DESIGN AND SIMULATION OF A FLOATING BRIDGE

FOR OPEN-ENDED WINDING MOTOR DRIVE

APPLICATIONS
ABSTRACT
This paper presents a dual three phase open end winding induction motor drive. The drive
consists of a three phase induction machine with open stator phase windings and dual bridge
inverter supplied from a single DCvoltage source. To achieve multi-level output voltage
waveforms a floating capacitor bank is used for the second of the dual bridges. The capacitor
voltage is regulated using redundant switching states at half of the main dc link voltage. This
particular voltage ratio (2:1) is used to create a multi-level output voltage waveform with three
levels. A modified modulation scheme is used to improve the waveform quality of this dual
inverter. This paper also compares the losses in dual inverter system in contrast with single sided
three-level NPC converter. Finally, detailed simulation and experimental results are presented for
the motor drive operating as an open loop v/f controlled motor drive and as a closed loop field
oriented motor controller.

1
 I. INTRODUCTION
VARIOUS multi-level converter topologies have been proposed during the last two
decades [1-4]. Several converter topologies have been investigated to achieve multi-level output
voltage waveforms, among them the diode clamped [3], flying capacitor [5, 6] and cascaded [4]
converters are commonly used. Multi-level converters have lower dv/dt and reduced harmonic
distortion along with lower semiconductor switching device blocking voltage requirements, thus
multi-level converters are advantageous in medium voltage, high power or low voltage, high
frequency applications [7-9]. Among the cascade converters, dual two-level inverter topology
has received attention due to the simplicity of the power stage and the arrangement’s fault
tolerant capacity [10, 11]. Traditional dual two-level inverter topologies use two standard three-
phase inverters to achieve a multi-level voltage output. This topology does not have the neutral
point fluctuations found in NPC converters, uses fewer capacitors than the flying capacitor
topology and requires fewer isolated supplies than H-bridge converters [5, 12, 13
Furthermore dual inverters are more reliable, because in case of a failure in one converter the
outputs of the converter can be short-circuited and the system can then operate as a standard
single sided three phase inverter[14]. To achieve multi-level voltage waveforms and to cut the
path of common mode current flow two isolated dc sources are used for traditional dual inverter
topology, increasing the size and weight of the system. In this paper a dual two-level inverter is
presented which reduces the size and weight of the system for an open end winding induction
motor drive application. Dual inverter topologies have been considered in numerous papers for
different applications. The traditional dual inverter topologies (using two isolated dc sources) has
been analyzed [15-20], with different space vector modulation schemes used to generate the
multi-level output voltage waveforms. A block diagram of a traditional open phase load and
converters is shown in Fig. 1. It is possible to use a single supply for the dual inverters with a
common mode elimination technique [15, 21, 22]. These topologies use specific switching
combinations that produce equal common mode voltages which cancel at load terminals. A
reduction in the number of voltage levels and lower dc bus voltage utilization are the main
disadvantages of this variation of the topology. A modulation technique to balance the power
flow between the two inverters in a dual inverter system has also been proposed [23-27]. This
topology still uses an isolation transformer; the size of this transformer can be reduced at the

2
expense of reduced modulation index. The floating capacitor bridge topology along with a
suitable control scheme to allow the supply of reactive power was introduced in [28]. Other
authors [29, 30] have presented methods to compensate for supply voltage droop in order to keep
the drive operational in constant power mode. This topology uses a floating capacitor bridge to
offset the voltage droop in high speed machines.

Fig. 1. Conventional open end winding IM drive topology.

In this paper, a circuit topology is analyzed which is used as a three-level open end
winding induction motor drive. This topology uses dual inverters with only one DC voltage
source at the primary side of the converter. The second bridge converter is connected to a
floating capacitor bank. The aim of this topology is to eliminate the requirement for a bulky
isolation transformer whilst achieving multi-level output voltage waveforms. The voltage across
the floating capacitor bank is controlled using the redundant switching vectors along with a
modified SVM scheme which avoids unwanted voltage levels in the phase voltage waveforms
during the dead-time intervals, thus improving the overall waveform quality

INDUCTION MOTOR

HISTORICAL REVIEW

The history of electrical motors goes back as far as 1820, when Hans Christian Oersted
discovered the magnetic effect of an electric current. One year later, Michael Faraday discovered
the electromagnetic rotation and built the first primitive D.C. motor. Faraday went on to discover
electromagnetic induction in 1831, but it was not until 1883 that Tesla invented the A.C
asynchronous motor.

3
 In 1882, Nikola Tesla identified the rotating magnetic field principle, and pioneered the
use of a rotary field of force to operate machines. He exploited the principle to design a unique
two-phase induction motor in 1883. In 1885, Galileo Ferraris independently researched the
concept. In 1888, Ferraris published his research in a paper to the Royal Academy of Sciences in
Turin. Introduction of Tesla's motor from 1888 onwards initiated what is known as the Second
Industrial Revolution, making possible the efficient generation and long distance distribution of
electrical energy using the alternating current transmission system, also of Tesla's invention
(1888).

Before the invention of the rotating magnetic field, motors operated by continually
passing a conductor through a stationary magnetic field (as in homo polar motors). Tesla had
suggested that the commentators’ from a machine could be removed and the device could
operate on a rotary field of force. Professor Poeschel, his teacher, stated that would be akin to
building a perpetual motion machine. This classic alternating current electro-magnetic motor was
an induction motor.

In the induction motor, the field and armature were ideally of equal field strengths and
the field and armature cores were of equal sizes. The total energy supplied to operate the device
equaled the sum of the energy expended in the armature and field coils.

The power developed in operation of the device equaled the product of the energy
expended in the armature and field coils. The main advantage is that induction motors do not
require an electrical connection between stationary and rotating parts of the motor. Therefore,
they do not need any mechanical commutates (brushes), leading to the fact that they are
maintenance free motors. Induction motors also have low weight and inertia, high efficiency and
a high overload capability. Therefore, they are cheaper and more robust, and less prone to any
failure at high speeds. Furthermore, the motor can work in explosive environments because no
sparks are produced.

INTRODUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction motor (IM) is a type of asynchronous AC motor where power is supplied to

the rotating device by means of electromagnetic induction. Other commonly used name is

4
squirrel cage motor due to the fact that the rotor bars with short circuit rings resemble a squirrel
cage (hamster wheel).An electric motor converts electrical power to mechanical power in its
rotor.

There are several ways to supply power to the rotor. In a DC motor this power is supplied
to the armature directly from a DC source, while in an induction motor this power is induced in
the rotating device.

An induction motor is sometimes called a rotating transformer because the stator

(stationary part) is essentially the primary side of the transformer and the rotor (rotating part) is
the secondary side. Induction motors are widely used, especially polyphase induction motors,
which are frequently used in industrial drives.

The Induction motor is a three phase AC motor and is the most widely used machine. Its
characteristic features are-

 Simple and rugged construction

 Low cost and minimum maintenance
 High reliability and sufficiently high efficiency
 Needs no extra starting motor and need not be synchronized
 An Induction motor has basically two parts – Stator and Rotor

The Stator is made up of a number of stampings with slots to carry three phase windings.
It is wound for a definite number of poles. The windings are geometrically spaced 120 degrees
apart. Two types of rotors are used in Induction motors - Squirrel-cage rotor and Wound rotor

INDUCTION MOTOR GENERAL PRINCIPLE

As a general rule, conversion of electrical power into mechanical power takes place in the
rotating parts of an electrical motor. In dc motor, the electrical power is conducted directly in
armature the rotating part of the motor through brush or commutates and hence dc motor called
as conduction motor but in case of induction motor the motor does not receive the electrical
power by conduction but by induction in exactly same way as the secondary of a 2-winding

5
transformer receives its power from the primary. That is why such motor known as induction
motor.

In fact, an induction motor can be treated as a rotating transformer i.e. one in which
primary winding is stationary but the secondary is free to rotate. Of all the a.c. motors, the poly
phase induction motor is the one which is extensively used for various kinds of industrial drives.

When a three-phase supply is connected to the stator windings, a rotating magnetic field
is produced. As the magnetic flux cuts a bar on the rotor, an e.m.f. is induced in it and since it is
joined, via the end conducting rings, to another bar one pole pitch away, current flows in the
bars.

Figure: showing various parts of induction motor

The magnetic field associated with this current flowing in the bars interacts with the
rotating magnetic field and a force is produced, tending to turn the rotor in the same direction as
the rotating magnetic field. Similar forces are applied to all the conductors on the rotor, so that a
torque is produced causing the rotor to rotate.

6
 Figure. showing production of magnetic field

They are widely used for different applications ranging from small induction motors in
washing machines, household fans etc to vary large induction motors which are capable of tens
of thousands of kW in output, for pipeline compressors, wind-tunnel drives and overland
conveyor systems. Through electromagnetic induction, the rotating magnetic field induces a
current in the conductors in the rotor, which in turn sets up a counterbalancing magnetic field
that causes the rotor to turn in the direction the field is rotating. The rotor must always rotate
slower than the rotating magnetic field produced by the polyphase electrical supply; otherwise,
no counterbalancing field will be produced in the rotor. Induction motors are the workhorses of
industry and motors up to about 500 kW (670 horsepower) in output are produced in highly
standardized frame sizes, making them nearly completely interchangeable between
manufacturers.

CONSTRUCTION OF INDUCTION MOTOR

An induction motor consists of many parts, the stator and rotor being the basic
subsystems of the machine. An exploded view of a squirrel-cage motor is shown .The motor case
(frame), ribbed outside for better cooling, houses the stator core with a three phase winding
placed in slots on the periphery of the core. The stator core is made of thin (0.3 mm to 0.5 mm)
soft-iron laminations, which are stacked and screwed together. Individual laminations are
covered on both sides with insulating lacquer to reduce eddy-current losses. On the front side,
the stator housing is closed by a cover, which also serves as a support for the front bearing of the
rotor. Usually, the cover has drip-proof air intakes to improve cooling. The stator is the
stationary electrical part of the motor. The stator core of a NEMA motor is made up of several
hundred thin laminations.

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 Figure of Lamination of core

Stator laminations are stacked together forming a hollow cylinder. Coils of insulated wire
are inserted into slots of the stator core. Each grouping of coils, together with the steel core it
surrounds form an electromagnet.

Figure of windings in stator

Electromagnetism is the principle behind motor operation. The stator windings are
connected directly to the power source. The rotor, whose core is also made of laminations, is
built around a shaft, which transmits the mechanical power to the load. The rotor is equipped
with cooling fins. At the back, there is another bearing and a cooling fan affixed to the rotor. The
fan is enclosed by a fan cover. Access to the stator winding is provided by stator terminals
located in the connection box that covers an opening in the stator housing. Open-frame, partly
enclosed, and totally enclosed motors are distinguished by how well the inside of stator is sealed
from the ambient air. Totally enclosed motors can work in extremely harsh environments and in
explosive atmospheres, for instance, in deep mines or lumber mills. However, the cooling
effectiveness suffers when the motor is tightly sealed, which reduces its power rating.

