INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES

REVIEW OF THERMODYNAMICS
First Law of Thermodynamics: It is the conservation of energy principle.
System: Quantity of mater or a region in space chosen for study.
Closed System: also called Control Mass is the quantity of matter.
Open System: also called Control Volume is a region in space.
State: Where values of all the properties are fixed.
State Postulate: The state of a simple compressible system is completely specified by two independent,
intensive properties.
Simple Compressible System: A system in the absence of electrical, magnetic, gravitational, motion, and
simple tension effects.
Process: Any change that a system undergoes from one equilibrium state to another.
Reversible Process: is defined as a process that can be reversed without leaving any trace on the
surroundings.
Irreversibilities: Friction, unstrained expansion, mixing of two fluids, heat transfer across a finite
temperature difference, electric resistance, inelastic deformation of solids, and chemical reactions.
Path of the process: The series of states through which a system passes during a process.
Steady Flow Process: During which a fluid flows through a control volume steadily.
Steady: No changes with time. Its opposite is Unsteady or Transient.
Uniform: No change with location over a specified region.
Second law of Thermodynamics: Energy has quality as well quantity and actual process occur in the
direction of decreasing quality of energy.
Kelvin-Planck Statement: It is impossible for any device that operates on a cycle to receive heat from a
single reservoir and produce a net amount of work.
Clausius Statement: It is impossible to construct a device that operates in a cycle and produces no effect
other than the transfer of heat from a lower-temperature body to a higher-temperature body.
Refrigerators: The transfer of heat from a low-temperature medium to a high-temperature one requires
special devices called refrigerators.
Heat Pump and refrigerator is the same device but differ in its objectives. The objective of a refrigerator is
to maintain the refrigerated space at a low temperature by removing heat from it. The objective of a heat
pump, however, is to maintain a heated space at a high temperature.
Air conditioners are refrigerators whose refrigerated space is a room instead of a food compartment.
Cycle: A system is said to have undergone a cycle if it returns to its initial state at the end of the process.
That is, for a cycle the initial and final states are identical.
Two important areas of application for thermodynamics are power generation and refrigeration. Both are
usually accomplished by systems that operate on a thermodynamic cycle.
Thermodynamic cycles can be divided into two general categories: power cycles and refrigeration cycles.
The devices or systems used to produce a net power output are often called engines, and the thermodynamic
cycle they operate on are called power cycles.
The devices or systems used to produce a refrigeration effect are called refrigerators, air conditioners, or heat
pumps, and the cycles they operate on are called refrigeration cycles.
Thermodynamic cycles can also be categorized as gas cycles and vapour cycles, depending on the phase of
the working fluid. In gas cycles, the working fluid remains in the gaseous phase throughout the entire cycle,
whereas in vapour cycles the working fluid exists in the vapour phase during one part of the cycle and in the
liquid phase during another part.
Thermodynamic cycles can be categorized yet another way: closed and open cycles. In closed cycles, the
working fluid is returned to the initial state at the end of the cycle and is recirculated. In open cycles, the
working fluid is renewed at the end of each cycle instead of being recirculated.
In automobile engines, the combustion gases are exhausted and replaced by fresh air-fuel mixture at the end
of each cycle. The engine operates on a mechanical cycle, but the working fluid does not go through a
complete thermodynamic cycle.

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 CLASSIFICATION OF HEAT ENGINES

Heat Engines

Internal Combustion Engines External Combustion Engines

Reciprocating Turbines Reciprocating Turbines

Engines For example, Engines For example,
For example, Gas Turbine For example, Gas Turbine
Petrol Engine Steam Engine Steam Turbine
Diesel Engine
Heat engines are devices used to produce net work from a supply
of heat by operating in a cyclic manner.
Work can be converted to heat directly and completely, but
converting heat to work requires the use of heat engines, which
usually involve a fluid to and from which heat is transferred while
undergoing a cycle. This fluid is called the working fluid. In
thermodynamic systems, the working fluid can be in liquid, vapour,
or gaseous phase. Heat engines differ considerably from one
another, but all can be characterised by the following:
1. They receive heat from a high-temperature source (e.g.,
combustion chamber, solar energy, nuclear reactor).
2. They convert part of this heat to work (usually in the form of a
rotating shaft).
3. They reject the remaining waste heat to a low-temperature sink
(the atmosphere, rivers, etc.).
4. They operate on a cycle.
In the internal combustion engine, combustion takes place directly in the working fluid and the
expanding force of combustion is converted into mechanical force by means of a suitable
mechanism. That is, the products of combustion of air and fuel are, directly, the motive or
working fluid.
In the external combustion engine fuel burns outside the working fluid and the products of
combustion transfer heat to a second fluid, which then becomes the motive or working fluid.
For reciprocating engines, cycle consists of a succession of non-flow processes. A given mass
of working fluid can be taken through a series of processes in a cylinder fitted with a
reciprocating piston. These are used for small power production.
For turbines, cycle is a series of steady flow processes. These are used to develop high power.
An advantage of a reciprocating engine on a turbine is that in reciprocating engines maximum
permissible temperature of working fluid is much higher than in a turbine plant. For instance,
2800 K in reciprocating engine compared with 1000 K in a gas turbine.

