Potential of Fava Bean as Future Protein Supply to

Partially Replace Meat Intake in the Human Diet

Salvatore Multari, Derek Stewart, and Wendy R. Russell

Abstract: Legumes have the potential to support global protein production by partially replacing meat and dairy
products in the human diet. This will not only help meeting the increasing worldwide demand for proteins, but could
contribute towards mitigating the threat imposed to the environment by current agricultural practices in higher-economy
countries (dependence on fossil fuel energy and harmful emissions). Among the legumes, fava bean (Vicia faba L.) is a
valuable crop. It is a rich source of proteins, fiber, and other non-nutrient compounds considered beneficial for health.
Although a popular source of proteins in many parts of the world, especially in the Middle East, Mediterranean area,
and South America, it has yet to be fully exploited in markets where meat is the predominant source of proteins in
the diet. Here, fava bean cultivation could not only make a valuable contribution towards protein self-sufficiency, but
could potentially play a role in alleviating the rise in chronic diseases. In addition, fava bean enables symbiotic fixation
of atmospheric nitrogen and can provide a more environmentally friendly substitution for industrial N-fertilizers with
associated improvements in resource efficiency and production costs. From both a food security and environmental
sustainability perspective, encouraging both production and consumption of fava bean is a timely and important target.
This review focuses on the potential of fava bean as a functional food ingredient to partially replace meat in the human
diet.
Keywords: animal feed, Fava bean, food ingredients, non-nutritional factors, protein isolates and concentrates, protein
source, Vicia faba

Introduction
Fava bean (Vicia faba L.) also referred to as broad bean, horse
bean, and field bean, is an early legume crop (Basheer-Salimia
and others 2014). There is little evidence of the origins of its
domestication, as its wild progenitor is still unknown. However,
the oldest seeds of fava bean were found in late 10th millennium
B.P. in north-west Syria (Tanno and Willcox 2006). Indeed, it
is undeniable that fava bean has a long history of numerous uses
as feed and food, likely because of its valuable content of both
protein and energy (Crépon and others 2010). However, in higher-
economy countries where meat is the major source of protein in
the diet, it is still underutilized, particularly as human food (Tijhuis
and others 2012). This could be because of plant-based proteins
being considered to be inferior to animal proteins, and, that single
sources of plant protein are not complete in terms of amino acid
composition (Saastamoinen and others 2013). There are also issues
concerning economic costs and functionality of these products as
food ingredients (Day 2013). Meat-based diets and, in particular,
those with high consumption of red and processed meat are not a
MS 20150063 Submitted 12/1/2015, Accepted 5/5/2015. Authors Multari and
Russell are with Natural Products Group, Rowett Inst. of Nutrition and Health,
Univ. of Aberdeen, Aberdeen, AB21 9SB, Scotland. The Author Stewart is with
The James Hutton Inst. Invergowrie, Dundee, DD2 5DA, Scotland. Direct inquiries
to author Russell (E-mail: W.Russell@abdn.ac.uk).
healthy or sustainable dietary choice (Chan and others 2011; Day
2013). Therefore, regular intake of plant-based foods, such as fava
bean, should be considered to partially replace animal proteins in
the diet (de Boer and Aiking 2011). In addition, fava bean could
help the feed industry to shift towards a more sustainable raw
material. Indeed, the intensive production of feed crops is a major
cause of soil degradation and crops such as fava bean, which have
the ability to fix nitrogen, can offer an effective strategy to tackle
the environmental damages of monoculture practices (Chapagain
and Riseman 2015).