The squirrel-cage rotor winding, illustrated, consists of several bars connected at both
ends by end rings. The rotor cage shown is somewhat oversimplified, practical rotor windings

8
being made up of more than few bars, not necessarily round, and slightly skewed with respect to
the longitudinal axis of the motor. In certain machines, in order to change the inductance-to-
resistance ratio that strongly influences mechanical characteristics of the motor, rotors with deep-
bar cages and double cages are used.

The stator consists of wound 'poles' that carry the supply current to induce a magnetic
field that penetrates the rotor. In a very simple motor, there would be a single projecting piece of
the stator (a salient pole) for each pole, with windings around it; in fact, to optimize the
distribution of the magnetic field, the windings are distributed in many slots located around the
stator, but the magnetic field still has the same number of north-south alternations. The number
of 'poles' can vary between motor types but the poles are always in pairs (i.e. 2, 4, 6, etc.).

Induction motors can be built to run on either single-phase or three-phase power. Single-
phase power is more widely available in residential buildings, but cannot produce a rotating field
in the motor (the field merely oscillates back and forth), so single-phase induction motors must
incorporate some kind of starting mechanism to produce a rotating field. They would, using the
simplified analogy of salient poles, have one salient pole per pole number; a four-pole motor
would have four salient poles. Three-phase motors have three salient poles per pole number, so a
four-pole motor would have twelve salient poles. This allows the motor to produce a rotating
field, allowing the motor to start with no extra equipment and run more efficiently than a similar
single-phase motor.

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TYPES OF ROTOR:

SQUIRREL-CAGE ROTOR

The most common rotor is a squirrel-cage rotor. It is made up of bars of either solid
copper (most common) or aluminum that span the length of the rotor, and are connected through
a ring at each end. The rotor bars in squirrel-cage induction motors are not straight, but have
some skew to reduce noise and harmonics.

SLIP RING ROTOR

A slip ring rotor replaces the bars of the squirrel-cage rotor with windings that are
connected to slip rings. When these slip rings are shorted, the rotor behaves similarly to a
squirrel-cage rotor; they can also be connected to resistors to produce a high-resistance rotor
circuit, which can be beneficial in starting.

Fig. A squirrel-cage AC motor

REVOLVING MAGNETIC FIELD

The principles of electromagnetism explain the shaft rotation of an AC motor. Recall that
the stator of an AC motor is a hollow cylinder in which coils of insulated wire are inserted.

STATOR COIL ARRANGEMENT:

The following schematic illustrates the relationship of the coils. In this example six coils
are used, two coils for each of the three phases. The coils operate in pairs. The coils are wrapped

10
around the soft iron core material of the stator. These coils are referred to as motor windings.
Each motor winding becomes a separate electromagnet. The coils are wound in such a way that
when current flows in them one coil is a north pole and its pair is a south pole.

For example, if A1 were a north pole then A2 would be a south pole. When current
reverses direction the polarity of the poles would also reverse.

Figure indicating coli arrangements in stator.

POWER SUPPLY:

The stator is connected to a 3-phase AC power supply. In the following illustration phase
A is connected to phase A of the power supply. Phase B and C would also be connected to
phases B and C of the power supply respectively.

Fig phase currents in stator windings

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 Phase windings (A, B, and C) are placed 120° apart. In this example, a second set of
three-phase windings is installed. The number of poles is determined by how many times a phase
winding appears. In this example, each phase winding appears two times. This is a two-pole
stator. If each phase winding appeared four times it would be a four-pole stator.

When AC voltage is applied to the stator, current flows through the windings. The
magnetic field developed in a phase winding depends on the direction of current flow through
that winding. The following chart is used here for explanation only. It will be used in the next
few illustrations to demonstrate how a rotating magnetic field is developed. It assumes that a
positive current flow in the A1, B1 and C1 windings result in a north pole.

It is easier to visualize a magnetic field if a start time is picked when no current is

flowing through one phase. In the following illustration, for example, a start time has been
selected during which phase A has no current flow, phase B has current flow in a negative
direction and phase C has current flow in a positive direction. Based on the above chart, B1 and
C2 are south poles and B2 and C1 are north poles. Magnetic lines of flux leave the B2 North
Pole and enter the nearest South Pole, C2.

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 Table indicating the formation of poles in phase windings

Winding Current Flow Direction

Positive Negative

A1 North South

A2 South North

B1 North South

B2 South North

C1 North South

C2 South North

Magnetic lines of flux also leave the C1 North Pole and enter the nearest South Pole, B1.
A magnetic field results, as indicated by the arrow.

Fig. for time T=0

Time 1:

If the field is evaluated at 60° intervals from the starting point, at Time 1, it can be seen
that the field will rotate 60°. At Time 1 phase C has no current flow, phase A has current flow in

13
a positive direction and phase B has current flow in a negative direction. Following the same
logic as used for the starting point, windings A1 and B2 are north poles and windings A2 and B1
are south poles.

Fig 2.12.for time T=1

Time 2:

At Time 2 the magnetic field has rotated 60°. Phase B has no current flow. Although
current is decreasing in phase A it is still flowing in a positive direction. Phase C is now flowing
in a negative direction. At start it was flowing in a positive direction. Current flow has changed
directions in the phase C windings and the magnetic poles have reversed polarity.

Fig. for time T=2

360 Degree Rotation:

At the end of six such time intervals the magnetic field will have rotated one full
revolution or 360°. This process will repeat 60 times a second on a 60 Hz power supply.

14
 Fig. 360 Degree Rotation

SYNCHRONOUS SPEED:

The speed of the rotating magnetic field is referred to as synchronous speed (NS).
Synchronous speed is equal to 120 times the frequency (F), divided by the number of poles (P).

Ns = 120 F / P

If the frequency of the applied power supply for the two-pole stator used in the previous
example is 60 Hz, synchronous speed is 3600 RPM.

N s =( 120 x 60 )/ 2

N = 3600 RPM

The synchronous speed decreases as the number of poles increase. The following table
shows the synchronous speed at 60 Hz for the corresponding number of poles.

no of poles synchronous speed

2 3600

4 1800

6 1200

8 900

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ROTOR ROTATION:

A magnet mounted on a shaft can be substituted for the squirrel cage rotor. When the
stator windings are energized a rotating magnetic field is established. The magnet has its own
magnetic field that interacts with the rotating magnetic field of the stator. The north pole of the
rotating magnetic field attracts the south pole of the magnet, and the south pole of the rotating
magnetic field attracts the north pole of the magnet. As the rotating magnetic field rotates, it
pulls the magnet along causing it to rotate. This design, used on some motors, is referred to as a
permanent magnet synchronous motor.

Fig. for rotation of rotor

INDUCED VOLTAGE ELECTROMAGNET:

The squirrel cage rotor acts essentially the same as the magnet. When power is applied to
the stator, current flows through the winding, causing an expanding electromagnetic field which
cuts across the rotor bars.

When a conductor, such as a rotor bar, passes through a magnetic field a voltage (emf) is
induced in the conductor. The induced voltage causes a current flow in the conductor. Current

16
flows through the rotor bars and around the end ring. The current flow in the conductor bars
produces magnetic fields around each rotor bar. Recall that in an AC circuit current continuously
changes direction and amplitude. The resultant magnetic field of the stator and rotor
continuously change. The squirrel cage rotor becomes an electromagnet with alternating north
and south poles.

The following drawing illustrates one instant in time during which current flow through
winding A1 produces a north pole. The expanding field cuts across an adjacent rotor bar,
inducing a voltage. The resultant magnetic field in the rotor tooth produces a south pole. As the
stator magnetic field rotates the rotor follows.

SLIP:

There must be a relative difference in speed between the rotor and the rotating magnetic
field. If the rotor and the rotating magnetic field were turning at the same speed no relative
motion would exist between the two, therefore no lines of flux would be cut, and no voltage
would be induced in the rotor. The difference in speed is called slip. Slip is necessary to produce
torque. Slip is dependent on load. An increase in load will cause the rotor to slow down or
increase slip.

17
A decrease in load will cause the rotor to speed up or decrease slip. Slip is expressed as a
percentage and can be determined with the following formula.

% Slip = (Ns - Nr) x 100/Ns

INDUCTION MOTOR DRIVES

The ac induction motor is by far the most widely used motor in the industry.
Traditionally, it has been used in constant and variable-speed drive applications that do not cater
for fast dynamic processes. Because of the recent development of several new control
technologies, such as vector and direct torque controls, this situation is changing rapidly. The
underlying reason for this is the fact that the cage induction motor is much cheaper and more
rugged than its competitor, the dc motor, in such applications. This section starts with induction
motor drives that are based on the steady-state equivalent circuit of the motor, followed by
vector-controlled drives that are based on its dynamic model.

STEADY-STATE REPRESENTATION

The traditional methods of variable-speed drives are based on the equivalent circuit
representation of the motor shown below.

Steady-state equivalent circuit of an induction motor

From this representation, the following power relationships in terms of motor parameters
and the rotor slip can be found

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 R2
Power in the rotor circuit, p2 = 3I22 = 3V2 I2
s

3sR 2 E12
= 2
R 2 + (sω1 L2 )2

The output power

ω1 −ωr ω1 −pωo
Where slip s = =
ω1 ω1

P = number of pole pairs

2πN
ω0 =
60

ωr = rotar speed

f1 Being the frequency

The developed torque is

The slip frequency sf1 , is the frequency of the rotor current and air gap flux is given by

Where λm is the stator flux linkage due to the air gap flux. If the stator impedance is negligible
compared to E1, which is true when f1 is near the rated frequency f0,

Torque

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 MULTI LEVEL INVERTERS

Inverter:

An inverter is an electrical device that converts direct current (DC) to alternating current
(AC); the converted AC can be at any required voltage and frequency with the use of appropriate
transformers, switching, and control circuits. Static inverters have no moving parts and are used
in a wide range of applications, from small switching power supplies in computers, to large
electric utility high-voltage direct current applications that transport bulk power. Inverters are
commonly used to supply AC power from DC sources such as solar panels or batteries.

The electrical inverter is a high-power electronic oscillator. It is so named because early

mechanical AC to DC converters were made to work in reverse, and thus were "inverted", to
convert DC to AC. The inverter performs the opposite function of a rectifier

cascaded h-bridges inverter

A single-phase structure of an m-level cascaded inverter is illustrated in Figure 31.1.

Each separate dc source (SDCS) is connected to a single-phase full-bridge, or H-bridge, inverter.
Each inverter level can generate three different voltage outputs, +Vdc, 0, and –Vdc by connecting
the dc source to the ac output by different combinations of the four switches, S 1, S2, S3, and S4.
To obtain +Vdc, switches S1 and S4 are turned on, whereas –Vdc can be obtained by turning on
switches S2 and S3. By turning on S1 and S2 or S3 and S4, the output voltage is 0. The ac outputs
of each of the different full-bridge inverter levels are connected in series such that the
synthesized voltage waveform is the sum of the inverter outputs.