Page 2 of 17
 INTERNAL COMBUSTION ENGINES
Most internal combustion engines use the
reciprocating-piston principle, where in a D
piston slides back and forth in a cylinder and
transmits power through, usually, a simple
connecting rod and crank mechanism to the TDC
VC
drive shaft.
The piston reciprocates in the cylinder
between two fixed positions called the top VD
L
dead centre (TDC)—the position of the piton
when it forms the smallest volume in the
cylinder—and the bottom dead centre
(BDC)—the position of the piston when it BDC
forms the largest volume in the cylinder. At
dead centres the piston necessarily comes to a
complete standstill position before the
l
direction of its motion is reversed. The
distance between the TDC and the BDC is the
largest distance that the piston can travel in
one direction, and it is called the stroke of the
engine. This takes place over a half revolution
of the crankshaft. The diameter of the piston
is called the bore.

The minimum volume formed in the cylinder
when the piton is at TDC is called the
clearance volume, VC. The volume displaced
by the piston as it moves between TDC and
BDC is called the displacement volume VD.
The ratio of the maximum volume formed in the cylinder to the minimum volume is called the
compression ratio r of the engine:

V V V  VC D 2
r  max  BDC  D VD  nc L where nc is the number of cylinders
Vmin VTDC VC 4
Internal Combustion Engine Classifications:
There are many types and arrangements of internal combustion engines, and some classification
is necessary to describe a particular engine adequately. They can be classified in a number of
different ways:
1. Application. Automobile, locomotive, marine, power generation, light aircraft, portable
power system
2. Working Cycle. Four-stroke cycle, Two-stroke cycle
3. Air Intake Process. Naturally aspirated, supercharged, turbocharged, crankcase compressed
4. Fuel Used. Gasoline (Petrol), fuel oil (or diesel fuel), natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas,
alcohols, gasohol, hydrogen, dual fuel
5. Method of Mixture Preparation. Carburetion, fuel injection into the intake ports or intake
manifold, fuel injection into the engine cylinder

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6. Method of Ignition. Spark ignition (SI), compression ignition (CI)
7. Method of Load Control. Throttling of fuel and air flow together so mixture composition is
essentially unchanged, control of fuel flow alone, a combination of these
8. Basic Engine Design. Reciprocating engines (in turn subdivided by arrangement of
cylinders: e.g., in-line, V, opposed cylinder, opposed piston, W, radial), rotary engines
(Wankel and other geometries)
9. Valve or Port Design and Location. Valves in head: Overhead (or I-head) valves, Valves in
block: flat head (or underhead or L-head) valves, T-head valves (Historic engines), F-head
valves (less common), rotary valves, cross-scavenged porting, loop scavenged porting,
through- or uniflow- scavenged
10. Combustion Chamber Design. Open chamber (many designs: e.g., disc, wedge,
hemisphere, bowl-in-piston), divided chamber (small and large auxiliary chambers; many
designs: e.g., swirl chamber, prechambers)
11. Method of Cooling. Water cooled, air cooled, liquid cooled
Several or all of these classifications can be used at the same time to identify a given engine.
Thus, a modern engine might be called a turbocharged, reciprocating, spark ignition, four-stroke
cycle, overhead valve, water-cooled, gasoline, multipoint fuel-injected, V8 automobile engine.

In-Line Arrangement V Arrangement W Arrangement

Page 4 of 17
 ENGINE OPERATING PARAMETERS
IMPORTANT ENGINE CHARACTERISTICS
The factors important to an engine are:
1. The engine’s performance over its operating range
2. The engine’s fuel consumption within this operating range and the cost of the required fuel
3. The engine's noise and air pollutant emissions within this operating range
4. The initial cost of the engine and its installation
5. The reliability and durability of the engine, its maintenance requirements, and how these affect
engine availability and operating costs
These factors control total engine operating costs and whether the engine in operation can satisfy
environmental regulations. That is, the main considerations are performance, efficiency, and
emissions characteristics. Engine performance is more precisely defined by:
1. The maximum power (or the maximum torque) available at each speed within the useful engine
operating range
2. The range of speed and power over which engine operation is satisfactory
The following performance definitions are commonly used:
Maximum rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop for short periods of
operation.
Normal rated power: The highest power an engine is allowed to develop in continuous operation.
Rated Speed: The crank shaft rotational speed at which rated power is developed.
Mean Piston Speed: The piston speed is zero at the beginning of the stroke, reaches a maximum
near the middle of the stroke, and decreases to zero at the end of the stroke. An important
characteristic speed is the mean piston speed S p . Since the piston travels a distance of twice the
stroke per revolution
S p  2LN where N is the rotational speed of the crank shaft.
Torque (T) is a measure of an engine’s ability to do work; it depends on engine size.
Power (P) is the rate at which work is done.
Brake power (Pb) is the usable power delivered by the engine to the load.
Pb = 2NT where N is the crankshaft rotational speed.
Power and torque depend on an engine’s displaced volume.
The indicated work per cycle (per cylinder)
(Wi) is the work transfer from the gas within
the cylinder to the piston and is obtained by
measuring the area enclosed by p-V diagram
plotted from the engine pressure data for the
gas in the cylinder over the operating cycle
of the engine. The upper loop of the p-V
diagram is called power loop and the lower is
called pumping loop. Pump work is negative
for naturally aspirated engines and positive Naturally Aspirated Cycle Turbocharged Cycle

for engines with superchargers or turbochargers. Superchargers increase net indicated work but
add to the friction work of the engine since they are driven by the crank shaft.

