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ELECTRO - TECHNOLOGIES
MODULE ELT1010: ELECTRO-ASSEMBLY 1
SUPPLEMENTAL NOTES
Electro-technologies Safety:
Personal Protection:
When working in the electrical\electronics field, there are safety precautions a person
must take when working with electricity:
a) Shock:
The most common safety concern is shocks. These can range from a mild "buzz"
felt when contacting an electrical source to deaths caused by higher electrical
currents. Since everybody has a different tolerance to shock, it is not a good
idea to experience a shock and expect to survive it just because someone else
has. Devices used to protect people from serious shock include: receptacle
protectors which cover outlets so that things cannot be put in them; ground fault
current interrupters that trip a receptacle or circuit if it detects an abnormal
current flow; and isolating transformers which limit the amount of current that
can be used to a level that would not be serious if there was a shock hazard.
b) Burns:
When soldering, the circuit components and the soldering irons and guns can get
very hot. The soldering irons must be set on their stands to keep the tips from
burning the counter. This will also hold them in place so that they will not move
and burn you.
c) Chemicals:
Liquids: There are a number of chemicals used when constructing a circuit
board. When developing a circuit board, care must be taken not to spill developer
on skin. It is a mild corrosive and also readily absorbed into the body. Etchant for
removing copper off a circuit board is a strong corrosive substance (ferric
chloride). Rubber gloves must be used when working with developer and etchant.
Tongs are used to put a circuit board into these chemicals as well as to remove
the circuit boards from the chemicals.
Solder: Care must also be taken with the solder used because it is made several
elements with an acid core (centre). Take care not to have your eyes or open
wounds exposed to the acid when soldering. Eye protection must be worn.
D) Fumes:
Chemicals give off a very small amount of fumes and are not a danger as long as
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they are not inhaled for prolonged periods. When soldering, the solder used is a
mixture of elements with a mild acid flux in the middle of the solder. When the
solder is heated, it melts and fumes are given off which we avoid. Make sure you
work in a well-ventilated area so that you will not inhale these fumes. The lead
could accumulate in your body over a period of time leading to chemical
poisoning.
Electrical Fundamentals:
Circuit Protection:
Just as in personal safety, we must pay attention to the safety of our electrical devices.
Too much electricity will destroy parts (components). There are four main devices that
are used to protect circuits: fuses, breakers, surge protection, and under voltage
protective systems.
Fuses:
A fuse is a device which has a wire
in it designed to melt when too
much current passes through. A
fuse is selected so that the wire in
the fuse melts before any
components in the circuit can be
damaged.
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Breakers:
A breaker is a device also used to protect a circuit
from too much electricity. A breaker has a metal
strip in it that the electricity flows through. If too
much electricity flows through this piece of metal,
it will heat up and bend. When it bends, one end
of the metal strip will disconnect so that the
electricity cannot flow any more. After the strip
cools down, the breaker can be reset and
electricity will flow through it again. Breakers are
reusable.
Current electricity is man-made electricity that can be made to flow through wires. It is
controllable and we can predict what will happen when we use it. There is a wide range
of sources for our electricity, but the three most common sources are power plants,
batteries, and solar cells.
Power Plants:
In order to transmit electricity efficiently over great distances to our towns and cities, the
voltage is raised to a high level (usually around 400 000 volts). This high voltage is
"stepped down" for industry to between 400 and 600 volts to run larger electric motors
and to 240 volts for residential use. Our electric ranges and dryers use 240 volts but the
rest of our appliances like microwave ovens and computers use 120 volts. The device
that is used to reduce (step down) the voltage carried by the power lines is called a
transformer. The transformer has a connection in it so that we can also have a 120-volt
supply in our homes. The outlet receptacles (plug-ins) in our homes as well as our lights
are all 120 volts.