The number of output phase voltage levels m in a cascade inverter is defined by m =

2s+1, where s is the number of separate dc sources. An example phase voltage waveform for an
11-level cascaded H-bridge inverter with 5 SDCSs and 5 full bridges is shown in Figure 31.2.
The phase voltage van = va1 + va2 + va3 + va4 + va5. For a stepped waveform such as the one
depicted in Figure 31.2 with s steps, the Fourier Transform for this waveform follows

20
Single-phase structure of a multilevel cascaded H-bridges inverter

21
 Output phase voltage waveform of an 11-level cascade inverter with 5 separate dc sources.

The magnitudes of the Fourier coefficients when normalized with respect to Vdc are as follows:

The conducting angles, θ1, θ2, ..., θs, can be chosen such that the voltage total harmonic
distortion is a minimum. Generally, these angles are chosen so that predominant lower frequency
th
harmonics, 5th, 7th, 11th, and 13 , harmonics are eliminated [25]. More detail on harmonic
elimination techniques will be presented in the next section.

Multilevel cascaded inverters have been proposed for such applications as static var
generation, an interface with renewable energy sources, and for battery-based applications.
Three-phase cascaded inverters can be connected in wye, as shown in Figure 31.3, or in delta.
Peng has demonstrated a prototype multilevel cascaded static var generator connected in parallel
with the electrical system that could supply or draw reactive current from an electrical system
[20-23]. The inverter could be controlled to either regulate the power factor of the current drawn
from the source or the bus voltage of the electrical system where the inverter was connected.
Peng [20] and Joos [24] have also shown that a cascade inverter can be directly connected in
series with the electrical system for static var compensation. Cascaded inverters are ideal for
connecting renewable energy sources with an ac grid, because of the need for separate dc
sources, which is the case in applications such as photovoltaic’s or fuel cells.

Cascaded inverters have also been proposed for use as the main traction drive in electric
vehicles, where several batteries or ultracapacitors are well suited to serve as SDCSs [19, 26].
The cascaded inverter could also serve as a rectifier/charger for the batteries of an electric
vehicle while the vehicle was connected to an ac supply as shown in Figure 31.3. Additionally,
the cascade inverter can act as a rectifier in a vehicle that uses regenerative braking.

22
 Three-phase wye-connection structure for electric vehicle motor drive and battery charging.

The main advantages and disadvantages of multilevel cascaded H-bridge converters are
as follows

Advantages:

 The number of possible output voltage levels is more than twice the number of dc sources
(m = 2s + 1).
 The series of H-bridges makes for modularized layout and packaging. This will enable
the manufacturing process to be done more quickly and cheaply.

Disadvantages:

 Separate dc sources are required for each of the H-bridges. This will limit its application
to products that already have multiple SDCSs readily available.

DIODE-CLAMPED MULTILEVEL INVERTER

The neutral point converter proposed by Nabae, Takahashi, and Akagi in 1981 was
essentially a three-level diode-clamped inverter [5]. In the 1990s several researchers published
articles that have reported experimental results for four-, five-, and six-level diode-clamped
converters for such uses as static var compensation, variable speed motor drives, and high-

23
voltage system interconnections [18-31]. A three-phase six-level diode-clamped inverter is
shown in Figure 31.5. Each of the three phases of the inverter shares a common dc bus, which
has been subdivided by five capacitors into six levels. The voltage across each capacitor is Vdc,
and the voltage stress across each switching device is limited to Vdc through the clamping diodes.
Table 31.1 lists the output voltage levels possible for one phase of the inverter with the negative
dc rail voltage V0 as a reference. State condition 1 means the switch is on, and 0 means the
switch is off.

Each phase has five complementary switch pairs such that turning on one of the switches
of the pair require that the other complementary switch be turned off. The complementary switch
pairs for phase leg a are (Sa1, Sa’1), (Sa2, Sa’2), (Sa3, Sa’3), (Sa4, Sa’4), and (Sa5, Sa’5). Table 31.1 also
shows that in a diode-clamped inverter, the switches that are on for a particular phase leg are
always adjacent and in series. For a six-level inverter, a set of five switches is on at any given
time.

Three-phase six-level structure of a diode-clamped inverter.

Diode-clamped six-level inverter voltage levels and corresponding switch states.

24
Advantages:

 All of the phases share a common dc bus, which minimizes the capacitance requirements
of theconverter. For this reason, a back-to-back topology is not only possible but also practical
for uses such as a high-voltage back-to-back inter-connection or an adjustable speed drive.
 The capacitors can be pre-charged as a group.
 Efficiency is high for fundamental frequency switching.

Disadvantages:

 Real power flow is difficult for a single inverter because the intermediate dc levels will
tend to overcharge or discharge without precise monitoring and control.
 The number of clamping diodes required is quadratically related to the number of levels,
which can be cumbersome for units with a high number of levels.

FLYING CAPACITOR MULTILEVEL INVERTER

Meynard and Foch introduced a flying-capacitor-based inverter in 1992 [32]. The

structure of this inverter is similar to that of the diode-clamped inverter except that instead of
using clamping diodes, the inverter uses capacitors in their place. The circuit topology of the
flying capacitor multilevel inverter is shown in Figure 31.7. This topology has a ladder structure
of dc side capacitors, where the voltage on each capacitor differs from that of the next capacitor.
The voltage increment between two adjacent capacitor legs gives the size of the voltage steps in
the output waveform.

25
 Three-phase six-level structure of a flying capacitor inverter.

One advantage of the flying-capacitor-based inverter is that it has redundancies for inner
voltage levels; in other words, two or more valid switch combinations can synthesize an output
voltage. Table 31.2 shows a list of all the combinations of phase voltage levels that are possible
for the six-level circuit shown in Figure 31.7. Unlike the diode-clamped inverter, the flying-
capacitor inverter does not require all of the switches that are on (conducting) be in a consecutive
series. Moreover, the flying-capacitor inverter has phase redundancies, whereas the diode-
clamped inverter has only line-line redundancies [2, 3, 33]. These redundancies allow a choice of
charging/discharging specific capacitors and can be incorporated in the control system for
balancing the voltages across the various levels.

In addition to the (m-1) dc link capacitors, the m-level flying-capacitor multilevel

inverter will require (m-1) × (m-2)/2 auxiliary capacitors per phase if the voltage rating of the
capacitors is identical to that of the main switches. One application proposed in the literature for
the multilevel flying capacitor is static var generation [2, 3]. The main advantages and
disadvantages of multilevel flying capacitor converters are as follows [2, 3].

Advantages:

 Phase redundancies are available for balancing the voltage levels of the capacitors.

 Real and reactive power flow can be controlled.

26
 The large number of capacitors enables the inverter to ride through short duration outages
and deep voltage sags.

Disadvantages:

 Control is complicated to track the voltage levels for all of the capacitors. Also,
precharging all of the capacitors to the same voltage level and startup are complex.

 Switching utilization and efficiency are poor for real power transmission.

 The large numbers of capacitors are both more expensive and bulky than clamping diodes
in multilevel diode-clamped converters. Packaging is also more difficult in inverters with a high
number of levels.

Applications:

DC power source utilization

Inverter designed to provide 115 VAC from the 12 VDC source provided in an
automobile. The unit shown provides up to 1.2 amperes of alternating current, or enough to
power two sixty watt light bulbs. An inverter converts the DC electricity from sources such as
batteries, solar panels, or fuel cells to AC electricity. The electricity can be at any required
voltage; in particular it can operate AC equipment designed for mains operation, or rectified to
produce DC at any desired voltage.

27
 Grid tie inverters can feed energy back into the distribution network because they
produce alternating current with the same wave shape and frequency as supplied by the
distribution system. They can also switch off automatically in the event of a blackout. Micro-
inverters convert direct current from individual solar panels into alternating current for the
electric grid.

Uninterruptible power supplies

An uninterruptible power supply (UPS) uses batteries and an inverter to supply AC

power when main power is not available. When main power is restored, a rectifier is used to
supply DC power to recharge the batteries.

Induction heating

Inverters convert low frequency main AC power to a higher frequency for use in
induction heating. To do this, AC power is first rectified to provide DC power. The inverter then
changes the DC power to high frequency AC power.

HVDC power transmission

With HVDC power transmission, AC power is rectified and high voltage DC power is
transmitted to another location. At the receiving location, an inverter in a static inverter plant
converts the power back to AC.

Variable-frequency drives

A variable-frequency drive controls the operating speed of an AC motor by controlling

the frequency and voltage of the power supplied to the motor. An inverter provides the controlled
power. In most cases, the variable-frequency drive includes a rectifier so that DC power for the
inverter can be provided from main AC power. Since an inverter is the key component, variable-
frequency drives are sometimes called inverter drives or just inverters.

28
Electric vehicle drives

Adjustable speed motor control inverters are currently used to power the traction motors
in some electric and diesel-electric rail vehicles as well as some battery electric vehicles and
hybrid electric highway vehicles such as the Toyota Prius. Various improvements in inverter
technology are being developed specifically for electric vehicle applications.[2] In vehicles with
regenerative braking, the inverter also takes power from the motor (now acting as a generator)
and stores it in the batteries.

Air conditioning

An air conditioner bearing the inverter tag uses a variable-frequency drive to control the
speed of the motor and thus the compressor.

The general case

A transformer allows AC power to be converted to any desired voltage, but at the same
frequency. Inverters, plus rectifiers for DC, can be designed to convert from any voltage, AC or
DC, to any other voltage, also AC or DC, at any desired frequency. The output power can never
exceed the input power, but efficiencies can be high, with a small proportion of the power
dissipated as waste heat.
CONCEPT OF PI CONTROLLER:

Proportional & Integral Controllers Proportional + Integral (PI) controllers

were developed because of the desirable property that systems with open loop transfer functions
of type 1 or above have zero steady state error with respect to a step input.

The PI regulator is:

29
But can be realised easily in the following form:

Tuning PI Controllers

General approach to tuning:

1. Initially have no integral gain (TI large)

2. Increase KP until get satisfactory response

3. Start to add in integral (decreasing TI) until the steady state error is removed in satisfactory
time (may need to reduce KP if the combination becomes oscillatory)

30
 FUZZY LOGIC

In recent years, the number and variety of applications of fuzzy logic have increased
significantly. The applications range from consumer products such as cameras, camcorders,
washing machines, and microwave ovens to industrial process control, medical instrumentation,
decision-support systems, and portfolio selection.

To understand why use of fuzzy logic has grown, you must first understand what is meant
by fuzzy logic.

Fuzzy logic has two different meanings. In a narrow sense, fuzzy logic is a logical
system, which is an extension of multivalve logic. However, in a wider sense fuzzy logic (FL) is
almost synonymous with the theory of fuzzy sets, a theory which relates to classes of objects
with unsharp boundaries in which membership is a matter of degree. In this perspective, fuzzy
logic in its narrow sense is a branch of fl. Even in its more narrow definition, fuzzy logic differs
both in concept and substance from traditional multivalve logical systems.