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The indicated power (Pi) per cylinder is the rate of work transfer from the gas within the cylinder to
the piston. It is related to the indicated work per cycle by
WN
Pi  i where nR is the number of crank revolutions for each power stroke per cylinder.
nR
For four-stroke cycles, nR equals 2; for two-stroke cycles, nR equals 1.
Mechanical Efficiency: The indicated power differs from the brake power by the power absorbed in
overcoming the friction of the bearings, pistons, and other mechanical components of the engine
and to drive the engine accessories.
All of these power requirements are grouped together and called friction power (Pf).
Thus, Pi = Pb + Pf.
The ratio of the brake (or useful) power delivered by the engine to the indicated power is called the
P
mechanical efficiency (m),  m  b
Pi
Since the friction power includes the power required to pump gas into and out of the engine,
mechanical efficiency depends on throttle position as well as engine design and engine speed. As
the engine is throttled, mechanical efficiency decreases, eventually to zero at idle operation.
Road-Load Power: A part-load power level useful as a reference point for testing automobile
engines is the power required to drive a vehicle on a level road at a steady speed. Called road-load
power, this power overcomes the rolling resistance which arises from the friction of the tires and
the aerodynamic drag of the vehicle. An approximate formula for load-load power Pr is
Pr = (CR M g + ½  CDA v2) v
where CR = coefficient of rolling resistance (0.012 < CR < 0.015)
CD = drag coefficient (for cars: 0.3 < CD < 0.5)
M = mass of vehicle
 = ambient air density
A = frontal area of vehicle
v = vehicle speed
Mean Effective Pressure: Pressure in the cylinder of an engine is continuously changing during the
cycle. An average or mean effective pressure (mep) is defined to compare engine for design or
output because it is independent of engine size and/or speed.
Indicated Mean effective pressure (imep) is obtained by dividing the work per cycle by the cylinder
W Pn
volume displaced per cycle, imep  i  i R
Vd Vd N
W 2 nRT
Brake Mean effective pressure (bmep) can be expressed in terms of torque, bmep  b 
Vd Vd
Specific fuel consumption is the mass flow rate (mf) of fuel consumed per unit power. It measures
how efficiently an engine is using the fuel supplied to produce work. That is, it is a measure of the
engine’s efficiency.
m m
Indicated specific fuel consumption, isfc  f , Brake specific fuel consumption, bsfc  f
Pi Pb
Combustion efficiency (c) is defined as the fraction of the fuel energy supplied which is released
in the combustion process.
The fuel energy supplied (Qin) which can be released by combustion is given by Qin = mf c QHV
where QHV is the heating (calorific) value of the fuel. The heating value defines its energy content.

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Thermal Efficiency: Performance or efficiency, in general, can be expresses in terms of the
desired output and the required input as
Desired output Net work output W Q
Performance  , Thermal efficiency  ,  th  net, out  1  out
Required input Total heat input Qin Qin
The thermal efficiency of a heat engine is always less than unity.
Thermal efficiency is a measure of how efficiently a heat engine converts the heat that it receives
to work. It is also called the fuel conversion efficiency.
Heat engines are built for the purpose of converting heat to work, and engineers are constantly
trying to improve the efficiencies of these devices since increased efficiency means less fuel
consumption and thus lower fuel bills and less pollution.
Typical values of thermal efficiencies of work-producing devices:
Ordinary spark-ignition automobile engine 25 %
Diesel engines and large gas-turbine plants 35 %
Steam power plants 40 %
Large combined gas-steam power plants 50 %
Wi 1
Indicated thermal efficiency, it  
m f QHV isfc  QHV

Wb 1
Brake thermal efficiency, bt  
m f QHV bsfc QHV

m a
Air/Fuel Ratio: ( A / F ) 
m f

m f
Fuel/Air ratio: ( F / A) 
m a
Volumetric Efficiency: The intake systemthe air filter, carburettor, and throttle plate (in an SI
engine), intake manifold, intake port, intake valverestricts the amount of air which an engine of
given displacement can induct. The parameter used to measure the effectiveness of an engine’s
induction process is the volumetric efficiency (v). Volumetric efficiency is only used with four-
stroke cycle engines which have a distinct induction process. It is defined as the volume flow rate
of air into the system divided by the rate at which volume is displaced by the piston.
ma
v 
Vd
where  is the inlet air density and ma is the mass of air inducted into the cylinder per cycle.
Engine Specific Weight and Specific Volume: Engine weight and bulk volume for a given rated
power are important in many applications. Two parameters useful for comparing these attributes
from one engine to another are:
engine weight engine volume
Specific weight  Specific volume 
rated power rated power
These indicate the effectiveness with which the engine designer has used the engine materials and
packaged the engine components.

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 ENGINE CYCLES
Heat engines are cyclic devices and the working fluid of a heat engine returns to its initial state at
the end of each cycle. Work is done by the working fluid during one part of the cycle and on the
working fluid during another part. The difference between these two is the net work delivered by
the heat engine. The cycle efficiency can be maximized by using processes that require the least
amount of work and deliver the most, that is, by using reversible processes. Therefore, the most
efficient cycles are reversible cycle, that is, cycles that consist entirely of reversible processes.
Reversible cycles cannot be achieved in practice because the irreversiblities associated with each
process cannot be eliminated. However, reversible cycles provide upper limits on the performance
of real cycles.
The Carnot Cycle: The best known reversible cycle is the Carnot cycle, first proposed in 1824 by
French engineer Sadi Carnot. The theoretical heat engine that operate on the Carnot cycle is called
the Carnot heat engine. The Carnot cycle is composed of four reversible processes—two isothermal
and two adiabatic—and it can be executed either in a closed or a steady flow system.