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Cells:
carbon rod
case
magnesium DRY CELL
oxide
negative contact
Electrolyte liquid
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Solar Cells:
A solar cell converts light energy into electrical energy. Generally, the larger a solar cell,
the more electricity it can produce. Solar cells can be used for providing electricity for
homes and recreational vehicles, powering remote sensors, or as a power source for
personal consumer electronics. Solar cells can be connected together so that you can
get the voltage you need to power your electronic devices.
Polarity:
Direct current flows in one direction. Cells have a positive (+) and a negative (-) end.
These positive and negative ends are the polarity of the cell.
Alternating current has polarity but it alternates or switches 60 times a second. This is
why we do not have to worry about plugging in an appliance backwards. The word
alternate means changing back and forth. This is the reason alternating current is called
this. From the graph drawn for AC you can see that the polarity is continuously
changing or alternating.
Voltage:
Voltage is used to measure pressure. The pressure being measured is the force needed
to move electricity along a wire. These pressures differ with different sources. A battery
has a voltage or pressure of 1.5 volts whereas household voltage is 120 volts, and the
pressure or voltage used when transmitting electricity over power lines can be as high
as 238 000 volts. Keep in mind that the voltage in a cell (battery) is DC and the voltage
in our houses is AC
Digital
Analogue Multimeter
Multimeter
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Continuity:
A continuity tester is a type of voltage detector. If there is a
voltage, a light will glow giving a visual indication that there is a
voltage in that part of the circuit. Continuity testers are used when
it does not matter what the voltage reading is. The most common
uses for continuity testers are in logic circuits (where you are just
concerned whether parts of the circuit are on or off) or
automobiles (where the voltage should always be the same).
A continuity tester looks like a screwdriver with a light in the
handle and a wire coming out of the end of the handle. The wire is attached to a ground
point (such as the negative terminal of a battery). The point or probe end is placed at
different points in the circuit to detect voltages. If the lamp does not light, then you will
know there is no voltage where you put the point of the continuity tester.
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Current:
a) To measure current, the circuit
must be powered on.
b) Select a current scale that is the
next higher scale than what you
expect the current to be.
c) Open the circuit and place the
multimeter probes between the
open points in the circuit.
Resistance:
a) To measure resistance, the circuit
must be powered off.
b) Select a resistance scale that is the
next higher scale than what you
expect the resistance to be.
c) Place the multimeter probes across
the device you are measuring. The
device should be removed from the
circuit to avoid having the circuit
affect the value.
Continuity:
A continuity test is related to
measuring resistance. It is used to
check to see if circuit board trace or
solder joints are conductive (allow
electrons to flow) or to see if there are
shorts (parts connected that shouldn’t
be).
a) To check continuity, set the
multimeter to a low resistance
value.
b) Place the probes across the
points to be checked. If you are
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checking to see if a circuit board trace or solder is good, the reading should be
close to 0. If there is a break or bad solder joint, the reading will be very high or
the multimeter will show a ‘1’ on the far left of the display. If you are checking for
shorts, place the probes across where you think there is a short. If the multimeter
goes to 0, then you have a short. If the multimeter gives a very high reading or a
‘1’ on the far left of the display, then there is no short.
Circuit Fundamentals:
Schematic and Parts Placement Diagrams:
There are many types of components used in electrical and electronic circuits. In order
to build a circuit, you must know both what the components look like as well as what
their schematic (graphic) symbol is. When you get plans for a circuit that you want to
build, a schematic diagram is given to show how the components in the circuit are to be
connected. This diagram uses graphic symbols to show the components. These are
much easier to draw than what the actual component looks like. Parts placement
diagrams use pictures (usually photos) to show where the components go when you are
putting the components on the circuit board.
Control Circuits:
A control circuit is a circuit that is used to control something. You may use it to control a
bell, lights, a motor, or just about any other device. One example of a control circuit is
the doorbell houses use or a thermostat for a furnace.