Fava bean is a versatile crop. It belongs to the Fabaceae family and
has the ability to grow in various climatic zones (Singh and others
2013). Moreover, it can be utilized throughout the year, as it can
be consumed in both raw and processed forms. In the human diet
it is mostly the seed grain that is consumed, while the pods are
used as feed. However, as the pods also provide macro-, micro-
and non-nutrient phytochemicals, they have potential to be used
as a source of functional compounds (Mateos-Aparicio and oth-
ers 2010). The nutritional importance of fava bean is prominent
(approx. 250 g protein/kg seed; Macarulla and others 2001) and
it offers a valuable amount of energy: 320 kcal/100 g dry weight
(Ofuya and Akhidue 2006). The legume has also therapeutic po-
tential as it provides L-3,4-dihydroxyphenylalanine (L-DOPA),
the precursor to the neurotransmitter catecholamine and a drug
used to treat Parkinson’s disease (Ramya and Thaakur 2007). Fava
bean, its fractions, and its processing products (grains, hulls, and

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doi: 10.1111/1541-4337.12146 Vol. 14, 2015 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 511
Fava bean as future protein supply . . .
flours) also contain anti-nutritional factors such as saponins, pro-
tease inhibitors, α-galactosides, and phytic acid (Vidal-Valverde
and others 1998). However, even simple domestic processes such
as soaking and cooking are able to reduce their amounts up to
100%, thus limiting any potential detrimental consequences (Luo
and others 2009).
Fava bean is a rich source of fiber and non-nutrient secondary
metabolites shown to be beneficial to human health (Aune and
others 2011). Previous studies have demonstrated that high-protein
(predominantly animal-based) diets are likely to be harmful to gut
health in longer term, because of a reduction in cancer-protective
compounds and an increase in hazardous metabolites (Russell and
others 2011; Windey and others 2012). This is likely to be be-
cause of the lack of adequate fiber and associated phytochemicals,
and replacement of animal with plant protein may improve the
metabolite profile in the gut and, additionally, could exert hypo-
glycemic and hypotriacylglycemic activity (Fernández-Quintela
and others 1998). The protein content of pulses is about twice
that of cereals and several times that of root tubers (Wu Leung and
others 1968). Legume crops such as fava bean could be used in
combination with other plant-based foods to improve the quality
and quantity of the proteins provided in a meal. The intake of
these crops should be further encouraged in developing countries
where meat can be scarce, as it provides some essential amino
acids required for growth and repair of body tissues. In Egypt, the
percentage of cumulative arable land sown to fava bean has been
rarely more than 6% since 1965 (Jensen and others 2010), whereas
the production of fava bean seeds in tropical Africa and Asia is
negligible (Singh and others 2013). Likewise, in higher-economy
countries the yield produced has never exceeded 1% of arable
cropping plots within the last 50 years (Jensen and others 2010).
This review presents a clear use for fava bean in a food security
context, as it has a promising role in satisfying the global demand
for protein. In terms of food product development, its dietary and
environmental potential is expected to grow in the market within
the next few years, in much the same way as soybean has become
an economical and valuable agricultural commodity. Consumer
awareness of the potential health benefits and technical advances
in the production of functional protein fractions and isolates for
use in the food and drink industry is likely to stimulate both
manufacturing and consumption of fava bean products (Duranti
2006; Vioque and others 2012).
General Botanical Features
Fava bean is an annual plant that needs cool temperatures for
best development. Therefore, it is normally planted during spring
in the northern hemisphere and during winter in warm areas,
and it is able to grow at high altitudes (Duc 1997). Potentially,
it could be cultivated across a wide geographical area, even in
regions with a growing season shorter than 100 d, and thus it
is suitable for growing in the Boreal zone of Europe, Asia, and
North America (Stoddard and Hämäläinen 2011). Seeds can be
yellow, green, brown, black, or violet while flowers are white,
brown, or violet and approximately 2- to 3-cm long (Duc 1997).