Heat engines that operate on the Carnot cycle have the highest thermal efficiency of all heat
engines operating between the same temperature levels. That is, no cycle can be developed more
efficient than the Carnot cycle.
The cycles encountered in actual engines are difficult to
analyze because of the presence of complicating effects, such
as friction, and the absence of sufficient time for
establishment of the equilibrium conditions during the cycle.
To make an analytical study of a cycle feasible, the
complexities have to be kept at a manageable level and some
idealization has to be utilized. When the actual cycle is
stripped off all the internal irreversibilities and complexities
the cycle is made up totally of internally reversible processes
and resembles the actual cycle closely. Such a cycle is called
an ideal cycle.

The ideal cycles are internally reversible, but, unlike the Carnot cycle, they are not necessarily
externally reversible. Therefore, the thermal efficiency of an ideal cycle, in general, is less than that
of a totally reversible cycle operating between the same temperature limits. However, it is still
considerably higher than the thermal efficiency of an actual cycle because of the idealizations
utilized.

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Air-Standard Cycle: In gas-power cycles, the working fluid remains a gas throughout the entire
cycle. Spark-ignition engines, diesel engines, and conventional gas turbines are examples of
devices that operate on gas cycles. In all these engines, energy is provided by burning a fuel in the
presence of air. Because of this combustion process, the composition of working fluid changes
from air and fuel to combustion products during the course of the cycle. The working fluid is
thrown out of the engine at some point in the cycle instead of being returned to the initial state.
The actual gas power cycles are complex. To reduce the analysis to a manageable level, the
following approximations, called the air-standard assumptions, are utilized:
1. The working fluid is air, which continuously circulates in a closed loop and always behaves
as an ideal gas.
2. All the processes that make the cycle are internally reversible.
3. The combustion process is replaced by a heat-addition process from an external source.
4. The exhaust process is replaced by a heat rejection process that restores the working fluid to
its initial state.
A cycle for which the air-standard assumptions are applicable is called an air-standard cycle.
Otto Cycle: The Otto cycle is the ideal cycle for spark-ignition (SI) reciprocating engines. In most
SI engines, the piston executes the four complete strokes (two mechanical cycles) within the
cylinder, and the crank shaft completes two revolutions for each thermodynamic cycle. These
engines are called four-stroke internal combustion engines.

Actual and ideal cycles in park-ignition engines and their pv-diagrams.

Initially, both the intake and the exhaust valves are closed, and the piton is at BDC position. During
the compression stroke, the piston moves towards TDC, compressing the air-fuel mixture. Shortly
before the piston reaches TDC, the spark plug fires and the mixture ignites, increasing the pressure
and temperature of the system. The high-pressure gases force the piston towards BDC, which in
turn forces the crankshaft to rotate, producing a useful work output during the expansion or power
stroke. At the end of this stroke, the piston is at BDC position (the completion of the first
mechanical cycle), and the cylinder is filled with combustion products. Now the piston moves
towards TDC one more time, purging the exhaust gases through the exhaust valve (the exhaust

Page 9 of 17
stroke), and towards BDC a second time, drawing in fresh air-fuel mixture through the intake valve
(the intake stroke). Notice that pressure in the cylinder is slightly above the atmospheric value
during the exhaust stroke and slightly below during the intake stroke.
In two-stroke engines, all functions are executed in just two
strokes: the power stroke and the compression stroke. In these
engines, the crankcase is sealed, and the motion of the piston is
used to slightly pressurize the air-fuel mixture in the crankcase.
Also, the intake and exhaust valves are replaced by openings in the
lower portion of the cylinder wall. During the later part of the
power stroke, the piston uncovers first the exhaust port, allowing
the exhaust gases to be partially expelled, and then the intake port,
allowing the fresh air-fuel mixture to rush in and drive most of the
remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder. This mixture is then
compressed as the piston moves upward during the compression
stroke and is subsequently ignited by a spark plug.

The two-stroke engines are generally less efficient than their four-stroke counterparts because of
the incomplete expulsion of the exhaust gases and the partial expulsion of the fresh air-fuel mixture
with the exhaust gases. However, they are relatively simple and inexpensive, and they have high
power-to-weight and power-to-volume ratios, which make them suitable for applications requiring
small size and weight such as for motorcycles, chain saws, and lawn mowers.
Advances in several technologies—such as direct fuel injection, stratified charge combustion, and
electronic controls—brought about a renewed in interest in two-stroke engines that can offer high
performance fuel economy while satisfying the stringent emission requirements. For a given weight
and displacement, a well-designed two-stroke engine can provide significantly more power than its
four-stroke counterpart because two-stroke engines produce power on every engine revolution
instead of every other one. In the new two-stroke engines under development, the highly atomized
fuel pray that is injected into the combustion chamber toward the end of the compression stroke
burns much more completely. The fuel is sprayed after the exhaust valve is closed, which prevents
unburned fuel from being ejected into the atmosphere. With stratified combustion, the flame that is
initiated by igniting the small amount of the rich fuel-air mixture near the park plug propagates
through the combustion chamber filled with a much leaner mixture, and this results in much cleaner
combustion. Also, the advances in electronic have made it possible to ensure the optimum
operation under varying engine load and speed conditions. The thermodynamic analysis of the
actual four-stroke or two-stroke cycles is not a simple task. However, the analysis can be simplified
significantly if the air-standard assumptions are utilized.
The resulting cycle, which closely resembles the actual operating
conditions, is the ideal Otto cycle. It consists of four internally
reversible processes:
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-volume heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
Thermal efficiency of Otto cycle is given by
1
 th  1 
r k 1 Ts-diagram of Otto cycle
Cp
where the r is the compression ratio and k is the specific heat ratio .
Cv