In fuzzy Logic Toolbox software, fuzzy logic should be interpreted as FL, that is, fuzzy
logic in its wide sense. The basic ideas underlying FL are explained very clearly and insightfully
in Foundations of Fuzzy Logic. What might be added is that the basic concept underlying FL is
that of a linguistic variable, that is, a variable whose values are words rather than numbers. In
effect, much of FL may be viewed as a methodology for computing with words rather than
numbers. Although words are inherently less precise than numbers, their use is closer to human
intuition. Furthermore, computing with words exploits the tolerance for imprecision and thereby
lowers the cost of solution.

Another basic concept in FL, which plays a central role in most of its applications, is that
of a fuzzy if-then rule or, simply, fuzzy rule. Although rule-based systems have a long history of
use in Artificial Intelligence (AI), what is missing in such systems is a mechanism for dealing
with fuzzy consequents and fuzzy antecedents. In fuzzy logic, this mechanism is provided by the
calculus of fuzzy rules. The calculus of fuzzy rules serves as a basis for what might be called the
Fuzzy Dependency and Command Language (FDCL).

31
 Although FDCL is not used explicitly in the toolbox, it is effectively one of its principal
constituents. In most of the applications of fuzzy logic, a fuzzy logic solution is, in reality, a
translation of a human solution into FDCL.

A trend that is growing in visibility relates to the use of fuzzy logic in combination with
neuron computing and genetic algorithms. More generally, fuzzy logic, neuron computing, and
genetic algorithms may be viewed as the principal constituents of what might be called soft
computing. Unlike the traditional, hard computing, soft computing accommodates the
imprecision of the real world.

The guiding principle of soft computing is: Exploit the tolerance for imprecision,
uncertainty, and partial truth to achieve tractability, robustness, and low solution cost. In the
future, soft computing could play an increasingly important role in the conception and design of
systems whose MIQ (Machine IQ) is much higher than that of systems designed by conventional
methods.

Among various combinations of methodologies in soft computing, the one that has
highest visibility at this juncture is that of fuzzy logic and neuro computing, leading to neuro-
fuzzy systems. Within fuzzy logic, such systems play a particularly important role in the
induction of rules from observations. An effective method developed by Dr. Roger Jang for this
purpose is called ANFIS (Adaptive Neuro-Fuzzy Inference System). This method is an important
component of the toolbox.

The fuzzy logic toolbox is highly impressive in all respects. It makes fuzzy logic an
effective tool for the conception and design of intelligent systems. The fuzzy logic toolbox is
easy to master and convenient to use. And last, but not least important, it provides a reader
friendly and up-to-date introduction to methodology of fuzzy logic and its wide ranging
applications.

WHAT IS FUZZY LOGIC?

Fuzzy logic is all about the relative importance of precision: How important is it to be
exactly right when a rough answer will do?

32
 You can use Fuzzy Logic Toolbox software with MATLAB technical computing
software as a tool for solving problems with fuzzy logic. Fuzzy logic is a fascinating area of
research because it does a good job of trading off between significance and precision—
something that humans have been managing for a very long time.

In this sense, fuzzy logic is both old and new because, although the modern and
methodical science of fuzzy logic is still young, the concept of fuzzy logic relies on age-old
skills of human reasoning.

fig fuzzy description

WHY USE FUZZY LOGIC?

Fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an input space to an output space. Mapping input to
output is the starting point for everything. Consider the following examples:

 With information about how good your service was at a restaurant, a fuzzy logic system
can tell you what the tip should be.

33
  With your specification of how hot you want the water, a fuzzy logic system can adjust
the faucet valve to the right setting.

 With information about how far away the subject of your photograph is, a fuzzy logic
system can focus the lens for you.

 With information about how fast the car is going and how hard the motor is working, a
fuzzy logic system can shift gears for you.

To determine the appropriate amount of tip requires mapping inputs to the appropriate
outputs. Between the input and the output, the preceding figure shows a black box that can
contain any number of things: fuzzy systems, linear systems, expert systems, neural networks,
differential equations, interpolated multidimensional lookup tables, or even a spiritual advisor,
just to name a few of the possible options. Clearly the list could go on and on.

Of the dozens of ways to make the black box work, it turns out that fuzzy is often the
very best way. Why should that be? As Lotfi Zadeh, who is considered to be the father of fuzzy
logic, once remarked: "In almost every case you can build the same product without fuzzy logic,
but fuzzy is faster and cheaper.".

WHEN NOT TO USE FUZZY LOGIC?

Fuzzy logic is not a cure-all. When should you not use fuzzy logic? The safest statement
is the first one made in this introduction: fuzzy logic is a convenient way to map an input space
to an output space. If you find it's not convenient, try something else. If a simpler solution
already exists, use it. Fuzzy logic is the codification of common sense — use common sense
when you implement it and you will probably make the right decision. Many controllers, for
example, do a fine job without using fuzzy logic.

However, if you take the time to become familiar with fuzzy logic, you'll see it can be a
very powerful tool for dealing quickly and efficiently with imprecision and nonlinearity.

WHAT CAN FUZZY LOGIC TOOLBOX SOFTWARE DO?

34
 You can create and edit fuzzy inference systems with Fuzzy Logic Toolbox software.
You can create these systems using graphical tools or command-line functions, or you can
generate them automatically using either clustering or adaptive neuro-fuzzy techniques.

If you have access to Simulink software, you can easily test your fuzzy system in a block
diagram simulation environment.

The toolbox also lets you run your own stand-alone C programs directly. This is made
possible by a stand-alone Fuzzy Inference Engine that reads the fuzzy systems saved from a
matlab session. You can customize the stand-alone engine to build fuzzy inference into your own
code. All provided code is ansi compliant.

Because of the integrated nature of the matlab environment, you can create your own
tools to customize the toolbox or harness it with another toolbox, such as the Control System
Toolbox, Neural Network Toolbox, or Optimization Toolbox software.

FUZZY LOGIC TOOL BOX:

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox extends the MATLAB technical computing environment with
tools for designing systems based on fuzzy logic. Graphical user interfaces (GUIs) guide you
through the steps of fuzzy inference system design. Functions are provided for many common
fuzzy logic methods, including fuzzy clustering and adaptive neuro fuzzy learning.

The toolbox lets you model complex system behaviors using simple logic rules and then
implements these rules in a fuzzy inference system. You can use the toolbox as a standalone
fuzzy inference engine. Alternatively, you can use fuzzy inference blocks in simulink and
simulate the fuzzy systems within a comprehensive model of the entire dynamic system.

WORKING WITH THE FUZZY LOGIC TOOLBOX:

The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox provides GUIs to let you perform classical fuzzy system
development and pattern recognition. Using the toolbox, you can develop and analyze fuzzy
inference systems, develop adaptive neuro fuzzy inference systems, and perform fuzzy
clustering. In addition, the toolbox provides a fuzzy controller block that you can use in Simulink
to model and simulate a fuzzy logic control system. From Simulink, you can generate C code for
use in embedded applications that include fuzzy logic.

35
BUILDING A FUZZY INFERENCE SYSTEM:

Fuzzy inference is a method that interprets the values in the input vector and, based on
user defined rules, assigns values to the output vector. Using the GUI editors and viewers in the
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, you can build the rules set, define the membership functions, and analyze
the behavior of a fuzzy inference system (FIS). The following editors and viewers are provided.

fig fuzzy interference system

KEY FEATURES:

■ Specialized GUIs for building fuzzy inference systems and viewing and analyzing results

■ Membership functions for creating fuzzy inference systems

■ Support for AND, OR, and NOT logic in user-defined rules

■ Standard Mamdani and Sugeno-type fuzzy inference systems

36
■ Automated membership function shaping through neuro adaptive and fuzzy clustering learning
techniques

■ Ability to embed a fuzzy inference system in a Simulink model

■ Ability to generate embeddable C code or stand-alone executable fuzzy inference engines.

In this section we'll be building a simple tipping example using the graphical user
interface (GUI) tools provided by the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. Although it's possible to use the
Fuzzy Logic Toolbox by working strictly from the command line, in general it's much easier to
build a system graphically. There are five primary GUI tools for building, editing, and observing
fuzzy inference systems in the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox. The Fuzzy Inference System or FIS Editor,
the Membership Function Editor, the Rule Editor, the Rule Viewer, and the Surface Viewer.
These GUIs are dynamically linked, in that changes you make to the FIS using one of them, can
affect what you see on any of the other open GUIs. You can have any or all of them open for any
given system. These are shown in Fig.

fig. The Primary GUI Tools of the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox

37
 The FIS Editor handles the high level issues for the system: How many input and output
variables? What are their names? The Fuzzy Logic Toolbox doesn't limit the number of inputs.
However, the number of inputs may be limited by the available memory of your machine. If the
number of inputs is too large, or the number of membership functions is too big, then it may also
be difficult to analyze the FIS using the other GUI tools.

The Membership Function Editor is used to define the shapes of all the membership
functions associated with each variable. The Rule Editor is for editing the list of rules that
defines the behavior of the system.

The Rule Viewer and the Surface Viewer are used for looking at, as opposed to editing,
the FIS. They are strictly read-only tools. The Rule Viewer is a matlab-based display of the fuzzy
inference diagram shown at the end of the last section. Used as a diagnostic, it can show (for
example) which rules are active, or how individual membership function shapes are influencing
the results. The Surface Viewer is used to display the dependency of one of the outputs on any
one or two of the inputs that is, it generates and plots an output surface map for the system.

The five primary GUIs can all interact and exchange information. Any one of them can
read and write both to the workspace and to the disk (the read-only viewers can still exchange
plots with the workspace and/or the disk). For any fuzzy inference system, any or all of these
five GUIs may be open. If more than one of these editors is open for a single system, the various
GUI windows are aware of the existence of the others, and will, if necessary, update related
windows. Thus if the names of the membership functions are changed using the Membership
Function Editor, those changes are reflected in the rules shown in the Rule Editor. The editors for
any number of different FIS systems may be open simultaneously. The FIS Editor, the
Membership Function Editor, and the Rule Editor can all read and modify the FIS data, but the
Rule Viewer and the Surface Viewer do not modify the FIS data in any way.

We'll start with a basic description of a two-input, one-output tipping problem. The Basic
Tipping Problem. Given a number between 0 and 10 that represents the quality of service at a
restaurant (where 10 is excellent), and another number between 0 and 10 that represents the
quality of the food at that restaurant (again, 10 is excellent), what should the tip be?

38
The starting point is to write down the three golden rules of tipping, based on years of personal
experience in restaurants.

