks :
1. ISI is the standard of …….. level.
2. Electronic equipments are labelled with …… mark.
3. Consumers have right to ……… against adulterated food.
4. The world consumers Day is celebrated on ……….... .
5. To show scarcity of goods despite of its sufficient supply is known as .......
6. Agmark is labelled on ……….. related products.
Match the following :
1. standardisation Industrial goods
2. ISI Three tier system
3. Consumer exploitation Indian standardisation
4. Consumer awareness Black marketing
5. The Consumer Protection Act Increase in the standard of living

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Very short answer type questions :
1. What is a buyer of commodity or service called?
2. What is meant by consumers' exploitation?
3. State any two kinds of consumer exploitation.
4. What does the selling of a ticket of cinema in an increased price than its fixed
price called?
5. What is the consequence of having limited information about a commodity?
6. What is monopoly?
7. When is the National Consumers Day celebrated?
Short answer type questions :
1. Illustrate with examples the meaning of consumer awareness.
2. How is the consumer awareness helpful in keeping a check on anarchy and
harmful consumption?
3. What is ISI?
4. What is the Consumer Protection Act?
Long answer type questions :
1. Describe the necessity and importance of consumer awareness.
2. How do the producer and traders exploit consumers?
3. Why are the consumers exploited? Discuss any four resons.
4. What is the meaning of standardisation? State standardisaion of different
products.
5. What measure will you take so that you are not cheated in the market as a
consumer? Discuss also the legal measures of protection.
6. What are the rights of consumers? Why are these rights provided to them?
7. Describe about consumers' movement in India.

❖❖❖

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 Chapter-20
Economic System
Every country or economy has to face
We shall learn  some major problems such as what goods
20.1 Meaning and definition of shall be produced, How shall goods be
economic system produced etc. The government has to take
decisions to solve these issues. On the basis
20.2 Capitalist economy system
of the decisions of the government not only
20.3 Socialistic economic system the economic problems are solved, but the
20.4 Mixed economic system or residents of that country also earn their
mixed economy livelihood, and hence all the economic
activities are carried out.
If we study the economics of different countries, we will find that in some
countries the task of production and distribution is done by the government. In these
countries the factors of production are owned by the government. In these countries the
various problems like what shall be produced, what goods shall be produced, for whom
shall. The goods be produce etc. are solved by the government. This system is named as
Socialist system. On the contrary there are number of countries in which the interference
of government is very less. All the problems of economy are solved by the market
forces. The factors of production are owned by individual instead of the government.
These people produce goods on the basis of demand of the market. The goods are
produced for only those people who have capacity (money) to purchase those goods.
This system of economy is known as Capitalist economy.
Along with this there are several countries in the world where a mixed system is
adopted. In such countries where some factors of production are owned by government
while some other factors are owned by individuals The decisions regarding the major
issues are taken by the government and private persons collectively. In such economies
a mixed, mingled process is adopted.
20.1 Meaning and definition of economic system
The system which operates the economic activities of a country is called economic
system. All the decisions related to the economy are taken by this system as determined
by the society. Such as - what commodities are to be produced, how to be produced, for
whom to be produced etc. On the basis of these decisions only, consumption, production,
exchange and distribution are determined in the economy. The day to day life of the
people of the country depends upon these decisions defined as below. According to Prof.
A. J. Brown -'Economic system is a medium by which people get their living.'

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 Prof. M Gotalic -'Economic system is a study of those ways of complicated human
relationship by which the limited means are used to satisfy several private and public
needs.'
Thus it is clear that an economic system is meant by that institutional structure
under which human life is conducted. This is an expanded concept and its form changes
with the time and situations.
Briefly following are the main characteristics of an economic system—
1. The chief objective of an economic system is to solve the economic
problems.
2. The main problems of an economy are what should be produced, for whom
should be produced and how should be produced.
3. The means to satisfy human wants in the economy are available in limited
quantity.
4. To satisfy the human needs the methods of utilisation of factors are selected
by the economic system.
5. Economic system is a group of institutions.
6. The economic system is related to a country or group of countries.
7. The economic system is always changing in nature.
In this way it is clear that to solve the various problems related to the economy,
three types of economic systems are mainly found in the world such as capitalist.
socialist ad mixed economy. The basic difference between these three systems is who
is the owner of the factors of production and how these factors are used. The detailed
description of all the three systems is as follows-
20.2 Capitalist form of economic system
In several countries of the world as America, England, France, Italy, Japan, Australia
the capitalist economy exists. Capitalist economy is known by several names, as market
economy, laissez faire or open economy, free economy etc. Capitalism has been defined
in many ways - According to Prof. Loucks and Hoots -'Capitalism is a systm of
economic organisation featured by the private ownership and the use for private profit
of man made and nature made capital.'
According to John Strechy - 'The word capitalism is meant by that economic
system in which factories and farms are owned by the individuals. In capitalism the world
works with the objective of profit and not loss.'
Thus it is clear that in capitalism production and distribution are owned by private
persons and they use the stored capital to earn profit for themselves.