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It shows that the thermal efficiency of an ideal Otto cycle depends on the compression ratio of the
engine and the specific ratio of the working fluid. The thermal efficiency of the ideal cycle
increases with both the compression ratio and the specific heat ratio. This is also true for actual
spark-ignition internal combustion engines. For a given compression ratio, the thermal efficiency of
an actual spark-ignition engine will be less than that of an ideal Otto cycle because of the
irreversibilities, such as friction, and other factors such as an incomplete combustion.
A plot of thermal efficiency versus the compression ratio is
given in Figure for k = 1.4, which is the specific heat ratio
value of air at room temperature. By increasing the
compression ratio thermal efficiency increases. However,
there is a limit on r depending upon the fuel. The thermal
efficiency curve is steep at low compression ratios but
flattens out starting with a compression ratio value of about
8. Therefore, the increase in thermal efficiency with the
compression ratio is not that as pronounced at high
compression ratios. Also, when high compression ratios are
used, the temperature of the air-fuel mixture rises above the
autoignition temperature of the fuel (the temperature at
which the fuel ignites without the help of a spark) during the combustion process, causing an early
and rapid burn of the fuel at some point or points ahead of the flame front, followed by almost
instantaneous inflammation of the end gas. This premature ignition of the fuel, called autoignition,
produces an audible noise, which is called engine knock. Autoignition occurs because compression
of the fuel-air mixture raises its temperature too high. Autoignition in SI engines cannot be
tolerated because it hurts performance and can cause engine damage. The requirement that
autoignition not be allowed places an upper limit on the compression ratios that can be used in
spark-ignition internal combustion engines. Since knock is undesirable, the engine designer must
limit the compression ratio so that it does not occur. This is one factor that limits the efficiency of
gasoline engines. Improvement of the thermal efficiency of SI engines by utilising higher
compression ratios (up to about 12) without facing the autoignition problem has been made
possible by using gasoline blends that have good antiknock characteristics, such as gasoline mixed
with tetraethyl lead. Tetraethyl lead has been added to gasoline since the 1920s because it is an
inexpensive method of raising the octane rating, which is a measure of the engine knock resistance
of the fuel. Leaded gasoline, however, has a very undesirable side effect: it forms compounds
during the combustion process that are hazardous to health and pollute the environment. In an
effort to combat air pollution, the government adopted a policy in the mid-1970s that resulted in
the eventual phase-out of leaded gasoline. Unable to use lead, the refiners developed other
techniques to improve the antiknock characteristics of gasoline. Most cars made since 1975 have
been designed to use unleaded gasoline, and the compression ratios had to be lowered to avoid
engine knock. The thermal efficiency of car engines has decreased somewhat as a result of
decreased compression ratios. However, owing to the improvements in other areas (reduction in
overall automobile weight, improved aerodynamic design, etc.), today’s cars have better fuel
economy. This is an example of how engineering decisions involve compromises, and efficiency is
only one of the considerations in final design.
The second parameter affecting the thermal efficiency of an ideal
Otto cycle is the specific heat ratio k. For a given compression ratio,
an ideal Otto cycle using a monatomic gas (such as argon or helium,
k = 1.667) as working fluid will have the highest thermal efficiency.
The specific heat ratio k, and thus the thermal efficiency of the ideal
Otto cycle, decreases as the molecules of the working fluid get larger
(Figure). At room temperature it is 1.4 for air, 1.3 for carbon
dioxide, and 1.2 for ethane. The working fluid in actual engines

Page 11 of 17
contains larger molecules such as carbon dioxide, and the specific heat ratio decreases with
temperature, which is one of the reasons that the actual cycles have lower thermal efficiencies than
the ideal Otto cycle. The thermal efficiency of actual spark-ignition engines range from about 25 to
30 percent.
Diesel Cycle: The Diesel cycle is the ideal cycle for compression-ignition (CI) reciprocating
engines. The CI engine is very similar to the SI engine, differing mainly in the method of initiating
combustion. In SI engines (also known as gasoline engines), the air-fuel mixture is compressed to
a temperature that is below the autoignition temperature of the fuel, and the combustion process is
initiated by firing a spark plug. In CI engine (also known as diesel engines), the air is compressed
to a temperature that is above the autoignition temperature of the fuel, and the combustion starts on
contact as the fuel is injected into this hot air. Therefore, the spark plug and carburetor are replaced
by a fuel injector in diesel engines.
In gasoline engines, a mixture of fuel and air is compressed during the compression stroke, and the
compression ratios are limited by the onset of autoignition or engine knock. In diesel engine, only
air is compressed during the compression stroke, eliminating the possibility of autoignition.
Therefore, diesel engines can be designed to operate at much higher compression ratios, typically
between 12 and 24. Not having to deal with the problem of autoignition has another benefit: many
of the stringent requirements placed on the gasoline can now be removed, and fuels that are less
refined (thus less expensive) can be used in diesel engines.
The fuel injection process in diesel engines starts when the
piston approaches TDC and continues during the first part of the
power stroke. Therefore, the combustion process in these engines
takes place over a longer interval. Because of this longer
interval, the combustion process in the ideal Diesel cycle is
approximated as a constant-pressure heat-addition process. In
fact, this is the only process where the Otto and Diesel cycles
differ. The remaining three processes are the same for both ideal
cycles
1-2 Isentropic compression
2-3 Constant-pressure heat addition
3-4 Isentropic expansion
4-1 Constant-volume heat rejection
Thermal efficiency of Diesel cycle is given by
1  r k 1 
th , Diesel  1  k 1  c 
r  k rc  1
where the r is the compression ratio, k is the specific heat ratio
Cp
, and rc is the cutoff ratio defined as the ratio of the cylinder
Cv
V v
volumes after and before the combustion process: rc  3  3 .
V2 v2
Thermal efficiency of a diesel cycle differs from that of an Otto
cycle by the quantity in brackets. This quantity is always greater
than 1. Therefore, th, Otto > th, Diesel when both cycles operate
on the same compression ratio. Also, as the cutoff ratio
decreases, thermal efficiency of the Diesel cycle increases. For
the limiting case of rc = 1, the quantity in the bracket becomes
unity, and thermal efficiencies of the Otto and Diesel cycles
become identical.