Fava bean farming leads the environmental advantage of fix-
ing atmospheric nitrogen. It can fix more nitrogen than other
legume species under the same soil conditions and is used as a
break crop in intensive cereal-dominated crop rotation (Köpke and
Nemecek 2010). This happens through symbiosis with Rhizobium
bacteria and this reduces the dependence of nitrogen fertilizers
512 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 14, 2015
in agriculture. Nitrogen fixation of fava bean is strongly influ-
enced by tillage, being higher under no tillage than under normal
tillage (Giambalvo and others 2012). However, the formation of
a working symbiosis between the plant and the rhizobia is de-
pendent upon many environmental factors and farming methods
(Jensen and others 2010). Several studies have shown that fava
bean-cereal intercrops can provide profitable yields. It has been
demonstrated that when maize was intercropped with fava bean,
the total yield of both crops was markedly higher than those made
of maize or fava bean (Li and others 1999). Intercropping of wheat
or barley with fava bean at a density not lower than 37.5% of
fava bean increases total yield and reduces weeds (Agegnehu and
others 2006; 2008), while intercropping of strawberry with fava
bean gave a higher yield (25% to 35%) of marketable strawber-
ries and increased the height of fava bean plants (Karlidag and
Yildirim 2007).
Fava bean often deals with growth and development at extreme
temperatures due to more frequent and intense climate change.
Drought is the most harmful abiotic stress for the plant which is not
able to make osmotic adjustment to tolerate it. Deeper root growth
helps the plant in delaying the dehydration through leading the
uptake of water otherwise unavailable. Supplementary irrigation
is the only way to avoid a low yield (Khan and others 2010).
Although water shortage is a major constraint in the crop yield, fava
bean is still able to overcome to some extent the limitation of low
water availability, whether it is one of the main crops in countries
characterized by low rainfalls such as Ethiopia (Agegnehu and
others 2008), Sudan (Elsheikh and others 2000), Egypt (Jensen
and others 2010), and Palestine (Basheer-Salimia and others 2014).
However, fava bean is well capable of surviving in extreme winter
conditions. Physiologic mechanisms such as accumulation of free
proline and desaturation of membrane-bound fatty acids underlie
the frost tolerance of the plant (Link and others 2010), which
responds to adverse weather conditions by lowering oleic acid
in leaves by 3.24% and in stems by 1.77%, but also increasing
linolenic acid in leaves by 6.28% and in stems by 9.06% (Arbaoui
and Link 2008). Fava bean can be subjected to stress by other
living organisms, such as bacteria, viruses, fungi, insects, weeds.
When the environmental conditions are encouraging, the damage
can be extensive and lead to high yield losses. Botrytis fabae is the
fungus responsible of an important disease of fava bean named
“chocolate spot disease.” It is a necrotrophic agent whose spores
are dispersed by rain and wind until they settle on the leaves which
then acquire dark brown spots (Villegas-Fernández and others
2012). Uromycesviciae fabae causes fava bean rust, the major disease
of fava bean worldwide. The fungus penetrates through leaf and
forms a fusiform vesicle (Emeran and others 2005). Usually, fava
bean rust infection occurs in the second part of the season, when
pods are already filled and, therefore, yield losses are lower than
20%. When rust epidemics begin in the first part of the season,
the yield can be seriously damaged (Lapwood and others 1984).
Several methods have been tested to control fava bean diseases.
Many biocides are effective, but they are also expensive as they
increase the cost of the end product, and they are not beneficial
to the environment (Emeran and others 2011). Therefore, some
agricultural management practices (rotating fava bean with other
crops, balanced fertilization, weed control, employment of resistant
fava bean varieties, and so on) are recommended and must be
identified and improved in order to avoid pest diseases or at least
to minimize the effects (Stoddard and others 2010).
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Fava bean as future protein supply . . .

Table 1–Amino acid composition of legumin and vicilin fractions. and tryptophan but with the highest levels of leucine, proline,
and glutamic acid (El Fiel and others 2002). Glutelins are soluble
Amino acids V. faba 11S (%) V. faba 7S (%)
in sodium hydroxide and have, to some extent, an amino acid
Aspartic 10.60 11.60
Threonine 4.28 3.27 composition similar to that of prolamins, but with higher levels of
Serine 6.50 6.59 glycine, methionine, and histidine (El Fiel and others 2002). The
Glutamic 16.40 15.30 metabolism of albumins and glutelins was improved after cooking,
Glycine 7.40 5.00
Alanine 6.10 4.87 leading to in vitro protein digestibility of total proteins at about
Valine 4.91 4.90 90% (Abusin and others 2009). The proportion of the different
Cystine 0.80 0.31 protein fractions of fava bean has been extensively studied in the
Methionine 0.59 0.31
Iso-leucine 3.98 5.12 past and could vary according to cultivar, fertilization, season of
Leucine 7.84 9.21 growth, method of investigation, and other factors.