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Characteristics of the Capitalist economy -
1. Private ownership on the means of production - The chief characteristic
of capitalist economic system is the ownership of private people. Thus in capitalist
economy individuals have the right to earn money and to spend it according to their
desire.
2. Economic freedom - In capitalist economy there is freedom to choose any
occupation and to run it. Consumers have also freedom to choose goods according to
their interest and habit.
3. Profit motive - Profit motive holds highest place in this system. Therefore
profit is called the heart of the capitalist system. All the activities in this system are
operated to earn profit. The main aim of entrepreneurs is to maximise their profit.
4. Based on exploitation - There are two classes in capitalist system - such as
- capitalists' class and labour class. The capitalist class; generally pay less wages to
maximise their profit. Therefore it is said that the capitalist economic system is based
on exploitation.
5. Price mechanism - The capitalist economy is operated by 'Price-mechanism'.
The price mechanism is meant by the forces of demand and supply existing in the
economy. For example - when the price of a commodity increases then the producers
increase the production of that commodity. Thereby the profit of the producer also
increases. Inversely when the supply of a commodity exceeds in comparison to its
demand, then the prices start falling. In this state of falling prices the producers have to
face loss due to which they reduces the production. In this way through the price
mechanism or demand and supply whole economy is governed.
6. Competition - Under the capitalist economic system the producers compete
with each other to sale more goods in less price. The consumers also try to purchase
better goods in minimum prices. Due to competition among the producers the inefficient
producers have to quit the competition. Thus due to the competition the efficiency of the
economy increases. Thereby the consumers get cheaper and better goods.
7. Unplanned economy - In a planned economy all the decisions are taken by
the government or central authority. But in capitalism, economy is unplanned and the
decisions are taken by price mechanism or market forces. There is no government
intervention in this system.
8. Occurrence of trade cycles - There is no co-ordination found between
producers and consumers in capitalist economic system. Therefore trade cycles become
active. The meaning of Trades cycles is the reoccurrence of inflation and depression in
the economy. The excessive production creates the situation of deflation and less
production creates the situation of inflation.
9. Consumers' sovereignty - In capitalist economy all the decision related to

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production are taken according to consumers' choice. Therefore he is called 'king'. The
producer produces only those goods which are demanded by the consumers. Therefore
the consumer is considered as the sovereign.
Merits of capitalism
following are the merits found in capitalist system -
1. Automatic system - In this system there does not exist any government
intervention. All the economic activities are governed on the basis of 'Price Mechanism'
or market forces. Therefore this system is called automatic system.
2. Increase in production and income - A rapid progress has been registered
in the western countries through capitalist system. These countries have developed
rapidly in the greed of profit motive and private property. In this system the desire to
compete improves the standard of techniques of production. As a result in the capitalist
system the production and income both increase rapidly.
3. Changing nature - The capitalism has a merit of functioning according to the
situation. The government has to change its policies and programmes according to the
situations. The industrial policy, agricultural policy, trade policy, labour policy are
always changing according to the situations but the capitalist system is operated by its
fundamental feature i.e. to earn profit.
4. Individual freedom - In this system an individual can choose any occupation
desired by him. Consumers also can choose the goods according to their liking. There
exists full freedom to earn and spend the income. In brief under capitalism there is
complete freedom regarding economic activities.
5. Optimum utilization of resources - Under capitalism the producer
tries to maximise his production by using minimum means of production. To fulfil the
objective of increasing his profit he keeps check on the wastage of resources. The
optimum utilization of the means of production is also possible due to the competition.
6. Reward according to ability - In this system the efficiency and ability of
a person is rewarded reasonably. Every individual gets the opportunity to show his ability
and efficiency. Briefly' in capitalist system the reward is obtained according to one's
ability.
7. Democratic form - A significant merit of capitalism is its democratic form.
All the decisions are taken by the government on the basis of majority. Due to this
reason only the production of goods is guided by the desire and interest of the
consumers. In this way the opinion of the majority of the consumers are followed in
capitalism and all the economic activities are operated on this very original feature.
8. Rapid economic growth - The history of the developed countries of world
shows that the growth rate of the capitalist countries has always been higher. As it is
based on the motive of profit. The rate of investment and capital formation is also higher