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However, diesel engines operate at much higher compression ratios and thus are usually more
efficient than the gasoline engines. The diesel engines also burn the fuel more completely since
they usually operate at lower revolutions per minute than gasoline engines. Thermal efficiencies of
large diesel engines range from 35 to 40 percent. The higher efficiency of diesel engines makes
them the clear choice in applications requiring relatively large amounts of power, such as in
locomotive engines, large ships, and heavy trucks.
As an example of how large a diesel engine can be, a 12-cylinder diesel engine built in 1964 by the
Fiat Corporation of Italy had a normal power output of 25,200 hp (18.8 MW) at 122 rpm, a cylinder
bore of 90 cm, and a stroke of 91 cm. Commercial diesel engines are made with a very large range
of cylinder sizes, with cylinder bores varying from about 70 to 900 mm.
Dual Cycle: Approximating the combustion process in internal
combustion engines as a constant-volume or a constant-pressure
heat-addition process is overly simplistic and not quite realistic. A
better (but slightly more complex) approach would be to model the
combustion process in both gasoline and diesel engines as a
combination of two heat-addition processes, one at constant volume
and other at constant pressure. The ideal cycle based on this
concept is called the dual cycle (Figure). The relative amounts of
heat addition during each process can be adjusted to approximate
the actual cycle more closely. Note that both the Otto and the Diesel
cycles can be obtained as special cases of the dual cycle.

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 FUELS
Any material that can be burned to release thermal energy is called a fuel. Fuels used in internal-
combustion engines come from all three groups—gaseous, solid, and liquid. Gaseous fuels used are
natural gas, liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), producer gas etc. Solid fuels are coal, chiefly anthracite
and coke, mostly used in gas producers. The main constituent of coal is carbon. Coal also contains
varying amounts of oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen, sulphur, moisture, and ash. Composition of coal
varies considerably from one geographical area to the next and even within the same geographical
location. Pulverised coal can be used in CI engines but with some problems mainly excessive wear
of cylinder liner and piston rings. Liquid fuels are derived mostly from petroleum. The more
important in this group are gasoline and fuel oil. Other liquid fuels are kerosene, alcohol, vegetable
oils, etc. All liquid fuels can be divided into two main groups: liquids that are vaporised and
handled similarly to gas fuels (gasoline and alcohol are the main ones in this group) and liquids that
are injected into the combustion space (fuel oils of different characteristics).
HYDROCARBON FUELS
Composition: In all fuels the two basic combustible elements are carbon and hydrogen, encountered
separately or in combinations called hydrocarbons. At atmospheric pressure and temperature some
of the hydrocarbons are gases, while some are liquids. Crude oil is made up almost entirely of
carbon and hydrogen with some traces of other species like sulphur, oxygen, nitrogen, water
(humid). It varies from 83% to 87% carbon and 11% to 14% hydrogen by mass. There are four
significant sources of crude oil: (1) petroleum; (2) coal liquefaction; (3) shale oil; and (4) tar sands.
Most of the crude oil used to date has been petroleum derived since what is found in the ground
requires little processing before delivery to a refinery. Coal, on the other hand, must be treated to
increase its hydrogen content and remove undesirable elements such as nitrogen, sulphur, etc. Shale
oil is difficult to get out of the ground since it is soaked up in rocks. Tar sands contain
hydrocarbons mixed with sand and are more difficult to remove from the ground than petroleum.
Like coal derivatives and shale oil, oils from tar sands require hydrogenation and removal of
undesirable chemicals from the crude before it is delivered to the refinery. As petroleum supplies
dwindle, more and more crude oil will be from alternative sources. Regardless of the source, crude
oil contains a large number of different hydrocarbons. For example, 25,000 different compounds
have been found in one sample of petroleum derived crude oil. The compounds range from gases to
viscous liquids and waxes.
Refining: The crude oil mixture which is taken from the ground is separated into component
products by cracking and/or distillation using thermal or catalytic methods at oil refinery. The
purpose of refinery is to physically separate crude oil into various fractions and then chemically
process the fractions into fuels and other products. The physical properties of any fraction are
controlled by the distillation temperatures. Generally, the larger the molecular mass of a
component, the higher is its boiling temperature. The refinery produces fuels for engines (gasoline,
diesel, jet), fuels for heating (coke, kerosene, residual), chemical feed stock (aromatics, propylene),
and asphalt.
The hydrogen and carbon can combine in many ways and form many different molecular
compounds. Carbon atoms form four bonds in molecular structure, while hydrogen has one bond. A
saturated hydrocarbon molecule will have no double or triple carbon-to-carbon bonds and will have
a maximum number of hydrogen atoms. An unsaturated molecule will have double or triple carbon-
to-carbon bonds. The general chemical formula for all hydrocarbons is CH. A number of different
families of hydrocarbon molecules have been identified. The main type of hydrocarbons are
paraffins, CH2+2, olefins, & naphthenes, CH2, diolefins, CH2-2, asphaltics, CH2-4, and
aromatics, CH2-6. In different combinations of interest, as internal-combustion-engine fuel, 
varies from 1 to about 26 and  from 2 to 54.