1. If the service is poor or the food is rancid, then tip is cheap.

2. If the service is good, then tip is average.

3. If the service is excellent or the food is delicious, then tip is generous.

We'll assume that an average tip is 15%, a generous tip is 25%, and a cheap tip is 5%. It's
also useful to have a vague idea of what the tipping function should look like. A simple tipping
function is shown as in Fig.2. Obviously the numbers and the shape of the curve are subject to
local traditions, cultural bias, and so on, but the three rules are pretty universal. Now we know
the rules, and we have an idea of what the output should look like. Let's begin working with the
GUI tools to construct a fuzzy inference system for this decision process.

fig The Tipping Function

THE FIS EDITOR:

The following discussion walks you through building a new fuzzy inference system from
scratch. If you want to save time and follow along quickly, you can load the already built system
by typing fuzzy tipper This will load the FIS associated with the file tipper.fis (the .fis is implied)
and launch the FIS Editor. However, if you load the pre-built system, you will not be building
rules and constructing membership functions.

The FIS Editor displays general information about a fuzzy inference system. There's a
simple diagram as shown in Fig.3 that shows the names of each input variable on the left, and

39
those of each output variable on the right. The sample membership functions shown in the boxes
are just icons and do not depict the actual shapes of the membership functions.

Below the diagram is the name of the system and the type of inference used. The default,
Madman-type inference, is what we'll continue to use for this example. Another slightly different
type of inference, called Surgeon-type inference, is also available.

Below the name of the fuzzy inference system, on the left side of the figure, are the pop-
up menus that allow you to modify the various pieces of the inference process. On the right side
at the bottom of the figure is the area that displays the name of an input or output variable, its
associated membership function type, and its range. The latter two fields are specified only after
the membership functions have been. Below that region are the Help and Close buttons that call
up online help and close the window, respectively. At the bottom is a status line that relays
information about the system.

To start this system from scratch, type fuzzy at the mat lab prompt. The generic untitled
FIS Editor opens, with one input, labeled input1, and one output, labeled output1. For this
example, we will construct a two-input, one output system, so go to the Edit menu and select
Add input. A second yellow box labeled input2 will appear. The two inputs we will have in our
example are service and food. Our one output is tip.

Fig The FIS Editor

40
We'd like to change the variable names to reflect that, though:

 Click once on the left-hand (yellow) box marked input1 (the box will be highlighted in
red).
 In the white edit field on the right, change input1 to service and press Return.
 Click once on the left-hand (yellow) box marked input2 (the box will be highlighted in
red).
 In the white edit field on the right, change input2 to food and press Return.
 Click once on the right-hand (blue) box marked output1.
 In the white edit field on the right, change output1 to tip.
 From the File menu select Save to workspace as.. and a window appears as shown in
fig.
 Enter the variable name tipper and click on ok.
You will see the diagram updated to reflect the new names of the input and output
variables. There is now a new variable in the workspace called tipper that contains all the
information about this system.

fig. ‘Save to workspace as...’ Window

By saving to the workspace with a new name, you also rename the entire system. Your
window will look like as shown in Fig.5.

41
 fig The updated FIS Editor

Leave the inference options in the lower left in their default positions for now. You've
entered all the information you need for this particular GUI. Next define the membership
functions associated with each of the variables. To do this, open the Membership Function
Editor. You can open the Membership Function Editor in one of three ways:

 Pull down the View menu item and select Edit Membership Functions....
 Double-click on the icon for the output variable, tip.
 Type mfedit at the command line.
THE MEMBERSHIP FUNCTION EDITOR:

The Membership Function Editor shares some features with the FIS Editor. In fact, all of
the five basic GUI tools have similar menu options, status lines, and Help and Close buttons. The
Membership Function Editor is the tool that lets you display and edit all of the membership
functions associated with all of the input and output variables for the entire fuzzy inference
system. Fig.6 shows the Membership Function Editor.

When you open the Membership Function Editor to work on a fuzzy inference system
that does not already exist in the workspace, there is not yet any membership functions
associated with the variables that you have just defined with the FIS Editor

42
 fig. The Membership Function Editor

On the upper left side of the graph area in the Membership Function Editor is a "Variable
Palette" that lets you set the membership functions for a given variable. To set up your
membership functions associated with an input or an output variable for the FIS, select an FIS
variable in this region by clicking on it.

Next select the Edit pull-down menu, and choose Add MFs.... A new window will
appear, which allows you to select both the membership function type and the number of
membership functions associated with the selected variable. In the lower right corner of the
window are the controls that let you change the name, type, and parameters (shape), of the
membership function, once it has been selected.

43
 The membership functions from the current variable are displayed in the main graph.
These membership functions can be manipulated in two ways. You can first use the mouse to
select a particular membership function associated with a given variable quality, (such as poor,
for the variable, service), and then drag the membership function from side to side. This will
affect the mathematical description of the quality associated with that membership function for a
given variable. The selected membership function can also be tagged for dilation or contraction
by clicking on the small square drag points on the membership function, and then dragging the
function with the mouse toward the outside, for dilation, or toward the inside, for contraction.
This will change the parameters associated with that membership function.

Below the Variable Palette is some information about the type and name of the current
variable. There is a text field in this region that lets you change the limits of the current variable's
range (universe of discourse) and another that lets you set the limits of the current plot (which
has no real effect on the system).

The process of specifying the input membership functions for this two input tipper problem
is as follows:

 Select the input variable, service, by double-clicking on it. Set both the Range and the
Display Range to the vector [0 10].
 Select Add MFs... from the Edit menu. A window pops open as shown in Fig.

fig. Add MFs… Window

44
  Use the pull-down tab to choose gaussmf for MF Type and 3 for Number of MFs. This
adds three Gaussian curves to the input variable service.
 Click once on the curve with the leftmost hump. Change the name of the curve to poor.
To adjust the shape of the membership function, either use the mouse, as described
above, or type in a desired parameter change, and then click on the membership
function. The default parameter listing for this curve is [1.5 0].
 Name the curve with the middle hump, good, and the curve with the rightmost hump,
excellent. Reset the associated parameters if desired.
 Select the input variable, food, by clicking on it. Set both the Range and the Display
Range to the vector [0 10].
 Select Add MFs... from the Edit menu and add two trapmf curves to the input variable
food.
 Click once directly on the curve with the leftmost trapezoid. Change the name of the
curve to rancid. To adjust the shape of the membership function, either use the mouse,
as described above, or type in a desired parameter change, and then click on the
membership function. The default parameter listing for this curve is [0 0 1 3].
 Name the curve with the rightmost trapezoid, delicious, and reset the associated
parameters if desired.

Next you need to create the membership functions for the output variable, tip. To create the
output variable membership functions, use the Variable Palette on the left, selecting the output
variable, tip. The inputs ranged from 0 to 10, but the output scale is going to be a tip between 5
and 25 percent.

Use triangular membership function types for the output. First, set the Range (and the
Display Range) to [0 30], to cover the output range. Initially, the cheap membership function will
have the parameters [0 5 10], the average membership function will be [10 15 20],and the
generous membership function will be [20 25 30].Your system should look something like
shown in Fig.

45
 fig. The updated Membership Function Editor

Now that the variables have been named, and the membership functions have appropriate
shapes and names, you're ready to write down the rules. To call up the Rule Editor, go to the
View menu and select Edit rules..., or type ruleedit at the command line. The Rule Editor
window pops open as shown in Fig

THE RULE EDITOR:

Constructing rules using the graphical Rule Editor interface is fairly self-evident. Based
on the descriptions of the input and output variables defined with the FIS Editor, the Rule Editor
allows you to construct the rule statements automatically, by clicking on and selecting one item
in each input variable box, one item in each output box, and one connection item. Choosing none
as one of the variable qualities will exclude that variable from a given rule.

46
 Choosing not under any variable name will negate the associated quality. Rules may be
changed, deleted, or added, by clicking on the appropriate button.

The Rule Editor also has some familiar landmarks, similar to those in the FIS Editor and
the Membership Function Editor, including the menu bar and the status line. The Format pop-up
menu is available from the Options pull-down menu from the top menu bar -- this is used to set
the format for the display. Similarly, Language can be set from under Options as well. The Help
button will bring up a MATLAB Help window.

Fig 6.9. The Rule Editor

To insert the first rule in the Rule Editor, select the following:

Poor under the variable service

 Rancid under the variable food
 The radio button, or, in the Connection block
 Cheap, under the output variable, tip.
The resulting rule is

1. If (service is poor) or (food is rancid) then (tip is cheap) (1)

The numbers in the parentheses represent weights that can be applied to each rule if
desired. You can specify the weights by typing in a desired number between zero and one under
the Weight setting. If you do not specify them, the weights are assumed to be unity (1).

47
Follow a similar procedure to insert the second and third rules in the Rule Editor to get

1. If (service is poor) or (food is rancid) then (tip is cheap) (1)

2. If (service is good) then (tip is average) (1)

3. If (service is excellent) or (food is delicious) then (tip is generous) (1)

To change a rule, first click on the rule to be changed. Next make the desired changes to that
rule, and then click on Change rule. For example, to change the first rule to

1. If (service not poor) or (food not rancid) then (tip is not cheap) (1) click not under each
variable, and then click Change rule.

The Format pop-up menu from the Options menu indicates that you're looking at the
verbose form of the rules. Try changing it to symbolic. You will see

1. (Service==poor) => (tip=cheap) (1)

2. (Service==good) => (tip=average) (1)

3. (Service==excellent) => (tip=generous) (1)

There is not much difference in the display really, but it's slightly more language neutral,
since it doesn't depend on terms like "if" and "then." If you change the format to indexed, you'll
see an extremely compressed version of the rules that has squeezed all the language out.

1, 1 (1) : 1

2, 2 (1): 1

3, 3 (1): 1

This is the version that the machine deals with. The first column in this structure
corresponds to the input variable, the second column corresponds to the output variable, the third
column displays the weight applied to each rule, and the fourth column is shorthand that
indicates whether this is an OR (2) rule or an AND (1) rule. The numbers in the first two
columns refer to the index number of the membership function.

48
 A literal interpretation of rule 1 is: "if input 1 is MF1 (the first membership function
associated with input 1) then output 1 should be MF1 (the first membership function associated
with output 1) with the weight 1." Since there is only one input for this system, the AND
connective implied by the 1 in the last column is of no consequence.

The symbolic format doesn't bother with the terms, if, then, and so on. The indexed
format doesn't even bother with the names of your variables. Obviously the functionality of your
system doesn't depend on how well you have named your variables and membership functions.
The whole point of naming variables descriptively is, as always, making the system easier for
you to interpret. Thus, unless you have some special purpose in mind, it will probably be easier
for you to stick with the verbose format.

At this point, the fuzzy inference system has been completely defined, in that the
variables, membership functions, and the rules necessary to calculate tips are in place. It would
be nice, at this point, to look at a fuzzy inference diagram like the one presented at the end of the
previous section and verify that everything is behaving the way we think it should. This is
exactly the purpose of the Rule Viewer, the next of the GUI tools we'll look at. From the View
menu, select View rules....