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in this system. The producer class bears risks and develops new techniques. Thereby the
rate of development becomes high.
Demerits of capitalist economy -
1. Disparity in Income and wealth - The greatest demerit of the capitalist
economy is the centralization of wealth in the hands of few people of the country
whereas maximum people spend their lives in poverty and unemployment. This increases
disparity in income and wealth.
2. Birth of class conflict - In this system of capitalism clashes occurs between
the capitalist class and labour class. Strikes, lock-out and conflicts are seen in the
economy. Thus class conflicts arise in the society.
3. Economic instability - The capitalist economy system is operated by price
mechanism. There exists no central authority to control the economy. As a result the
situation of inflation and deflation is created in the economy. Thus unstability occurs and
trade cycles become active in the economy.
4. Unemployment - The capitalist class uses machines to increase their profit.
Due to this the demand for labour falls and unemployment increases. In the state of
depression or deflation the problem of unemployment becomes grave.
5. Exploitation based economy - The producer class, in the capitalist economic
system, for maximising the profit, pay less wages to the labourers. More work is also
taken from the labourers. Ladies and children are employed to work, but proper wages
are not paid to them. Therefore it is said that this system is based on exploitation.
6. Disregard to human welfare - In capitalism the goods are produced only for
them who have purchasing power. Therefore the commodities needed by poor people are
produced in less quantity and luxury goods are produced more and more. The jurisdiction
of government being limited, attention is not paid towards the welfare of the poor class.
As a result the human welfare aspect is neglected in this system.
7. Regional disparities - In the capitalist production system only a few areas
become developed and rest of the areas are left backward. The reason behind it is the
setting-up of the industries by the capitalist in those places where they earn more profit.
Thereby the benefit of the development is enjoyed by a very few people. As a result
regional disparities increase and dissatisfaction arises among the people.
8. Social parasitism - Due to the system of inheritance the capitalists obtain
huge amount of property from their ancestors without any work.. This class without any
labour enjoy this ancestral property. This is called social parasitism. In brief in
capatalistic system a class of the society without any labour lives on the money earned
by others. According to the socialists this is a social evil.

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20.3 Socialists economic system
The emergence of socialism was in order to eradicate the evils of capitalist system.
Karl Marx is considered to be the father of socialism. In this economic system the
factors of production are owned by the society instead of an individual. Defining
socialism. Prof. Dickinson has written. "socialism is such an economic system of the
society in which the material means of production are owned by the society and which
is operated by the representatives of whole the society and the institutions responsible
to the community according to a general plan. All members of the community being
entitled to benefit from the results of such socialised planned production on the basis
of equal right."
Features of socialist Economy
Following are the main features of socialit economy
1. Collective ownership of means of production - In a socialistic economic
system the factors of production are used for the social welfare. In this system the
individual profit motive is zero. As in this system the factors of production are owned
by the government or the society, therefore there is no possibility of exploitation and the
social welfare increases.
2. Economic planning - The socialist system is a planned system. Central planning
has an important place in it. All the decisions regarding production are taken by the
Central Planning Authority. This results in rapid development.
3. Economic equality - In this system all the factors of production are controlled
by the state and the factors are used in the interest of the society. In this system
individual profit has no space. As a result economic equality is found in the society.
4. End of exploitation - In the socialist economic system production and
distribution are owned and controlled by the government, therefore question of
exploitation does not arise. The labourers are paid properly for their labour. The
labourers have partnership in the production and sufficient shares from the profit are
given to them. So in this system chances of exploitation are not there.
5. Labour is needed for living - In this system everybody has to do some labour
for his living. By this, that class of society. who depends upon the income of others for
its livings is abolished. Each person works according to his ability and in return receives
reward according to his needs.
6. Achievement of full employment - In socialism all the economic activities are
conducted according to the labour, available. Full attention is paid towards proper
utilization of manpower. Economic inflation and deflation also does not emerge in it.
Therefore the problem of unemployment does not exist.
7. Economic stability - In this system the economic activities are conducted in

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a planned way therefore due to this the problem of inflation and deflation do not arise.
In this system the goods are produced according to their demand, thereby the stability
persists in the economy. So the problem like trade cycle does not take place.
8. End of Price Mechanism - In socialism the prices of goods are determined by
the government. It makes the place of market forces secondary and the price mechanism
also does not work. The mutual competition between the producers also nullifies. The
expenditure on advertisement and publicity etc. is not required.
Merits of socialist economic system
Following are the main merits of a socialist economy system.
1. Optimum utilization of resource - Due to the central planning in socialist
system, optimum use of the factors of production becomes possible. The resources, by
proper planning are shifted from the areas of less productivity to the areas having more
productivity. Alongwith this the economic activities of different sectors of the economy
are co-ordinated. It makes the utilization of factors of production optimum.
2. Economic stability - Due to central planning in socialist system between the
areas of consumption and production both mutual co-ordination is found. Therefore the
situation of excessive production or less production does not exist. As a result,
economic stability is maintained in the economy.
3. Economic equality - In the socialistic system there is no place for private
property, laws of inheritance and tendency of earning profit. Property and factors are
owned by the state. The job is given to people as per their ability and efficiency. So
economic equality is found in this system.
4. End of class conflict - Due to ownership of the government on the factors of
production in socialism, division of society on the basis of property and wealth is not
found. There exists only one class i.e. labour class. Therefore there is no possibility of
class-conflict.
5. End of exploitation - In socialism there are no capitalists. Jobs are provided to
all people by the government on the basis of their ability and goods are provided to
people according to their needs. As a result the tendency of exploitation is not there.
6. End of unemployment - In socialist system it is decided through planning that
the available manpower in the country shall be utlised fully. Thus all people get jobs in
accordance with their ability. As a result the problem of unemployment does not arise.
7. End of monopoly - In socialism all the factors of production are controlled by
the government therefore wealth and factors of production are not centralized in the
hands of few individuals or a class. As a result the monopolistic forces have no role to
play.