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2. An electro-mechanical circuit: uses a magnetic device to switch on another circuit or
device. An example of this type of circuit is a furnace thermostat. The thermostat needs
24 volts to operate. When the thermostat turns on, the 24 volts is used to turn on a relay
(a type of electro-mechanical switch) that allows 120 volts to flow to the motor to turn it
on.
Relay
mechanism high voltage for furnace motor
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A transformer is basically two electromagnets wrapped around the same iron core. In a
transformer, we do not really care about the strength of the electromagnet created. The
flux created in the wire connected to the battery (this is called the primary winding or
simply primary) in the electromagnet will create flux in the other wire (this is called the
secondary winding or just secondary) wrapped around the iron core. The primary will
then be able to supply electricity to another circuit connected to the secondary. The
number of times that the primary and secondary are wrapped around the iron core will
determine what the voltage will be for the circuit connected to the secondary. If we have
twice as many primary windings as secondary windings, then the voltage for the
secondary will be half as much as the voltage connected to the primary windings. If we
have twice as many secondary windings as primary windings, then the voltage will be
twice as high as the voltage connected to the primary windings. When the secondary
voltage is smaller than the primary voltage, we call this a step-down transformer. When
the voltage of the secondary will be higher than the voltage of the primary, we call this a
step-up transformer.
Transformer.
Note the two windings wound around the iron core.
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How a Magnetic Strip Works
A magnetic strip is a thin plastic tape that has a magnetic
coating applied to it. The tape is passed by a coding and/or
decoding head. The tape head, as it is called, produces
electrical pulses that magnetize the tape in a pattern. This
pattern can then be run by a receiving tape head where the
magnetic tape induces a small electrical signal in the tape head.
This is amplified and then either decoded for data or run
through an audio processing circuit to produce sound.
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How a Generator Works
A generator works by using a prime
mover to move a coil of wire through a
magnetic field. This results in an
electrical current being induced in the
coil. This current is alternating. The
majority of electricity we use in our
buildings is produced this way. A prime
mover is whatever turns the generator.
The most popular prime movers are
water pressure, steam, and wind. In
this way, rotational energy is
transformed into electrical energy.
There is a wide range of cables designed to perform specific functions. Cables can be
divided into two main groups. These are as follows:
1. Power cables that supply electricity to devices. These would
include electrical transmission lines, electrical wiring in buildings,
and extension and power cords for appliances such as power tools,
hair dryers, or computers. The size these cables must be is
dictated by the electrical code for the jurisdiction where the
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installation is to take place.
2. Communications cable that is used to carry signals such as voice, computer data,
and pictures. These cables would include telephone line, fibre optic cable, and co-axial
cable used to carry television signals.
Patch cords for audio systems transfer the sound signals along wires to get the sound
from one component to another. For example, a CD player will produce a signal (the
sound produced) that is sent along patch cords to an amplifier to make the signal
stronger (louder) and then patch cords will carry the signal to the speakers so that you
will hear the music. Patch cords to connect stereo components together use connectors
referred to as RCA connectors. The wires from the conductor are soldered onto the
RCA connector.
Communication cable:
Communication cable is another name for any cable that carries data signals. An
example of these types of data signals would be computer information (modem) or
voice (telephone) transmissions. This type of cable usually comes into our home in a
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4-conductor set. A special installation tool is used to fasten on the connectors used to
make extension cords.
CATV cable:
This type of cable carries communication signals such as internet
and cable television. This cable consists of a solid wire in the
core, some insulation, a stranded wire or foil wrap and then an
outer insulation cover. The foil wrap is used to eliminate
interference from our cable TV signal. Connectors are most easily
put on this cable by first stripping back about 12 mm of outer insulation. Slit the foil or
stranded wire and fold back over the insulation. Slit the inner insulation off the inner
conductor leaving about 2 mm of the inner insulation. Next press and turn on the
connector until it is tight against the outer insulation shoulder. There is another type of
connector that requires a special crimping tool, so it is more economical to use the twist
on connectors.
Connecting Cables
There are two main ways of making electrical connections. These are soldered and
solderless connectors.