Tyrosine 2.61 2.59
Phenylalanine 3.56 5.20
Lysine 4.57 7.13 Main Non-nutritional Factors Found in Fava Bean
Histidine 2.44 1.95 In the raw state, fava bean contains particular molecules such as
Arginine 7.95 5.59
phytic acid, saponins, lectins, alkaloids, and others, which can exert
Values are amino acid residues as a percentage of the total number of residues present (Jackson and
others 1969). antinutritional functions reducing the digestibility of seeds and
leading to some pathologic conditions (Gupta 1987). Nevertheless,
many food processing methods, including domestic actions such
The Seed Proteins as soaking and cooking at high temperatures, markedly reduce
As for other plants belonging to the Leguminosae family, fava bean and often totally eliminate them from the legume (Luo and others
accumulates large amounts of proteins during seed development 2009).
(Duranti 2006). The major storage proteins in fava bean seeds are
globulins, which are found in membrane-bound organelles, called Saponins
protein bodies, while surviving desiccation during maturation and Saponins derive their name from the ability to form stable foams
undergoing hydrolysis at germination, provide ammonia and car- in water (Muzquiz and others 2012). Chemically, they consist of
bon skeletons to the developing seedlings (Duranti and Gius 1997). steroidal or triterpene aglycones linked to mono- or oligosac-
Globulins consist of 2 high-molecular-weight proteins; legumin charide moieties through ester and ether linkages (Rochfort and
and vicilin, respectively known as 11S and 7S and defined by ana- Panozzo 2007). In fava beans, like the other legumes, they have a
lytical centrifugation (Danielsson 1949). Globulins are insoluble in triterpene nucleus (Cheeke 1971). Saponins are found in a broad
water and soluble in salt solutions and dissociate into their subunits variety of plant foods, not only legumes but also other plants
by exposure to extreme pH values and to dissociating agents such such as potato and tomato (Nohara and others 2010). Soyasa-
as urea and detergents (Derbyshire and others 1976). Vicilin and pogenol B (0.02 mg/g), soyasaponin I (0.04 mg/g), soyasaponin
legumin are the major protein portions in fava bean, and over- βg (data not reported), and azukisaponin IV (data not reported)
all in other beans, followed by albumins, prolamins, and glutelins were identified in fava bean seeds (Ayet and others 1996; Ha
(Nikokyris and Kandylis 1997). and others 2014). Saponin content varies according to age, part
Globulins comprise about 69% to 78% of the total seed pro- of the plant considered, cultivar, conditions of irrigation, cli-
teins and are generally rich in aspartic and glutamic acids, leucine, mate, and type of soil (Shi and others 2004). In the past, the
and arginine (El Fiel and others 2002), although they may have potential beneficial applications of saponins have been largely
some variability in the amino acid sequence and general struc- overlooked because of the negative influence that their inges-
ture. V. faba 11S globulins are hexameric proteins with a molec- tion exerted on animal performances. In fact, saponins have pro-
ular weight of about 340 kDa, whereas V. faba 7S globulins are nounced hemolytic effects (Cheeke 1971), depress egg production
trimeric proteins of about 158 kDa (Wright and Boulter 1973). (Heywang and others 1959), produce bloat symptoms in sheep
Vicilin is formed in the developing seed before legumin (Graham (Lindahl and others 1957), affect smooth muscle activity, inhibit
and Gunning 1970), however legumin is synthesized at a faster the activity of respiratory and digestive enzymes (Ishaaya and Birk
rate than vicilin and in the mature seed it predominates (Millerd 1965; Jackson and Shaw 1959), and at high concentrations can