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 8. Social security - In socialist system the government provides pension to old
people, allowance to unemployed, medical facility to sick people, education to children
etc. Therefore in this system people feel themselves more secure.
Demerits of socialism
Following are the main demerits of socialism
1. End of consumers' sovereignty - In socialist system a consumer cannot
consume things of his choice. Under this system a consumer has to consume only those
goods and only in that quantity, which the state provides them. Therefore, consumer's
sovereignty ends in the society.
2. Centralization of power - In the socialist economic system powers are
centralised because all the economic activities are conducted by the government. The
orders of the government are implemented at all levels. Therefore in this system the
power is centralized completely in the hands of government, and there is no place left
for individual freedom.
3. Lack of motivation for production work - In socialism all the production
work is controlled by the government and individual freedom has no place in it. In such
a situation labour is not motivated to do more work. It does not have scope for new
inventions, research work and new techniques of production.
4. Lack of Individual freedom - In socialist economy all the important functions
such as - quantity of production, basis of distribution, fixation of prices of the
commodities etc. are done by the government. In this system there is no place for
decision of an individual.
Therefore, in socialism individual freedom does not exist.
5. Irrational use of the factors of production - In socialism all the functions
regarding production and distribution are performed by the government. But the officers
and workers do not get any benefit of these works. Therefore quick decisions are not
taken. Several times the decisions go wrong due to which the factors of production can
not be utilised in a proper way.
20.4 Mixed economic system or mixed economy
Mixed economy is a system in which public and private both the sectors work
together. The role of both the sectors in the economy is determined in such a way that
the welfare of all the classes of the society increases significantly.
In mixed economy the private and public sectors are closely related and both work
as two constituents of a unit.
In the mixed economy the ownership, control and direction of the industries
established under public sectors is that of the government. On the contrary the ownership

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control and direction of the industries established under private sector is of the private
industrialists. Apart from these sectors there is a joint sector also in the mixed
economy. The government and the private industrialists both operate together. The main
objective of these sectors is to increase the welfare of people by rapid economic
development. In India mixed economy is adopted.
Main features of mixed economy
1. Co-existence of public and private sectors - The significant feature of mixed
economy is the co-existence of public and private sectors. The functions are clearly
divided between these two sectors.
2. Democratic system - In the mixed economy all the decision such as division
of economic activities between private and public sectors, determination of policies
determination of aims and objectives, distribution of resources etc., are taken by the
public representatives. Thus mixed economy operates as per democratic method and the
tendencies of monopoly and dictatorship are not found in it.
3. Economic planning - Economic planning is adopted for the economic
development. Under this, the government decides physical and financial aims for the
public sector and private sector. Both the sectors function to fulfil their fixed aims.
4. Economic freedom - Economic independence exists in the mixed economy but
is less as compared to capitalism. In this system a limited economic freedom is provided
to individual industrialists, keeping in mind social interest and welfare. In mixed
economy although consumer's sovereignty does not exist as in capitalism even then
individual freedom is not totally absent as the form of economic planning is determined
by the members elected by the people.
5. Control over price mechanism - In mixed economy from the view point of
public welfare, the government controls the direction of price mechanism through its
price policy. In this system price mechanism acts to a limit extent.
6. Profit motive - The role of private sector is very important in mixed economy.
The private sector operates its economic activities with the objective of earning profit.
The means of production are also allotted on the basis of profit.
7. Economic equality and social justice - Private property, right of inheritance
and other freedoms are found in mixed economy. But the government, to reduce
economic inequalities, imposes tax on rich and spends the income obtained from it, for
the welfare of the poor.
8. Social security - The government pays special attention on social security.
Government provides social security by providing old age pension, unemployment
allowance, insurance against accidents, death etc.

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Merits of mixed economy -
Following are the main merits of mixed economy -
1. Rapid economic growth - In this system private and public both the sectors
work together and try to increase the growth rate of the economy. The resources are
allocated in optimum proportion to the various sections of economy by adopting
economic planning. In this way the rate of economic development is increased by the
optimum utilization of the resources.
2. Check on centralization and monopoly - In mixed economy private and public
both the sectors are under the complete control of the government. The government
controls the activities of private sector, keeping in the mind the social interest of the
society. Along with this efforts are made to terminate monopoly by nationalizing the
areas necessary for public welfare.
3. Presence of freedom and motivation - In the mixed economy the producers
and individuals get motivated for work due to the rights of personal profit and ownership.
In this system consumers have enough freedom to earn their income and to spend it.
4. Increase in social welfare - In this system total economy is controlled and
directed by the government keeping in mind the objective of social welfare. The
government itself operates welfare policies.
5. Reduction in economic inequalities - In this system, to reduce economic
inequalities the government receives income by imposeing tax on rich and spends that
money for the welfare of poor people.
Due to this the inequalities in the distribution of wealth remain under control in
the society.
6. Industrial peace and social security - In mixed economy several laws are
made keeping in mind the interests of the labourers. Minimum wages, working conditions,
and working hours are decided by the government. Due to this the problems of strikes
and lock-outs are reduced alongwith this there is also a provision for old age pension,
insurance against accidents, unemployment allowance etc. Thus in the mixed economy
the government makes arrangements for social security.
7. Proper utilization of human resources - In mixed economy, public and
private sectors together conduct the economic activities. Special programmes of
employment are activated by the government. In the state of unemployment, allowances
are provided to the youth. The government makes efforts so that the human resources
may be utilised properly.

