Howerer, the term radioscopy has ot received wide acceptance yet, and this article considers the following two techniques as radiographic inspection (with xrays or -rays): «Film or paper radiogroply: A two-dimensional latent image from the projected radiation is produced on a sheet of film or paper that has been exposed to the unabsorbed radiation passing through the testpiece This technique requires subsequent development of the exposed film or paper so that the latent image becomes visible for viewing + Real-tine radiography (also known as radioscopy): A two-dimensional image can be immediately displayed on a viewing screen or television monitor. This technique does not involve the creation of a Intent image: instead, the unabsorbed radiation is converted into an optical or elecironic signal, which can be viewed immediately or can be processed in near realtime with electronic and video equipmentUses of Radiography Radiography is used to detect the features of a component or assembly that exhibit a difference in thickness or physical density 25 compared to surrounding material. Large differences are more easily detected than small ones. In general, radiography can detect oaly those features that have an appreciable thickness in a direction parallel to the radiation beam. This means that the ability of the process to detect planar discontinuities such as cracks depends on proper orientation of the testprece duning inspection, Discontimuties such as voids and idlusioas, which have measurable thickness in all dkrections, can be detected as long as they are not too small in relation to section thickness. In general, features that exhibit a 1% or more difference in absorption compared to the surrounding material can be detected. Although neither is laited to the detection of intemal flrs, radiography and ultasonics are the two generally used nondestructive inspection methods that can satisfactorily detect flaws that are completely internal and located well below the surface of the part. Neither method is limited to the detection of specific types of internal flaws, but radiography is rote effective wien the flaws are not planar, while ultrasonics is more effective whea the flaws are planar. In comparison to other generally used nondestructive methods (for example, magnatic particle, liquid penetrant, and eddy current inspection), radiography has three man advantages: «The ability to detect intemal flaws + The ability to detect significant variations in composition + Permanent recording of rav inspection data Applicability. Radiographic inspection is extensively used on castings and weldments, particularly where there is a critical need to ensure freedom from intemal flaws. For example, radiography is offen specified for the inspection of thick-wall castings and weldmerts for steam-power equipment (boiler and tucbine components and assemblies) and other high-pressure systems. Rackography can also be used on forgings and mechanical assemblies, although with mechanical assemblies radiography is usually limited to inspection for condition and proper placement of components or for proper liquid-ill level in sealed systems. Certain special devices are more satisfactorily mspected by cadiography than by other methods. For example, radiography is well suited to the imspection of semicondhcior devices for voids in the element mount area in the case seal area, and in plastic molding compounds used to encapsulate some devices. Radiography is also used to inspect for cracks, brcken wires, foreign material, and misplaced and misaligned elements. High-resolution real-time imaging with microfocus x-ray sources has made it possible to use radiography as a failure analysis tool for semiconductors and other electronic components. Real-time imaging allows amalysis from a variety of angles, while microfocus adds the capability of detecting flaws as small as 0.025 mm (0.001 in) in the major dimension. New uses of radiography have also occurred with the inspection of composites. In such applications, the sensitivity is maximized with the use of high-intensity, low-energy radiation The sensitivity of xray and -ray radiography to various types of flaws depends on many factors, including type of matenal, type of flaw, and product form, (Type of material inthis context is usually expressed in terms of atomic number -for example, metals having low atomic numbers are classified 2s light mecals, and those having high atomic numbers are heavy metals.) Table 1 indicates the general degree of suitability of the three main radiographic methods for the detection of discontinuities in various product forms and applications.Radiography can be used to inspect most types of solid material, with the possible exception of materials of very high or very low density. (Neutron radiography, however, can often be used in stich cases, as discussed an the arucle "Neutron Radiography" in this Volume.) Both ferrous and nonferrous alloys can be radiographed, as can nonmetallic materials and composites. There is wide latitude both in the material thickness that can be inspected and in the techniques that can be used. ‘Numerous special techniques and special devices have been developed for the application of radiography to specific inspection problems, including even the inspection of radioactive materials. Most of these specialized applications are not discussed in this article, but several can be found in articles in this Volume that deal with the use of radiography in the inspection of specific product forms. In some cases, radiography cannot be used even though it appears suitable from Table 1, because the partis accessible from one side only. Radiography typically involves the transmission of radiation through the tesipiece, in wiiich case both sides of the part must be accessible. However, radiographic and radiomeic inspection can also be performed with Compton scattering, in which the scattered photons are used for imaging. With Compton scattering, inspection can be performed when only one side is accessible. Another method of inspecting 2 region having one inaccessible side is to use ‘probes with a micrefocus x-ray tube (see the section "Microfocus X-Ray Tubes’ in this article). Limitations. Compared to other nondestructive methods of inspection, radiography is expensive. Relatively large capital costs and space allocations are required for a radiographic laboratery. although costs can be ceduced when portable x-ray or Y-ray sources are used in film radiography. Capital costs can be relatively low with porteble units, and space is requited only for film processing and intespretation. Operating costs can be high: sometimes as much as 60% of the total inspection time is spent in setting up for radiography. With real-time radiography. operating costs are usually much lower, because setup times are shorter and there are no extra costs for processing or interpretation of film. ‘The field inspection of thick sections can be a time-consuming process because the effective radiation output of portable sources may require long exposure times of the radiographic film. Radioactive (-ray) sources are limited in their output primarily because high-activity sources require heavy shielding for the protection of personnel. This limits field usage to sources of lower activity that can be transported. The output of portable x-ray sources may also limit the field inspection of thick sections, particularly if a portable x-rav tube is used. Portable x-ray tubes emit relatively low-energy (300 keV) radiation and are limited in the radiation output. Both of these characteristics of portable x-ray tubes combine to limit their application to the inspection of sections having the absorption equivalent of 75 mm (3 in.) of steel. Instead of portable x-ray tubes, portable linear accelerators and betatrons provide high-energy (>1 MeV) x-rays for the radiographic field inspection of thicker sections Certain types of flaws are difficult to detect by sadiographiy. Cracks cannot be detected unless they are essentially parallel to the radiation beam. Tight cracks in thick sections may not be detected at all, even when properiy oriented. Minute discontinuities such as inclusions ia wrought material, flakes, microporosity, and microfissures may not be detected unless they are sufficiently segregated to yield 2 detectable gross effect. Laminations are nearly impossible to detect with radiography: because of their unfavorable orientation, delaminations do not yield differences in absorption that enable laminated areas to be distinguished from delaminated areas. It is well known that large doses of x-rays or Y/-rays can kill human cells, and in massive doses can cause severe disability or death. Protection of personnel--not only those engaged in radiographic work but also those in the vicinity of radiographic inspection~is of major importance. Safety requirements impose both economic and operational constraints onthe use of radiography for inspection.