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At atmospheric conditions, hydrocarbon molecules with a low number of carbon atoms, 1 to 4, are
gases. Hydrocarbons with 5 to 15 carbon atoms are more or less volatile light oils, and those with
16 to 26 carbon atoms are referred to as heavy oils. Commercial fuels and lubricating oils are
mixtures of many kinds of hydrocarbons in various proportions.
Alcohols: Another group of hydrocarbons consists of methyl, CH4O, ethyl, C2H6O, and butyl,
C4H9OH, alcohols. These are not true hydrocarbons, since each contains oxygen in the molecule.
Ethyl alcohol also called ethanol is obtained from corn, grains, and organic waste. Methyl alcohol
also called methanol is produced mostly from natural gas, but it can also be obtained from coal and
biomass.
GASEOUS FUELS
Hydrogen Gas: There is a considerable interest in hydrogen as a fuel. Not only it will help to
eliminate the present-day problem of dependence on petroleum fuels, but it also has a potential to
reduce vehicular pollution as it is a clean burning fuel. Essentially no CO or HC in the exhaust as
there is no carbon in the fuel. Most exhaust would be H2O, N2 or NOx. Fuel leakage to environment
is not a pollutant. It has high energy content per unit mass. When an internal combustion engine
uses pure hydrogen, the equivalence ratio can be extended to very low values, where exhaust
emissions are reduced by several orders of magnitude from those achievable by lean operation with
conventional hydrocarbons. Hydrogen offers the unique advantage of being a fuel, the basic
resource of which (water) is recyclable. Basically it can be commercially produced either by coal
gasification or by electrolysis of water using electricity generated from coal, nuclear fission, or
solar energy.
Disadvantages of Hydrogen are: it has heavy, bulky fuel storage; poor engine volumetric
efficiency; high fuel cost at present-day technology and availability; high NOx emissions because of
high flame temperature. Hydrogen is a unique potential automotive fuel with significant drawbacks
in its storage properties.
Generally it may be stored in a vehicle in three ways: as a gas dissolved in the form of metal
hydrides, cryogenic store of liquid hydrogen, and as a compressed gas. If stored as a liquid, it
would have to be kept under pressure at a very low temperature. This would require a thermally
super-insulated fuel tank. Storing in a gas phase would require a heavy pressure vessel with limited
capacity.
Natural Gas is a mixture of components, consisting mainly of methane (60 to 98%) with small
amounts of other hydrocarbon fuel components. In addition it contains various amounts of N2, CO2,
He, and traces of other gases. It is found in many parts of the world. By extensive pipe lines it is
made available many hundreds and in some cases even thousands of miles away from the wells
from which it is obtained. Natural gas obtained from oil wells is called casing-head gas and is
usually treated for the recovery of gasoline, after which, called dry gas, it is delivered into the pipe-
line systems to be used as fuel. The analysis of natural gas varies considerably with the location.
Natural Gas is stored as compressed natural gas (CNG) at pressures of 16 to 25 MPa, or as a liquid
natural gas (LNG) at pressures of 70 to 210 kPa and a temperature around -160C. As a fuel,
natural gas works best in an engine system with low emissions. Engines can operate with a high
compression ratio as its octane number is high because of its fast flame speed. Its disadvantages
are: low energy density resulting in low engine performance; low volumetric efficiency; requires
large pressurised fuel storage tank.
Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG) is mixture of hydrocarbon consisting chiefly of butane and
propane, its composition vary widely in the different countries. Depending upon the source and the
nature of the treatment to which the products have been subjected. LPG products are composed of
those readily liquefiable hydrocarbon compounds which are produced in the course of processing
natural gas and also in the course of the conventional refinery of crude oil. LPG is obtained from
three main sources:- (i) Crude oil associated with light hydrocarbons: The oil is stabilized for