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Demerits of mixed economy
Following are the main demerits of mixed economy -
1. Weak and inefficient system - The working of the public sectors and private
sectors found in mixed economy is totally inverse. Therefore there cannot be proper
coordination between them. Consequently the economy cannot be executed efficiently
and both the sectors become competitors instead of supplementing to each other.
Therefore this system is considered as weak and inefficient system.
2. Fear of nationalization - In mixed economy there is always a fear of
nationalization. Due to this fear special interest and motivation is not there among
entrepreneurs towards investment. Due to the fear of nationalization foreign entrepreneurs
too, do not invest their capital in these countries.. In democratic countries, the governments
change after the election. Thereby the government policies and programmes change. This
affects the pace of economic development.
3. Inefficiency - In mixed economy the demerits of capitalism and socialism both
exist. In this system neither planning mechanism can work properly nor market mechanism
can be activated. This spreads inefficiency in the economy.
4. No encouragement to private sector - In this system government gives more
importance to public sector. As a result, the private sector is neglected. Government
policies and officers also are not in favour of private sector. Therefore the private sector
does not develop properly.
5. Inflow of foreign capital - The government invites foreign capital for
the expansion of public sector. This increases the influence of foreign powers. Foreign
powers at times influence the political system of the country.
6. Lack of practicability - In mixed economy private and public sectors both work
together. Thereby the policies, which are beneficial to one sector, may be harmful to the
other sector. Due to lack of co-ordination private and public sectors compete with each
other. As a result this affects the economy adversely.

Terms
Market forces - The market is executed by the forces of demand and supply.
The economic functions - production, consumption
distribution etc. in the economy are determined by these
forces only.
Laissez fair economy - An economy which is totally free from government

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 intervention and control is called laissez faire economy.
Price mechanism - Under capitalism the price of any commodity is determined
by the forces of their demand and supply. This process of
price determination is called price-mechanism.
Inflation and deflation- The gradual and continuous increase in the prices of
commodities are called inflation and decrease in prices
depression. In the period of inflation, due to the price rise
production, employment and income increases but consumers
suffer. On the contrary in the period of depression production
decreases and unemployment increases but the consumers
stand to gain due to low prices.
Unplanned economy - The economy in which planning is not adopted, that is called
unplanned economy.
Automatic system - That system in which there is no intervention of government.
The economy is affected by price-mechanism.
Inheritance - When the children have legal right on the property of their
father then it is called inheritance.
Trade cycle - The tendency of the repetition of inflation and deflation is
called trade cycle.
Parasitism - When a person lives his life by utilizing the property of
someone else without doing any labour by himself is known
as parasite.
Exercise
Choose the correct alternative :
1. In capitalist economy the factors are owned by-
a) government b) private individuals
c) both of them d) none of them
2. In capitalism the economic forces are operated by
a) democracy b) price mechanism
c) monarchy d) all of above
3. In socialism consumer's sovereignty -
a) increases b) remains stable
c) is not affected d) ends
4. Lack of individual freedom is found in -
a) capitalism b) mixed economy

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 c) socialism d) all of above
5. Which system is adopted in the Indian economy?
a) capitalist economy b) socialist system
c) mixed economy d) none of above
Fill in the blanks
1. In capitalism the means of production are owned by ……....... .
2. ………. is considered the father of socialism.
3. The joint sector is operated by the both government and …….. together.
4. In socialism the factors of production are owned by……… .
5. ………. economy is adopted in India.
Match the following :
Economic system right of property
Capitalism of government
Socialism of individuals and of government
Mixed economy of individuals
Very short answer type questions :
1. By which mechanism the economic system is operated in capitalism?
2. Who owns the factors of production in socialism?
3. Mixed economy is a mixture of two systems. Name them.
4. Which system is adopted in India?
5. Who owns the factors of production in mixed economy?
Short answer type questions :
1. What is capitalism and socialism? Write.
2. State the characteristics of capitalism?
3. What do you mean by mixed economy? State the demerits of mixed economy.
Long answer type questions :
1. Give the meaning of economic system. Write its characteristics.
2. State the meaning of capitalism and write its features.
3. What is mixed economy? Write its characteristics.
4. Explain the merits and demerits of capitalism.
5. What is a socialistic economic system? Explain its characteristics.
❖❖❖