1975). In fact, from the quantitative point of view, legumin is impart a bitter and astringent taste (Liener 1994). Because of these
more abundant than vicilin, comprising about 40% to 45% of the properties they have not hitherto been exploited for food pur-
total protein fraction, whereas vicilin comprises about 20% to 25% poses, but evidences have suggested beneficial effects on human
(Gueguen and Cerletti 1994). Both protein fractions have similar health. These include hypocholesterolemic, immunostimulatory,
amino acid composition (Table 1). Glutamic and aspartic acids are and anticarinogenic effects and, therefore, they are proposed to
the prevalent residues, whereas the concentrations of cysteine and decrease the risk of cardiovascular diseases and obesity (Potter and
methionine residues are paltry (Jackson and others 1969). The in others 1979). Cooking and processing methods do not completely
vivo digestibility of fava bean–isolated globulins in the rat small destroy saponins but can reduce their content in some fava bean
intestine has been demonstrated to be well over 90% (Rubio and varieties. Soaking reduces the amount of saponins by 24% to 81%
others 1995). and germination of the seeds for 24 h lowers the concentration
However, besides globulins, fava bean, as with other legume by approximately 30%, and the longer the period of germination,
seeds, contains additional classes of proteins that are relevant to the the higher the reduction in saponins (Sharma and Sehgal 1992;
nutritional quality of the seed. Albumins are biologically active Rochfort and Panozzo 2007).
water-soluble proteins, with a higher amount of methionine
and cysteine compared to globulins (El Fiel and others 2002), Lectins
involved in cotyledonary cell metabolism (Duranti and Gius Lectins are substances widely distributed in the plant kingdom,
1997). Prolamins are alcohol-soluble proteins devoid of lysine found in edible plants such as legumes, potato, and wheat germ

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Vol. 14, 2015 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 513
Fava bean as future protein supply . . .
(Liener 1974). They are also known as hemagglutinins or phy-
toagglutinins as they agglutinate the red blood cells (Liener 1962).
Lectins are proteins and glycoproteins containing 4% to 10% of
carbohydrates, and constitute about 2% to 10% of the total protein
fraction in most legume seeds (Gupta 1987). They reversibly bind
to specific sugars and glycoproteins on the surface of cells in the
gut wall, thereby interfering with nutrient breakdown and absorp-
tion (De Mejı́a and Prisecaru 2005). Studies have suggested that
lectins affect the immune response against ovalbumin and may pro-
mote the development of food allergy (Campos-Vega and others
2010). However, in preclinical studies with mice, they have shown
a marked anticarcinogenic effect (Pryme and others 1998). Fava
bean contains a lectin of particular interest named favin. It is com-
posed of 2 protein chains (α and β chains) containing a covalently
linked carbohydrate on the β chain (Hopp and others 1982). It
binds to glucose- and mannose-like sugars and it is mitogenic for
mouse splenic lymphocytes (Wang and others 1974). Favin agglu-
tinates human, mouse, rat, rabbit, and guinea pig erythrocytes but
not sheep erythrocytes (Allen and others 1978). In fava beans, ger-
mination is an effective method to significantly lower the lectin
levels, although they have still been detected after 48 h of ger-
mination (Sharma and Sehgal 1992). Lectins are thermosensitive
and autoclaving of dehulled seeds for 25 min will eliminate them
completely (Sharma and Sehgal 1992). Therefore, lectins do not
practically influence the nutritive properties of the food products
in which they are found as they hardly survive food processing.