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distribution by pipeline or tanker. The amounts of light gases and light liquids which are removed
depend upon the pressure and temperature at the well head. (ii) Methane rich gas associated with
light hydrocarbon liquids (“wet” natural gas): The light liquids are removed to prevent undue
condensation problems during piping of the gas. (iii) Crude oil refinery fractionation and
conversion processes, which yields LP gases: The main conversion processes used are catalytic
reforming and catalytic cracking.
Coke-oven gas is obtained as a by-product when making coke, and its analysis depends upon the
coal used and also upon the method of operating the oven. Its heating value per unit volume is only
about one-half that of natural gas, but it requires about half the air for combustion, and the heating
value of the actual air-gas mixture (mixture heating value) is practically the same as when natural
gas is used.
Blast-furnace gas is a by-product of melting iron ore. Its analysis varies considerably with the fuel
used and the method of operating the blast furnace. Its mixture heating value is only slightly less
than that of the first two fuels. Part of the gas is used for preheating the air necessary to operate the
blast furnace itself and the blowing engines. The rest, about one-fourth of the total amount, can be
used as engine fuel for power production.
Producer gas is obtained by gasification (burning with small amount of oxygen) of solid fuels. Its
analysis varies with the fuel used, anthracite, coke, charcoal, bituminous coal, or wood, and
dampness of air, which influences the hydrogen content. A relatively low heating value of the gas
and a relatively high temperature of the gas coming from the producer, which results in a low
charge efficiency of the engine, reduce the power developed to only about 60 to 65 per cent of that
obtained with gasoline. However, because of absence of detonation, high compression ratios can
be used, which results in the thermal efficiency about the same as with gasoline.
Sewage-Sludge Gas: With the development of sewage-disposal plants, sewage-sludge gas is
produced and used as fuel for internal-combustion engines. These engines furnish energy for
driving the pumps in the sewage plants. The composition of the gas varies considerably.
LIQUID FUELS
Gasoline: The main fuel for SI engines is
T e m p e r a tu r e -v a p o r iz a tio n c u r v e fo r
gasoline, which is a mixture of many a ty p ic a l g a s o lin e m ix tu r e
hydrocarbon components and is manufactured
from crude petroleum. The various components
T e m p e r a tu r e ( C )

120
of different molecular masses of gasoline will 100
vaporize at different temperatures small 80
molecular masses at low temperature and larger 60
molecular masses at higher temperature as
40
shown in Fig. This makes a very desirable fuel.
20
A small percentage of components that vaporize
(boil) at low temperature is needed in the 0
0 20 40 60 80 100
gasoline to assure the starting of a cold engine;
P e rc e n t E v a p o r a te d (% )
fuel must vaporize before it can burn.
However, too much of this front-end volatility can cause problems when the fuel vaporizes too
quickly. Volumetric efficiency of the engine will be reduced if fuel vapour replaces air too early in
the intake system. Another serious problem this can cause is vapour lock, which occurs when fuel
vaporizes in the fuel supply lines or in the carburettor in the hot engine compartment. When this
happens, the supply of fuel is cut off and the engine stops. A large percentage of fuel should be
vaporized at the normal intake system temperature during the short time of the intake process. To
maximize volumetric efficiency, some of the fuel should not vaporize until late into the
compression stroke and even into the start of combustion. This is why some high-molecular-mass
components are included in gasoline mixtures. If too much of this high-end volatility is included in
the gasoline, however, some of the fuel never get vaporized and ends up as exhaust pollution or

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condenses on the cylinder walls and dilutes the lubricating oil. The availability and cost of gasoline
fuel is a result of a market competition with many other products. This becomes more critical with
the depletion of the earth’s crude oil reserves. If gasoline is approximated as single-component
hydrocarbon fuel, it would have a molecular structure of about C8H15 and a corresponding mass of
111.
Diesel fuel (diesel oil, fuel oil) is obtainable over a large range of molecular masses and physical
properties. For diesel fuel viscosity is an important characteristic, as it effects the atomization of
fuel and operation of the high-pressure fuel pumps. The greater the number of carbon atoms, the
greater the viscosity of the oil. Of two hydrocarbons having the same number of carbon atoms, the
one with the lower hydrogen content will have a higher viscosity and its viscosity will change more
rapidly with the change of temperature. Various methods are used to classify diesel fuels. For IC
engines they can be divided into two extreme categories.
Light diesel fuel will be less viscous and easier to pump, will generally inject into smaller droplets,
and will be more costly. It has a molecular mass of about 170 and can be approximated by the
chemical formula C12.3H22.2.
Heavy diesel fuel can generally be used in larger engines with higher injection pressures and heated
intake systems. It has a molecular mass of about 200 and can be approximated as C14.6H24.8. Most
Diesel fuel used in engines will fit in this range.
Biodiesel Fuel: Biodiesel is a diesel replacement fuel that is produced from renewable sources such
as vegetable oil, animal fat, greases and recycled cooking oil. “Bio” represents its renewable and
biological source and “diesel’’ refers to its use in diesel engine. The biodiesel Manufacturing
process convert oil and fats into chemical called long chain monoalkyl ester or biodiesel. These
chemicals are also referred to as Fatty acid methyl esters (FAME). Transestrerification is the term
used to describe the transformation of vegetable oil into the biodeisel. Biodiesel is environmentally
friendly as it is renewable. Using vegetable oils or animal fats as fuel for motor vehicles is in effect
running them on solar energy. All biofuels, including ethanol, are derived from the conversion of
sunlight to energy (carbohydrates) that takes place in the green leaves of plants. Plants take up
carbon dioxide (CO2) from the atmosphere; burning plant (or animal) products in an engine releases
the CO2 uptake back into the atmosphere, to be taken up again by other plants. The CO2 is recycled
therefore atmospheric CO2 levels remain constant. Thus biofuels do not increase the Greenhouse
Effect unlike fossil fuels, which release large amounts of CO2. It can be used in any diesel engine
without any modifications. Biodiesel exhaust is not offensive and doesn't cause eye irritation (it
smells like French fries!). Sulphur dioxide emissions are eliminated as biodiesel contains no
Sulphur. Biodiesel substantially reduces cancer-causing compounds. Biodiesel is a much better
lubricant than conventional diesel fuel and extends engine life. Biodiesel can be mixed with
ordinary petroleum diesel fuel in any proportion, without any mixing additive. Even a small amount
of biodiesel means cleaner emissions and better engine lubrication.

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