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 Chapter-21

Globalisation
In today's world there are several
We shall learn  alternatives of goods and services available to a
21.1 Meaning of Globalisation consumer. The latest models of camera mobile
21.2 Factors that promote phones and television sets produced in the
Globalisation developed countries of the world are available
at very cheap prices. Some years ago only
21.3 Development of India before
Ambassador and Fiat cars were seen on the
the year 1991
Indian roads. But today cars made by many
21.4 Globalisation and India companies of the world are available in India.
(Development of India after This situation is not true for cars only but
the year 1991) things like clothes of different countries, fruits,
21.5 Problems tinned food etc. are also available in Indian
markets. Here this fact is worth quoting that
these varieties of goods and services are available for last two decades only. Prior to
this, goods manufactured within the country were only available to us.
The reality is this that today the foreign trade has linked all the countries of the
world together. There are several big companies of the world, which are called
'multinational companies'; they sell their products in several countries of the world. This
is noticeable here that a multinational company is that which produces goods in more
than one country. These companies produce goods on large scale and sell these produced
goods in several countries.
21.1 Meaning of Globalisation -
Due to growing foreign trade the markets of different countries and the goods sold
in them have been unified. The growing trend of foreign trade has now brought the
markets of different countries close to each other. The advance technology has played
a very significant role in this closeness and has changed the whole world into a big
village. This is globalisation, where markets of different countries work together in the
form of a unit.
Thus by globalisation is meant the working of whole world together with co-
operation and co-ordination in the form of a market. Under the process of globalisation
the restrictions on the inflow and outflow of goods and services from one country to
another are withdrawn. Thereby the market prices start operating freely in whole of the
world. As a result the prices in all the countries become near about uniform. In this way
as a result of globalisation all the markets of the world are unified.
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 Therefore it can be said that globalisation is a process under which all the business
activities are internationalised and they start working in the form of a unit.
21.2 Factors inspiring globalisation-
1. Expansion of Technical knowledge - During last 50 years the technical
knowledge has developed rapidly. The transport technology has made it possible to send
goods to distant places at a lower cost. The tele-communication facilities such as -
Internet, mobile phone, fax etc. has made the task of connecting people with each other
throughout the world very easy. The communication satellite has brought a revolutionary
change by expanding these facilities. As a result globalisation has expanded rapidly.
2. Process of liberalisation - Till the middle of twentieth century the production
was limited mainly within the boundaries of the countries. So many countries imposed
strict restrictions to protect the goods produced by them from competition. India also
during the decades of 1950 and1960 had permitted only imports of necessary goods as
- machineries, fertilizers and petroleum etc. Several industries developed due to this
policy and India became self-reliant in several sectors.
But during the decades, 1970 and 1990 some such changes took place due to which
began the process of liberalisation of foreign trade. For example disintegration of Union
of Soviet Socialist Republic (Russia), economic unification of Europe, emergence of
Japan as a major power of the world and economic development of Korea, Singapore and
Hongkong. As a result several countries agreed to liberalise the world trade. This
strengthened the process of liberalization. After the establishment of 'The World Trade
Organisation' in 1955, almost all the counties of the world have reduced their taxes on
imports and have opened the markets of their countries for other countries.
3. Expansion of competition and market - Competition has a special importance
in capitalist economic system. In this system different manufacturing companies in
order to seek the hold on market take support of competition. For this purpose these
companies along with cutting down the prices, use advertisements and various medium
of convincing and pushing their products.
During last few years the demand for goods and services has increased due to
increase in the income of consumers, change in mentality, tastes and habits of the
consumers. The quality and types of the production are also improved due to the
development of technology. Thereby the production of new-goods has become possible
due to which markets have expanded.
4. Expansion of multinational companies - The multinational companies play a
significant role in linking distant countries with each other. These companies set up their
factories for production purposes in those countries where they get cheaper labour and
other means of production and due to this the capacity of these companies to compete
increases.
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 The multinational companies not only sell their products world over but more
importantly they produce goods of world level and services for example - An industrial
equipment manufacturing big multinational company designs its products in the research
centre of America. Due to cheaper labour, its parts are manufactured in China. Then
these parts are carried to Mexico and Eastern Europe, where these are assembled.
Meanwhile, the call centres situated in India execute the consumer service of the
company.
This is now clear by the above example that China provides the advantage of being
a cheaper manufacturing centre. Countries like Mexico, Eastern Europe, America etc.
are beneficial due to the sale of manufactured goods. In India efficient engineers are
available who understand the technical sides of production. Here English speaking
educated young men are also available, who can make customer care services available.
Due to all these facts the cost of production has been reduced and the profit of
producing companies has increased. Therefore the number of multinational companies
has increased and their scope has expanded. Several Indian companies have obtained the
credit of being multinational.
5. Expansion of Foreign Trade - After the Second World War generally the
foreign trade of all the countries has increased. The international institutions like World
Bank and 'International Monetary Fund' have also contributed significantly in the
expansion of trade. Due to this the producers have got an opportunity to sell their goods
in the world market along with their domestic markets. Due to the expansion of foreign
trade on one hand the quantity of production has increased whereas on the other hand the
producers have also been benefited by division of labour and globalisation.
It has reduced the cost of production and the producers have got good opportunities
of competition.
After the establishment of 'World Trade Organisation' in the year 1995 the world
trade has increased rapidly. All the countries have adopted the policies related to free
trade in place of policy of protection. So the process of globalisation has gained speed.
21.3 Development of India before 1991
After the independence economic planning was adopted in India. Between the year
1951 to 1990 seven five year plans have been implemented in the country.
Following have been the major achievements of Indian development till 1991.
1. Expansion of public sector - The Public sector has been expanded for the
development of basic facilities and heavy and basic industries in the country. During this
period the plants and factories of steel, electricity, fertilizer, heavy machinery, chemical,
ship building were established under the public sector. It resulted in the rapid expansion
of the public sector in the country.
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 2. Self reliance - the five year plans aimed at achieving self reliance. The
dependence upon foreign aid was reduced in fulfilment of this aim. During this period
self-reliance in agriculture sector was achieved and vast industrial sector was developed.
3. Foreign Trade - In the year 1991 imports were kept under control. During this
period only necessary goods like - machineries, fertilizer and petroleum were mainly
imported. To protect the domestic producers from foreign competition the policy of
protection was adopted. Therefore the trade during this period increase slowly. The
contribution of India in total world trade in1951 was near about 1 percent which reduced
upto 0.6 percent in 1991.
4. National and per capita Income - During the period of 1951 to 1991 the
national income increased at the average rate of 4.0 percent, But due to the rapid growth
in population during this period the per capita income increased at a very slow speed.
5. Increase in the opportunities of employment - During this period though
efforts were made to increase the job opportunities even then the problem increased day
by day. The problem of unemployment became very complicated till 1991.
6. Crisis of foreign currency - India adopted the policy of reducing imports
between the years 1951 to 1991. But India needed foreign currency for the import of
petroleum products, machinery and other necessary goods. India had to take international
loan to import these goods. Therefore India was trapped in the crisis of foreign
exchange.
7. Price rise - During the period of planning India had to face the problem of
continuous price rise. After the first five year plan during the years 1956 to 1991 the
rate of inflation in India was between 5 to 6 percent.
Thus it is clear that during the year 1951 to 1991, India significantly progressed in
several areas of economy. But India had to face several problems in the field of foreign
trade and foreign currency. There was one such time when India had to seek loan by
mortgaging its gold reserves.
21.4 Globalisation and India (Development of India after the year 1991)
India has adopted the New Economic Policy since 1991. The main objective of
this policy is to take advantage of the progress of the world and technical knowledge and
thus accelerate the economic development of the country. This policy has opened the
way of liberalisation by avoiding the existing administrative restriction. Along with this
the efforts have been made to motivate private investment and to attract the foreign
capital. It can be said in brief that through the new policy a new chapter has begun, linking
the Indian economy with the economy of the world.
Following are the effects of the reforms and globalisation that occurred in the
economy after the year 1991.
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 1. Import-export - In the import policy, declared in the year 1991, emphasis has
been laid on export based development.
To obtain this objective the restrictions on imports and exports and administrative
controls have been reduced. In the import and export policy (2004-09) imports and
exports have been made more convenient. Here this is to be noticed that India is the
member of 'The World Trade organisation' from the very beginning. Therefore it is bound
by the commitment to open the Indian markets for other countries of the world and to
increase free trade. During last few years the reduction in the import duty has affected
the Indian economy favourably. The contribution of Indian foreign trade to the total
world trade in the year 1990 has increased from 0.6 percent and become near about 1.00
percent now.
2. Industrialisation - The industrialisation in the country has been accelerated due
to the industrial policy declared in the year 1991 and the reforms made afterwards. Now
number of industries reserved exclusively for public sector is reduced only to three. It
means that the private sector has got sufficient opportunities for expansion. According
to the industrial policy now the policy of liberalisation and privatization is being
adopting in the country. Now several areas of the economy are opened for foreign
investment. As a result of this new industrial policy, the growth rate in the country has
raised to more than 9 percent.
3. Increase in foreign investment - After the globalisation the multinational
companies have increased their investment in India. These companies have shown their
interest in such investment as cell phones, motorcars, electronic equipments, cold
drinks, junk food materials and banking services. New opportunities of employment have
been created by these industries and services. Along with this the local companies which
supply raw material etc. to these industries have also been benefitted. Thus it can be said
that after the year 1991 the foreign investment has increased in the country and as a
result the economy has been benefited by this.
4. Advantage to consumers - After the globalisation the competition between
foreign and local producers has increased, therefore the prices of several goods and
services have been reduced. Due to this the consumers are getting goods of excellent
quality. Now there are more alternatives available to the consumers. As a result the
consumer class is enjoying better standard of living as compared to previous times.
5. Advantage to Indian companies - Globalisation has helped in setting-up several
Indian companies as multinational companies. These companies have expanded their
activities at world level for example - Tata Motars, Infosys, Ranbaxy, Asian Paints, Sunderm
Fastners can be taken as examples which have now become multinational companies. The
Indian companies, in order to compete with foreign companies, have adopted the latest
technology and have raised the standards of their production. There are some companies
who have improved their condition by collaborating with multinational companies.