Phytic acid
Phytic acid is the hexaphosphoric acid ester of the hexahy-
dric cyclic alcohol meso-inositol and it is the main storage form
of phosphorus (60% to 90%) in various plant tissues, where it
is formed during seed maturation (Kumar and others 2010). In
legumes, phytates are located in the protein bodies in the en-
dosperm (Campos-Vega and others 2010). Phytic acid is often
considered an antinutrient because of its strong mineral, protein,
and starch binding properties that decrease the digestibility of nu-
trients. Although legumes are a dietary source of several minerals
and proteins, their bioavailability is lowered by the chelating action
of phytates. Excessive levels of phytic acid in the diet could lead to
a deficiency of calcium, iron, and especially zinc for which phytic
acid has a strong affinity, resulting from poor or insufficient ab-
sorption from the gastrointestinal tract (Zhou and Erdman 1995).
However, phytates exert some beneficial effects, including reduced
bioavailability of toxic heavy metals present in the diet such as cad-
mium and lead (Gupta 1987; Campos-Vega and others 2010), and
antioxidant activity by chelation of iron and copper (Minihane
and Rimbach 2002). Also, the interaction between phytic acid
with protein causes the formation of insoluble complexes, which
are marginally susceptible to enzymatic degradation and impair
protein bioavailability (Carnovale and others 1988).
Phytic acid content of fava bean seeds varies among varieties;
however, it accounts for approximately 1% of seed dry weight (Afi-
nah and others 2010). It is noteworthy that the content of phytic
acid in fava bean is markedly reduced through numerous process-
ing methods, and therefore appreciable amounts of phytic acid
may only be present in raw seeds (Elsheikh and others 2000). Low
doses of gamma-radiation, significantly reduce phytic acid content
(Osman and others 2014), whereas domestic processing methods
have more variable effects. Soaking and dehulling slightly reduce
the phytate content, cooking of soaked seeds causes a dramatic
loss in phytates, but it is the germination process that leads to the
most marked reduction of phytates (up to almost 70%) (Sharma
514 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 14, 2015
and Sehgal 1992). Recently, genetic modification techniques were
developed efficiently to reduce phytic acid content of some crops
(Gupta and others 2015).
Tannins
Tannins are phytochemicals ubiquitous to a variety of plant-
based foods including legumes, fruits, cereals, wine, tea, and
cocoa (Santos-Buelga and Scalbert 2000). They are classified in
2 groups; hydrolyzable tannins are esters of phenolic acids, such
as gallic or ellagic acids, and a polyol, usually glucose, whereas
condensed tannins (proanthocyanidins) are polymers of flavan-3-
ol units (Kosińska and others 2011). Tannins are water-soluble
polyphenols that differ from other natural phenolic compounds
for their ability to precipitate proteins such as gelatin and collagen
from solutions (Scalbert 1991). Protein–tannin interactions have
been widely studied and protein precipitation is a well-known
property of tannins, in particular their capacity to precipitate sali-
vary proteins in the oral cavity, which is responsible of the typ-
ical astringent character of high-tannin food (Santos-Buelga and
Scalbert 2000). The biological properties of tannins include acting
as agents inducing nucleosome-sized DNA fragmentation, which
as a biochemical hallmark of apoptosis, may be involved in the
prevention of some forms of cancer (Sakagami and others 1995).
Moreover, they protect against LDL-oxidation and inhibit platelet
aggregation and have the potential to prevent cardiovascular dis-
eases (Tebib and others 1994). Tannin-containing plants have his-
torically been used in folk medicine to treat diarrhea (Loeb and
others 1989).
Tannins are one of the main antinutritional factors found in fava
beans. Their content largely varies among conventional genotypes.
Most of the conventional fava beans grown in Europe have a mean
seed tannin content of 5 to 10 g/kg of dry matter (Vilariño and
others 2009). However, the data refers to condensed tannins as
they are the predominant phenolic compounds present in fava
beans (Jezierny and others 2010). As they are mainly located in
the seed hulls (Helsper and others 1993), the process of dehulling
leads to a drastic reduction. Gamma-irradiation and/or cooking
treatments cause significant reduction of tannin content (Osman
and others 2014). Tannins are generally considered antinutrients
because they reduce the bioavailability of proteins and minerals.