49
THE RULE VIEWER:

Fig the Rule Viewer

The Rule Viewer displays a roadmap of the whole fuzzy inference process. It's based on
the fuzzy inference diagram described in the previous section. You see a single figure window as
shown in fig.10 with 10 small plots nested in it. The three small plots across the top of the figure
represent the antecedent and consequent of the first rule. Each rule is a row of plots, and each
column is a variable. The first two columns of plots (the six yellow plots) show the membership
functions referenced by the antecedent, or the if-part of each rule. The third column of plots (the
three blue plots) shows the membership functions referenced by the consequent, or the then-part
of each rule. If you click once on a rule number, the corresponding rule will be displayed at the
bottom of the figure. Notice that under food, there is a plot which is blank. This corresponds to
the characterization of none for the variable food in the second rule. The fourth plot in the third
column of plots represents the aggregate weighted decision for the given inference system. This
decision will depend on the input values for the system.

50
 There are also the now familiar items like the status line and the menu bar. In the lower
right there is a text field into which you can enter specific input values. For the two-input system,
you will enter an input vector, [9 8], for example, and then click on input. You can also adjust
these input values by clicking anywhere on any of the three plots for each input. This will move
the red index line horizontally, to the point where you have clicked. You can also just click and
drag this line in order to change the input values. When you release the line, (or after manually
specifying the input), a new calculation is performed, and you can see the whole fuzzy inference
process take place. Where the index line representing service crosses the membership function
line "service is poor" in the upper left plot will determine the degree to which rule one is
activated. A yellow patch of color under the actual membership function curve is used to make
the fuzzy membership value visually apparent. Each of the characterizations of each of the
variables is specified with respect to the input index line in this manner. If we follow rule 1
across the top of the diagram, we can see the consequent "tip is cheap" has been truncated to
exactly the same degree as the (composite) antecedent--this is the implication process in action.
The aggregation occurs down the third column, and the resultant aggregate plot is shown in the
single plot to be found in the lower right corner of the plot field. The de-fuzzyfied output value is
shown by the thick line passing through the aggregate fuzzy set.

The Rule Viewer allows you to interpret the entire fuzzy inference process at once. The
Rule Viewer also shows how the shape of certain membership functions influences the overall
result. Since it plots every part of every rule, it can become unwieldy for particularly large
systems, but, for a relatively small number of inputs and outputs, it performs well (depending on
how much screen space you devote to it) with up to 30 rules and as many as 6 or 7 variables.

The Rule Viewer shows one calculation at a time and in great detail. In this sense, it
presents a sort of micro view of the fuzzy inference system. If you want to see the entire output
surface of your system, that is, the entire span of the output set based on the entire span of the
input set, you need to open up the Surface Viewer. This is the last of our five basic GUI tools in
the Fuzzy Logic Toolbox, and you open it by selecting View surface... from the View menu. The
Surface Viewer window pops open as shown in fig.

THE SURFACE VIEWER:

51
 Upon opening the Surface Viewer, we are presented with a two-dimensional curve that
represents the mapping from service quality to tip amount. Since this is a one-input one-output
case, we can see the entire mapping in one plot. Two-input one-output systems also work well,
as they generate three-dimensional plots that mat lab can adeptly manage. When we move
beyond three dimensions overall, we start to encounter trouble displaying the results.
Accordingly, the Surface Viewer is equipped with pop-up menus that let you select any two
inputs and any one output for plotting. Just below the pop-up menus are two text input fields that
let you determine how many x-axis and y-axis grid lines you want to include. This allows you to
keep the calculation time reasonable for complex problems. Pushing the Evaluate button initiates
the calculation, and the plot comes up soon after the calculation is complete. To change the x-
axis or y-axis grid after the surface is in view, simply change the appropriate text field, and click
on either X-grids or Y-grids, according to which text field you changed, to redraw the plot.

The Surface Viewer has a special capability that is very helpful in cases with two (or
more) inputs and one output: you can actually grab the axes and reposition them to get a different
three-dimensional view on the data. The Ref. Input field is used in situations when there are
more inputs required by the system than the surface is mapping. Suppose you have a four-input
one-output system and would like to see the output surface. The Surface Viewer can generate a
three-dimensional output surface where any two of the inputs vary, but two of the inputs must be
held constant since computer monitors cannot display a five-dimensional shape. In such a case
the input would be a four-dimensional vector with Na Ns holding the place of the varying inputs
while numerical values would indicate those values that remain fixed. An Na N is the IEEE
symbol for "not a number."

52
 Fig The Surface Viewer

This concludes the quick walk-through of each of the main GUI tools. Notice that for the
tipping problem, the output of the fuzzy system matches our original idea of the shape of the
fuzzy mapping from service to tip fairly well. In hindsight, you might say, "Why bother? I could
have just drawn a quick lookup table and been done an hour ago!" However, if you are interested
in solving an entire class of similar decision-making problems, fuzzy logic may provide an
appropriate tool for the solution, given its ease with which a system can be quickly modified.

IMPORTING AND EXPORTING FROM THE GUI TOOLS:

When you save a fuzzy system to disk, you're saving an ascii text FIS file representation
of that system with the file suffix .FIS. This text file can be edited and modified and is simple to
understand. When you save your fuzzy system to the mat lab workspace, you're creating a
variable (whose name you choose) that will act as a mat lab structure for the FIS system. FIS
files and FIS structures represent the same system.

53
 MATLAB

Introduction to Matlab:

Matlab is a high-performance language for technical computing. The name mat lab
stands for matrix laboratory. It integrates computation, visualization, and programming in an
easy-to-use environment where problems and solutions are expressed in familiar mathematical
notation. Typical uses include Math and computation Algorithm development Data acquisition
Modeling, simulation, and prototyping Data analysis, exploration, and visualization Scientific
and engineering graphics Application development, including graphical user interface building.

Matlab is an interactive system whose basic data element is an array that does not require
dimensioning. This allows you to solve many technical computing problems, especially those
with matrix and vector formulations, in a fraction of the time it would take to write a program in
a scalar no interactive language such as C or FORTRAN.

History of Matlab:

Cleve Barry Moler, the chairman of the computer-science department at the University of
New Mexico, he is a mathematician and computer programmer specializing in numerical
analysis. Started developing MATLAB in the late 1970s. He designed it to give his students
access to LINPACK and EISPACK without their having to learn Fortran. It soon spread to other
universities and found a strong audience within the applied mathematics community. Jack Little,
an engineer, was exposed to it during a visit Moler made to Stanford University in 1983.
Recognizing its commercial potential, he joined with Moler and Steve Bangert. They rewrote
MATLAB in C and founded Math Works in 1984 to continue its development. These rewritten
libraries were known as JACKPAC. In 2000, MATLAB was rewritten to use a newer set of
libraries for matrix manipulation, LAPACK.

Strengths of Matlab:

 MATLAB is relatively easy to learn.

 MATLAB code is optimized to be relatively quick when performing matrix operations.

54
  MATLAB may behave like a calculator or as a programming language.

 MATLAB is interpreted, errors are easier to fix.

 Although primarily procedural, MATLAB does have some object-oriented elements.

Other features:

 2-D and 3-D graphics functions for visualizing data

 Tools for building custom graphical user interfaces

 Functions for integrating MATLAB based algorithms with external applications and
languages, such as C, C++, FORTRAN, Java, COM, and Microsoft Excel.

Components of Matlab:

 Workspace

 Current Directory

 Command History

 Command Window

55
 Block diagram of Mat lab components

MATLAB and engineering:

MATLAB was first adopted by researchers and practitioners in control engineering,

Little's specialty, but quickly spread to many other domains. It is now also used in education, in
particular the teaching of linear algebra and numerical analysis, and is popular amongst scientists
involved in image processing. However, many researchers mostly from Computer Science
background feel that MATLAB should be used only for mathematical analysis necessary in
image processing and not for implementation of image processing software. Moreover,
MATLAB should not be used to simulate computer architectures, systems software and
computer networks unless while solving some numeric problem.

Toolboxes in Matlab:

 Simulink

 Fuzzy

 Genetic algorithm

 Neural network

 Wavelet

SIMULINK

 Introduction:

Simulink is a software add-on to mat lab which is a mathematical tool developed by The
Math works,(http://www.mathworks.com) a company based in Natick. Mat lab is powered by
extensive numerical analysis capability. Simulink is a tool used to visually program a dynamic
system (those governed by Differential equations) and look at results. Any logic circuit, or
control system for a dynamic system can be built by using standard building blocks available in
Simulink Libraries. Various toolboxes for different techniques, such as Fuzzy Logic, Neural

56
Networks, DSP, Statistics etc. are available with Simulink, which enhance the processing power
of the tool. The main advantage is the availability of templates / building blocks, which avoid the
necessity of typing code for small mathematical processes.

 Concept of signal and logic flow:

In Simulink, data/information from various blocks are sent to another block by lines
connecting the relevant blocks. Signals can be generated and fed into blocks dynamic /
static).Data can be fed into functions. Data can then be dumped into sinks, which could be
scopes, displays or could be saved to a file. Data can be connected from one block to another,
can be branched, multiplexed etc. In simulation, data is processed and transferred only at discrete
times, since all computers are discrete systems. Thus, a simulation time step (otherwise called an
integration time step) is essential, and the selection of that step is determined by the fastest
dynamics in the simulated system.

Fig 4.1 Simulink library browser

 Connecting blocks:

57
 fig 4.2 Connectung blocks

To connect blocks, left-click and drag the mouse from the output of one block to the input of
another block.

Sources and sinks:

The sources library contains the sources of data/signals that one would use in a dynamic
system simulation. One may want to use a constant input, a sinusoidal wave, a step, a repeating
sequence such as a pulse train, a ramp etc. One may want to test disturbance effects, and can use
the random signal generator to simulate noise. The clock may be used to create a time index for
plotting purposes. The ground could be used to connect to any unused port, to avoid warning
messages indicating unconnected ports.

The sinks are blocks where signals are terminated or ultimately used. In most cases, we
would want to store the resulting data in a file, or a matrix of variables. The data could be
displayed or even stored to a file. The stop block could be used to stop the simulation if the input
to that block (the signal being sunk) is non-zero. Figure 3 shows the available blocks in the
sources and sinks libraries. Unused signals must be terminated, to prevent warnings about
unconnected signals.

58
 fig 4.3 Sources and sinks

 Continuous and discrete systems:

All dynamic systems can be analyzed as continuous or discrete time systems. Simulink
allows you to represent these systems using transfer functions, integration blocks, delay blocks
etc.

59
 fig 4.4 continous and descrete systems

 Non-linear operators:

A main advantage of using tools such as Simulink is the ability to simulate non-linear
systems and arrive at results without having to solve analytically. It is very difficult to arrive at
an analytical solution for a system having non-linearities such as saturation, signup function,
limited slew rates etc. In Simulation, since systems are analyzed using iterations, non-linearities
are not a hindrance. One such could be a saturation block, to indicate a physical limitation on a
parameter, such as a voltage signal to a motor etc. Manual switches are useful when trying
simulations with different cases. Switches are the logical equivalent of if-then statements in
programming.

fig 4.5 simulink blocks

60
  Mathematical operations:

Mathematical operators such as products, sum, logical operations such as and, or, etc. can
be programmed along with the signal flow. Matrix multiplication becomes easy with the matrix
gain block. Trigonometric functions such as sin or tan inverse (at an) are also available.
Relational operators such as ‘equal to’, ‘greater than’ etc. can also be used in logic circuits.