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 6. Expansion of service sector - Globalisation has expanded the new advantageous
services in the field of communication technology. Publication of a magazine for a company
at London by an Indian company and call centres are its examples. Apart from this services
like accounting, administrative work, engineering etc. are available in the countries like
India. These services are exported to developed countries. India is earning more foreign
currency from the export of software services.
21.5 Problems created by globalisation -
This is not true to say that India has only benefited by globalisation. The reality is
this, the globalisation has also created several problems. Following are these problems-
1. Impact on small producers - Globalisation has adversely affected several small
industries of India. Small industries are not able to compete with goods produced in
foreign countries. As a result several small industries have closed. The condition of
industries like battery, plastic toys, tyres, dairy products and edible oil is very poor. Here
this is noticeable that in India maximum people get employment in small scale industries
next to agriculture.
2. Uncertainty of employment - Lives of labourers have been greatly affected
by globalisation. These days due to growing competition, maximum employers like
flexibility in providing employment to labourers. It means that the jobs of labourers are
not secure. The factory owners, to minimize the cost, provide temporary employment to
the labourers; so that they may not have to pay them salary round the year. Along with
this the labourers have to work for long working hours. Thus it can be said that proper
share from the benefit gained by globalisation is not accuring to the labourers.
3. Benefit not to all - The experience tells us that globalisation has not been
beneficial to all people. The new opportunities gained by the globalisation have been best
utilized by educated, efficient and prosperous people. The incident of Nandigram shows
that the people, whose land was taken over, they did not get sufficient benefit of special
economic programme. Thus it can be said that the weaker and poor section of the society
is far away from the advantages of globalisation.
4. Influence of developed countries - The process of globalisation is being
implemented according to the directions of World Trade Organisation. But in this
organisation the developed countries have a strong hold.
These countries support only those policies and programmes which are beneficial
for them. These countries have not opened their market for labourers. In the same way
the subsidy given to agriculture is not yet decided. Therefore it is necessary to restrict
the influence of these countries, and such type of globalisation should be developed
which may be beneficial for all countries.
5. Regional disparities - The regional disparities have increased due to
globalisation. As the developed countries are benefitted more as compared to developing
countries by globalisation, similarly within the country developed regions have benefitted
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more than the backward regions. Thus all people have not been benefited by globalisation.
Thus it is clear that globalisation has affected the Indian economy in both the ways -
adversely and positively. The reality is, that globalisation has benefitted the industries and
business and we have approached in the world market. Several Indian producers have got the
status of multinational company. The development rate of Indian economy has also become
more than 9 percent. Consumers are now getting world-class standardised goods.
But in reality the people of all classes have not got the benefit of globalisation
equally. Several small industries have been closed due to competition. The problems like
poverty and unemployment prevailing in the developing countries like India have become
more complicated. Along with this, due to the influence of developed countries upon
'The World Trade Organisation,' developing and backward countries are not getting the
due benefits of globalisation. The new labour- laws are not affecting the labour class
favourably. Therefore special efforts are needed.