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● Point-to-point:
If you only have a few components to join together, this
method is inexpensive and quick to make the circuit.
They are usually much smaller than nail and board, but
are prone to shorting. The twisted component ends must
be kept apart. These could get quite difficult to
troubleshoot if there are many components.
● Spring clip:
These were modelled after the nail and board method
of connecting circuits. Instead of using nails and a
wood board, springs mounted on a plastic base were
used. This made connecting components quicker with
better connectivity. These popularized circuit
prototyping when companies created kits with
electronic components and plans to make a wide
range of circuits. These were expensive but very
popular in the 1970s and 1980s.
● Solderless Breadboard:
This is the current method used for
prototyping. These have rows of
holes into which components are
placed along with wires to test a
circuit. The advantage is that the
circuit built on the breadboard can be changed very easily and also easy to
troubleshoot. This is not a permanent method of constructing a circuit.
Ohm’s Law:
Electrical circuits are wonderfully predictable using math, we can gauge what current
will flow in a circuit. This allows us to design circuits knowing how they will function and
be reliable. While there are many mathematical formulas for circuit analysis, the most
basic formula relates voltage, current, and resistance. Ohm’s Law states:
The order that components should be soldered onto the circuit board is:
a) resistors
b) capacitors
c) coils and transformers
d) chip sockets
e) jumper wires and wires to external devices
f) diodes including LEDs
g) transistors
h) integrated circuits (chips) and operational amplifiers (op-amps)
i) peripheral devices (speakers, switches, plugs, etc.)
The components must be placed on the circuit board with the leads inserted through the
circuit board. In order for the component leads to fit in the holes in the circuit board, they
must be bent.
Soldering components:
When soldering all components it is important to remember that a lot of the components
are sensitive to heat. The following procedure will help to protect the components from
too much heat:
1) Preheat the solder iron to 4000 Celsius. The light on the solder station will go out
when the pre-set temperature is reached.
2) Clean the solder iron tip in the brass wool and apply a small amount of solder to
the tip of the solder iron. This is called tinning the tip. If solder will not stick to the
tip it needs to be de-oxidized with a file. In this case, gently file the tip until the
dull oxide coating is removed. Immediately apply solder.
3) To solder, apply the solder iron so that it touches both the circuit board and the
component. This is very important as it reduces the risk of cold solder joints. Hold
it there for the count of three before applying the solder.
4) Keeping the solder iron in place, apply the solder so that it touches both the
solder iron and the component. Hold it there for the count of three.
5) Pull the solder away and run the solder iron around the lead(s) being soldered.
6) Place the solder iron back in its holder and check the solder joint. The solder joint
should have a smooth shiny finish to it with the solder covering the component
lead and the solder pad. The solder pad is the little circle through which the hole
is drilled for the component lead. The solder should not look like a ball. If it does,
you either added too much solder or have a cold solder joint. In each of these
cases, reheat the solder joint and use the solder iron to drag the solder along the
copper trace to spread it out and get it to bond to the copper trace.
Desoldering:
At times it is necessary to take apart a solder joint. There are a number of products that
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can be used to remove solder from a joint. These include solder suckers that look like
big eyedroppers, a special desolder iron that has a solder sucker mounted on it, or
solder wick. The easiest to use and the most efficient is solder wick. To desolder with
solder wick you:
a) Set the solder iron to 4500 Celsius and let the solder iron warm to this
temperature.
b) Place the solder wick over the component lead to be soldered.
c) Place the solder iron firmly on the solder wick, laying it sideways along the lead
to be de-soldered.
d) Hold the solder iron on the solder wick until you see the solder wick turning a
silver colour. Hold until the silver area on the wick stops expanding.
e) Pull the solder iron and the solder wick away at the same time.
f) Check to see if all the solder is removed. If not repeat steps a) through d) with a
fresh piece of solder wick.
g) Using needle nose pliers, bend the leads straight and pull the component off the
circuit board.
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