Fig 4.6 Simulink math blocks

 Signals & data transfer:

In complicated block diagrams, there may arise the need to transfer data from one portion
to another portion of the block. They may be in different subsystems. That signal could be
dumped into a GOTO block, which is used to send signals from one subsystem to another.

61
 fig 4.7 signals and systems

Multiplexing helps us remove clutter due to excessive connectors, and makes matrix
(column/row) visualization easier.

 Making subsystems:

Drag a subsystem from the Simulink Library Browser and place it in the parent block
where you would like to hide the code. The type of subsystem depends on the purpose of the
block. In general one will use the standard subsystem but other subsystems can be chosen. For
instance, the subsystem can be a triggered block, which is enabled only when a trigger signal is
received.

Open (double click) the subsystem and create input / output PORTS, which transfer
signals into and out of the subsystem. The input and output ports are created by dragging them
from the Sources and Sinks directories respectively. When ports are created in the subsystem,
they automatically create ports on the external (parent) block. This allows for connecting the
appropriate signals from the parent block to the subsystem.

 Setting simulation parameters:

62
 Running a simulation in the computer always requires a numerical technique to solve a
differential equation. The system can be simulated as a continuous system or a discrete system
based on the blocks inside. The simulation start and stop time can be specified. In case of
variable step size, the smallest and largest step size can be specified. A Fixed step size is
recommended and it allows for indexing time to a precise number of points, thus controlling the
size of the data vector. Simulation step size must be decided based on the dynamics of the
system. A thermal process may warrant a step size of a few seconds, but a DC motor in the
system may be quite fast and may require a step size of a few milliseconds.

Simpower system:

 Introduction:

SimPowerSystems software and other products of the Physical Modeling product family
work together with Simulink software to model electrical, mechanical, and control systems.

SimPowerSystems software operates in the Simulink environment. Therefore, before

starting this user's guide, make yourself familiar with Simulink documentation. Or, if you

63
perform signal processing and communications tasks (as opposed to control system design
tasks), see the Signal Processing Block set documentation.

 The Role of Simulation in Design:

Electrical power systems are combinations of electrical circuits and electromechanical

devices like motors and generators. Engineers working in this discipline are constantly
improving the performance of the systems. Requirements for drastically increased efficiency
have forced power system designers to use power electronic devices and sophisticated control
system concepts that tax traditional analysis tools and techniques. Further complicating the
analyst's role is the fact that the system is often so nonlinear that the only way to understand it is
through simulation.

Land-based power generation from hydroelectric, steam, or other devices is not the only
use of power systems. A common attribute of these systems is their use of power electronics and
control systems to achieve their performance objectives.

SimPowerSystems software is a modern design tool that allows scientists and engineers
to rapidly and easily build models that simulate power systems. It uses the Simulink
environment, allowing you to build a model using simple click and drag procedures. Not only
can you draw the circuit topology rapidly, but your analysis of the circuit can include its
interactions with mechanical, thermal, control, and other disciplines. This is possible because all
the electrical parts of the simulation interact with the extensive Simulink modeling library.

Since Simulink uses the MATLAB computational engine, designers can also use
MATLAB toolboxes and Simulink block sets. SimPowerSystems software belongs to the
Physical Modeling product family and uses similar block and connection line interface.

 Sim power systems Libraries:

SimPowerSystems libraries contain models of typical power equipment such as

transformers, lines, machines, and power electronics. These models are proven ones coming
from textbooks, and their validity is based on the experience of the Power Systems Testing and

64
Simulation Laboratory of Hydro-Québec, a large North American utility located in Canada, and
also on the experience of École de Technology Supérieure and Université Laval. The capabilities
of SimPowerSystems software for modeling a typical electrical system are illustrated in
demonstration files. And for users who want to refresh their knowledge of power system theory,
there are also self-learning case studies.

The SimPowerSystems main library, powerlib, organizes its blocks into libraries
according to their behavior. The powerlib library window displays the block library icons and
names. Double-click a library icon to open the library and access the blocks. The main powerlib
library window also contains the Powergui block that opens a graphical user interface for the
steady-state analysis of electrical circuits.

 Nonlinear Simulink Blocks for Simpower systems Models:

The nonlinear Simulink blocks of the powerlib library are stored in a special block library
named powerlib models. These masked Simulink models are used by SimPowerSystems
software to build the equivalent Simulink model of your circuit. See Improving Simulation
Performance for a description of the powerlib models library.

Diagram of simpower system

65
Applications of Matlab:

MATLAB is a data-manipulation software package that allows data to be analyzed and

visualized using existing functions and user-designed programs. MATLAB is a numerical
computing environment and programming language. MATLAB allows easy matrix
manipulation, plotting of functions and data, implementation of algorithms, creation of user
interfaces, and interfacing with programs in other languages. Although it specializes in numerical
computing, an optional toolbox interfaces with the Maple symbolic engine, allowing it to be part
of a full computer algebra system.

Some of the mat lab applications listed are:

 Orthogonal frequency division multiplexing

 Genetic algorithm data mining

 Speech recognition using VQ method

 Channel Estimation and Detection in DS-CDMA

 Analysis of iterative channel estimation and multi-user detection in multi path DS-CDMA
channels

 Time-domain signal detection

 Time-domain signal detection based on second-order statistics for mimo-OFDM systems

 Space–time block coding

 Space–time block codes for mimo channels

 Blind channel estimation

Basic circuit designing and analyzing of results:

Click on the file and select new model file and a file will be appeared:

Now a block and right click on it, the block will be appearing in the new model file (untitled)

66
For example consider a sine wave in the source block and in order to obtain or to view the output
place the scope block. Join those two blocks. Now a simple circuit is ready, now set the
simulation time in the tool bar (default it is set to 10.0), simulate the circuit by clicking on the
simulation icon (PLAY BUTTON). Simulation is completed now by double clicking on the
scope u can view the output, press the auto scale button and o/p will appear .

II. PROPOSED SYSTEM

A. Floating capacitor bridge inverter

The floating bridge capacitor dual inverter based topology has been analyzed for
different applications [28, 31]. The topology can be used to supply reactive power to a machine
and to compensate for any supply voltage droop [28, 32], but the possibility of multi-level output
voltage waveforms were not considered. A control scheme to charge the floating capacitor bridge
along with multi-level output voltage waveforms has been presented [33-35]. In this method the
main converter works in six step mode and the floating converter is called conditioning inverter
as it is improving the waveform quality. The work described in this paper is to control the
voltage across the floating inverter bridge capacitor using the redundant switching states,
therefore removing the need for any isolation transformer and allowing the converter to achieve
multi-level output voltage waveforms. Fig. 2 shows a block diagram of the dual inverter with a
floating bridge and associated capacitor. The use of a dc link voltage ratio of 2:1 allows the dual
bridge inverter to produce up to a three levels in the output voltage waveform [36, 37]. The
power stage of the proposed topology is shown in Fig.3

67
 Fig. 2. Block diagram of proposed floating bridge topology.
B. Principles of operation
In order to show how the floating capacitor can be charged and discharged the possible
switching states are analyzed. The space vector diagram for the topology is shown in Fig.4,
which is derived by assuming that both converters as being supplied from isolated DC sources
with a voltage ratio of 2:1. In Fig.4 the red numbered switching combinations discharge the
floating capacitor, while the green numbered switching combinations charge the floating
capacitor. The blue numbered switching combinations hold the last state of capacitor and are
therefore neutral in terms of the state of charge of the floating capacitor. As an example state
(74) shown in Fig.5 gives the switching sequences for both converter’s top switches 7 (1 1 1)
represents the top three switches for main inverter and 4 (0 1 1) represents the switching states
for top three switches of the floating converter.

Fig. 3. Power stage of the floating bridge topology (the floating capacitor
is charged to half of the main DC link voltage).

68
Fig. 4. Space vector of dual two-level inverter (source ratio 2:1).

69
 Fig. 5. Current flow for different switching state
It can be seen from the Fig. 5 that combinations (11) and (16) will direct the current
through the positive to negative terminal of the floating capacitor thus will act to charge the
capacitor. Combinations (14), (15) and (74) will result in a current in the other direction and will
therefore act to discharge the capacitor. Combinations ending with 7 (111) or 8 (000) are zero
states and will therefore have no impact of floating capacitor's voltage. It is evident from Fig. 4
that if the reference voltage is in outer hexagon then there are only two switching combinations

70
in each sector to charge the floating capacitor. During inductive load operation capacitor
discharge rate will be slower and will cause overcharging if the reference voltage lies in outer
hexagon. Also, due to lack of charging states, the floating capacitor will discharge if the machine
is drawing active power. To avoid these two phenomenon a restriction has to be imposed on
modulation index. As a result the maximum useable number voltage levels across the load will
be reduced to nine (thirteen for isolated sources) along with a slightly lower than ideal DC bus
voltage utilization. Therefore the floating capacitor can charge to half of the main DC link
capacitor voltage only if the modulation index (m) is limited as shown in equation

This is 33% reduction of DC bus utilization in contrast with a dual inverter supplied by
two isolated sources. The dual inverter with a zero sequence elimination technique also uses
single supply with 15% reduction in DC bus utilization and can achieve five-level voltage across
the load
C. Modulation strategy
A decoupled space vector modulation strategy has been used for this dual inverter
floating bridge topology. Switching combinations are selected in such a way that the average
generated voltage for each of the converters is 180 degree phase shifted from the other [Fig.6
(a)]. These voltages will then add up at load terminal to match overall voltage reference [Fig.6
(b)]. Identification of the subsectors, dwell time calculation and the switching sequence design
can be found in [38, 39].To achieve better results, the output switching sequences are modified.
The modification of the pulses is necessary to minimize the unwanted voltage levels due to dead-
time intervals in each phase leg [40, 41]. In general, the output voltage of a converter is governed
by load current during dead-time intervals and the voltage is equal to one of the voltage levels
before or after the deadtime intervals. The dual inverter with unequal voltage sources will show a
different characteristic, instead of clamping the output voltage to one of the voltage levels before
or after the dead-time interval voltage levels, it clamps the output voltage to some other voltage
levels. This is true for simultaneous switching for each phase legs of the converters.

71
 Fig. 6. (a) Space vector diagram of individual converter (not in scale). (b)
Space vector diagram of the dual inverter system with sourece ratio of 2:1
For an example, consider phase legs inside green dotted line in Fig. 3 for positive load current
(current flowing frommain to floating converter). If the top switches of the legs (Sm1 & Sf1 ) are
on then the load current will go through switch Sm1and diode D f1. Now, if both legs go to its
deadtime at the same time the load current will change direction and will go through diode D ’
m1 and diode D f1 . Finally when both the converter legs bottom switches (S ’ m1 & S ’ f1 )
turned on current will go through diode D ’ m1 and switch S ’ f1 . It is clear that during dead-
time interval, voltage level is different to the voltage levels before and after the dead-time
interval. To avoid this unwanted voltage level, in this scenario, the main converter leg will go
into its dead-time first and then second converter will go to its dead-time interval as soon as the
main converter passes its dead-time interval. A generalized solution is shown in Fig. 7 for
positive load current. It can be seen from the Fig. 7 that the pulses are delayed depending on the
switching states transitions. Table I shows the generalized solution for positive and negative load
currents to avoid the unwanted voltage levels.