Terms
Multinational Company - A Company whose work related to production and sale is
spread over in other countries also.
Globalisation - When all the countries of the world adopt policy of
liberalisation and as a result of which all the markets of the
world are connected with each other.
Liberalisation - To adopt free trade policy by reducing the administrative
controls and other restrictions.
Inflation - The continuous rise in the prices of goods and services is
called inflation.
Division of labour - Dividing the process of production of a commodity into
various sub-activities and each sub-activity is to be done by
separate labourer is called division of labour.
The World Trade Organisation - An organisation which is set up to make the
international trade liberal. It was established in 1995 and till
2006 its members were 149 countries.
Special economic sector - A plan to motivate private industrialist to start an industry
with a view to promote export trade.

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 Exercises
Choose the correct alternatives :
1. Globalisation has improved the standard of living of -
(i) poor class (ii) higher class
(iii) rural areas (iii) all classes of the society
2. Which industries are closed due to globalisation?
(i) Large scale industries (iii) multinational companies
(ii) small scale industries (iv) industries of all type
3. The process of globalisation began in India from the year.
(i) 1947 (ii) 1951
(iii) 1991 (iv) 2001
4. The World Trade Organisation was established in -
(i) 1985 (ii) 1995
(iii) 2001 (iv) 2005
5. The main basis of globalisation is
(i) foreign trade (ii) internal trade
(iii) Agricultural trade (iv) small scale industry
Fill in the blanks-
1. At present the number of reserved industries is ……….. .
2. Under globalisation the transportation of goods and services is …………….
between various economics.
3. The companies who produce goods in different countries are called .......... .
Very short answer type questions-
1. What was the foreign policy of India prior to the year 1991?
2. What are those companies called which produce in more than one country?
3. Which consumer class is benefited more by globalisation?
4. What do you understand by multinational companies?
Short answer type questions -
1. State the meaning of globalisation. Who have been benefited by globalisation?
2. What is foreign trade?
3. What is the unification of markets?
4. How are the small producers affected by globalisation?
Long answer type questions -
1. What do you understand by globalisation? Explain the causes that motivate the
process of globalisation.
2. How does foreign trade help in unifying the markets of various countries?
3. Explain the economic condition of India after the globalisation, and discuss
the problems created by globalisation.

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