72
 Fig. 7. Delayed dead-time intervals in both converters when current direction is positive.
Due to the modified switching sequences, the current direction does not change during the dead-
time. The state of the floating capacitor will depend on the current just before the occurrence of
dead-time interval. As an example, if the capacitor was charging then it will keep charging when
the converter is in dead-time period. The value of dead-time is too small for the any overcharge
or discharge to change the capacitor voltage drastically.
TABLE I
DELAY TIME DEPENDING ON CURRENT DIRECTION

73
 III. RESULTS
The proposed system has been simulated using PLECS and SIMULINK to compare
losses between three different converter topologies shown in section III-A. Results from the
converter operating as an open loop v/f motor drive are presented to show the converter
operation. Finally results for a field oriented control for a closed loop motor drive are shown, the
results are taken from the experimental setup is shown in Fig.8.

Fig. 9. Power stage of the experimental two-level converter.

The power converters used for this experiment was built using ‘off the shelf’ two-level
converters. These two-level converters have R-C snubbers and common mode inductors. The
converter also has onboard defined dead-time that varies from 4 – 4.1 μs along with propagation
delay which varies from 0.1 to 0.2 μs, thus it is difficult to align the switching pulses accurately.
A power stage diagram of the experimental two-level converter is shown in Fig.9. The
parameters of the converter and machine are provided in table III. The control scheme was
implemented using a DSP/FPGA based control platform. The capacitor of the floating bridge
converter was chosen to have a sufficient ripple current rating for this experiment [3250 μF]. The
converter is integrated with a 1250 μF film capacitor which has a 2000 μF electrolytic capacitor
inparallel to minimize local ripple voltage.

74
A. Loss comparison
The losses of the proposed dual inverter system are compared in this section. Three
converter types were selected, a single sided three-level NPC, a dual two-level inverter with
equal DC link voltage ratio and the proposed dual inverter topology. All these three topologies
provide three-level output voltages and therefore it is important to compare them in terms of
losses. The losses were calculated for 12 kW drive used for experimental validation.
TABLE II DEVICE VOLTAGE RATING COMPARISON

The device losses were calculated using semiconductor device characteristics selected according
to required blocking voltage and current requirements of the topology as presented in table II.
The loss calculations were in terms of switching and conduction losses for the power converters
and in this comparison all other circuit losses were ignored. Fig. 10 shows the efficiency at full
load (12 KW) with varying switching frequency. It can be seen from the figure that, for this
particular load, dual inverter with equal dc link voltage ratio has better efficiency than the other
topologies. The three-level NPC has six extra clamping diodes, thus the losses are higher

75
 Fig. 10. Loss comparison in different power converter topologies.
The proposed floating bridge dual inverter has slightly better efficiency than three-level
NPC but is less efficient than dual inverter with equal dc link voltage. The proposed floating
bridge converter has two distinct switching patterns, one is for charging and the other is for
discharging, thus it is difficult to maintain the minimum switch involvement for switching
transitions. The reasons for using a dual inverter compared to single sided inverters are
redundancy and to modulate high frequency fundamental. The traditional dual inverter
topologies require isolated supply for both converters and thus increase the weight and size of
the system. The proposed floating bridge topology eliminates the need for isolated supplies thus
reduce the size and weight of the system.
B. Open loop v/f controlled IM drive
Results from the open loop v/f control of an open winding induction motor (one bridge
floating) drive are presented in this section. To achieve experimental results main converter was
supplied with a DC source of500 Volts. The floating converter was maintained at half of the
main DC link voltage and the switching frequency was set to 2 kHz. To demonstrate the steady
state operation a demand reference frequency of 25 Hz was used. The reason for choosing this
frequency is to maintain the v/f ratio for the machine which is rated at 690 Volts. To modulate
this voltage the main converter needs to have a DC link voltage of 970 Volts. This was not
achievable for the ‘off the shelf’ converters thus the rated speed was capped for this experiment.
The results for open loop v/f controlled drive are presented from Fig. 11 to Fig. 12. Fig. 11
shows the no load voltage, current and floating DC link voltage, it can be seen that the drive

76
charges the floating capacitor to required value and the converter achieves a multi-level output
voltage waveform. To validate the open loop performance of an IM drive a step load was applied
to the machine, shown in Fig. 12. It is evident from the figure that the capacitor can hold its
charge during a sudden change in load and the effect on the capacitor voltage is minimal.

Fig. 11. Open loop v/f control IM drive Top to bottom : floating capacitor
voltage, phase voltage Vaa’, and phase current I a.
The results presented in Fig. 11 were achieved using the modified switching pulses to
avoid unwanted voltage level during the dead-time interval. A magnification of the leg voltages
and the phase voltage of the converters are shown in Fig. 13 with no modification to the gating
pulses. It can be seen that the phase voltage is clamped to an unwanted voltage state for the
duration of dead-time interval. The leg voltages and phase voltage is plotted in Fig.14 after the
introduction of the modified switching pulses, showing that the leg voltages are changing state at
the same time and spike duration is shorter. To ensure that the modification of the pulses is
necessary for this topology the THD of load current and voltage was analyzed before and after
the modified pulses were applied to the converters.

77
 Fig. 12. Open loop v/f control IM drive Top to bottom : DC link voltages
when an external load is applied to the machine and three phase currents.

Fig. 13. Experimental results of voltages with traditional SVM pulses. Top to bottom: phase
voltage Vaa’, Main inverter leg voltageVan and floating inverter leg voltage Va’n’

78
 Fig. 14. Experimental results of voltages with modified gating pulses. Top to bottom: phase
voltage Vaa’, Main inverter leg voltageVan and floating inverter leg voltage Va’n’.
The results are shown in Fig. 15 and Fig. 16, the current and voltage THD has reduced
after the modified pulses were implemented. The difference between modified and nonmodified
pulses decreases with the increase of modulation index. Decrement of the THD differences are
due to utilizing less number of dead-time spike producing switching combinations. The phase
voltages also show oscillations after changing states; the oscillations can be seen Fig. 13 and
Fig.14.

Fig. 15. Current harmonic distortion.

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 Fig. 16. Voltage harmonic distortion.
The frequency of the oscillation is near 35 kHz and is due to the snubber capacitance
forming a resonant circuit with load inductance. C. IRFO based close loop control It is important
to demonstrate the performance of the proposed converter in a high performance field oriented
controlled motor drive as this is the target application. To achieve the results the main inverter
was supplied from a 500 Volt DC source. The aim of the floating capacitor voltage control was
to charge the floating bridge capacitor to half of the main DC link voltage. An indirect rotor flux
orientation based control was implemented to decouple the flux and torque producing current of
the induction machine. The floating capacitor was initially charged using reference d-axis ‘field
producing’ current. After the floating capacitor was charged the speed command was set. An
external load was applied by running the DC motor in torque control mode (braking) and results
were taken to see the effect on floating capacitor voltage.
A simplified block diagram of the field oriented control system is presented in Fig. 17.
The block ‘condition’ is the protection algorithm to monitor the floating capacitor voltage. The
algorithm compares the reference and actual floating capacitor voltage at the period of initial
charging transient, the controller will shut down the system if capacitor voltage is more than 15%
of reference voltage. The algorithm also protects the system after the speed command is set. The
controller will shut down the system if the capacitor voltage deviation is more than +- 15% of the
demand value. A flow chart for this algorithm is shown in Fig. 18. Initial charging of the
capacitor is presented in Fig. 19. To charge the capacitor initially, the machine was magnetized
first. The amplitude of the magnetizing current reference * d i may not be the rated value. After
magnetization process was done, a step reference voltage was applied to show the charging

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dynamics of floating capacitor. It can be seen from Fig. 19 that capacitor tracks the reference
value and reaches steady state within 1.5 seconds.

Fig. 17. Block diagram of vector control drive.

Fig. 18. Floating capacitor charging and protection algorithm

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Fig. 19. Initial charging of floating capacitor after machine is magnetized.
Top to bottom: floating capacitor voltage and reference, main dc link
voltage, d-axis current and d-axis current reference.

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 Fig. 20. FOC response of no load speed to a step reference speed
command. Top to bottom: rotor speed with reference, floating capacitor
and main dc link capacitor voltage , q-axis current and referece q-axis
current

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 Fig. 21. FOC response to a step load applied after the speed reaches
steadystate. Top to bottom: floating capacitor voltage, rotor speed,
electromagnetic torque, q-axis current and reference q-axis current.

The charging transient of the capacitor can be made faster with increased d-axis current.
It can be seen from the figure that the main DC link voltage fluctuates after the floating capacitor
voltage reaches the steady state value, this was due to the charging and discharging of floating
capacitor. In this period the rotor was atstand still and the machine was only drawing reactive
power to maintain a constant electromagnetic field. In this state, the floating capacitor can be
discharged by supplying power to the main supply. After the capacitor voltage reaches steady
state, a step demand speed reference of 700 RPM was applied. The response of the controller is
shown in Fig. 20. The q-axis current steps up immediately to provide maximum torque to
overcome the inertia and holds its value until speed reaches steady state. After the speed reaches

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steady state, a step demand reference load of 25 Nm was applied at t = 1.5seconds and back to
zero at t=4.1seconds. The reference torque current iq* is generated from the speed loop steps up
immediately to counter the load torque, as shown in Fig. 21.

Fig. 22. Phase voltage and current under FOC when machine is loaded.
Top to bottom: floating dc link voltage, phase voltage Vaa’, and phase
current Ia.
TABLE III
LOAD AND POWER CONVERTERS PARAMETERS

Power converter

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 IV. CONCLUSIONS
A motor drive using open stator winding induction machine and a dual bridge inverter
topology with a floating capacitor bridge has been analyzed and practical results are
demonstrated. The proposed system charges the floating bridge capacitor to a ratio of 2:1 with
respect to main bridge DC link voltage amplitude. This particular DC link voltage ratio allows
the converter to achieve multi-level output voltage waveform. The floating DC link voltage is
kept at a constant voltage by the means of charging and discharging the floating bridge capacitor.
This is achieved by selecting between the charging and discharging redundant states of the
converter. A modified space vector modulation strategy is adopted to eliminate the unwanted
voltage levels during the dead-time intervals, thus improved the waveform quality for this
floating bridge topology. An open loop v/f control drive was implemented to validate the
performance of the capacitor control. Finally, the dynamic performance of the proposed system
was evaluated using a close loop field oriented controlled motor drive, the results showed that
the proposed topology achieves multi-level output voltage waveforms. The results demonstrate
that this topology has potential for applications where size, weight, losses and redundancy are
important, for example in aerospace, EV or HEV motor drives.

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