They negatively affect the digestibility of proteins present in the
food matrix (Papadopoulou and Frazier 2004). They have high
affinity and form insoluble complexes with proline-rich proteins
such as collagen, gelatin, salivary proteins, casein, and digestive
enzymes (Hagerman and Butler 1980; Baxter and others 1997).
Their detrimental effects on digestion are dose dependent and
therefore, directly proportional to the concentration. In animal
studies with rats, they have shown to significantly increase en-
dogenous fecal N at doses of 2% of the diet (Vallet and others
1994).
Tannin molecules act as chelating agents and form stable com-
plexes with several metal ions, particularly iron (Marmolle and
others 1997), leading to a reduction of their gastrointestinal
absorption and therefore, causing some nutritional deficiencies
(McDonald and others 1996; Mila and others 1996). At the same
time, the capacity to form precipitates with proteins and met-
als is prerequisite to explain their role in plant protection against
pathogens and rots because they deprive the attacking organisms
from essential metal ions and proteins (Mila and others 1996).
Tannin-free fava bean species are available and easy to obtain by
breeding selection. The lack of tannins is a genetic trait which
can be selected since it is associated with the white color of the
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Fava bean as future protein supply . . .

flower. The nutritional quality of these cultivars is enhanced, even past, many studies carried out for complete removal of vicine and
though they turn out to be more sensitive to biotic stress as tannins convicine have been effective only under conditions that made the
counteract the growth of pathogens (Cabrera and Martin 1989). product unpalatable. Therefore, research focused on the selective
enzymatic destruction of the 2 β-glucosides is a more interesting
Vicine and convicine approach. Addition of a suitable source of β-glucosidase, such as
Vicine and convicine are natural pyrimidine glucosides found almond, during food preparation (under appropriate time, tem-
in the fava bean plant and are likely to be involved in plant de- perature, and pH conditions), greatly reduces the concentration
fense mechanisms against pathogens (Griffiths and Ramsay 1996). of pyrimidine glycosides, improving the organoleptic qualities of
Although they are distributed throughout the whole plant, they the product. The products of hydrolysis (divicine and isouramile)
are mainly located in the seeds where they reach a concentration decompose rapidly to inactive compounds. An important consid-
of about 5 mg and 2 mg/g dry weight for vicine and convicine, eration is that the source of the enzyme must be finely ground so as
respectively (Arbid and Marquardt 1985). As with many phyto- to facilitate diffusion of the enzyme into the fava bean preparation
chemicals, their distribution and concentration varies according to (Arbid and Marquardt 1985).
cultivar, genotype, individual part of the plant examined, stage of Large variations in vicine and convicine contents are observed
maturation, and so on. In germinated seeds, the concentrations of among different fava bean cultivars and genotypes, with low levels
vicine and convicine are very low, around 0.02 and 0.005 µmol, of pyrimidine glycosides in varieties already present on the market
respectively, during the first 2 weeks of sprouting (Brown and (Hussein and others 1986). From an agronomic perspective, vicine
Roberts 1972). Seeds undergo variation in vicine concentration and convicine are part of plant mechanisms of resistance toward
during pod development. Very young seeds from pods, 1- to 2-cm some phytopathogenic fungi and exerts natural fungicide activity
long, contain about 1140 mg of vicine/100 g of dry tissue; the higher than some common insecticides (Pavlik and others 2002).
value rises to about 2460 mg when pods are 5- to 6-cm long and Vicine is also the main mortality factor for Callosobruchus maculatus
drops to about 900 mg at full maturity, indicating that vicine and larvae and for other phytophagous pests (Desroches and others
convicine concentrations decrease with seed maturation (Jamalian 1995). Therefore, selected seeds with low pyrimidine glycosides
and Bassiri 1978). content are susceptible to insect attack impacting on crop yield.
The intake of raw or cooked fava beans, in sensitive subjects, in- The presence of vicine and convicine has limited the potential of
duces favism, a disease characterized by hemolytic anemia (Liener fava bean as both food and feed (Muduuli and others 1982). To
1970). Favism is endemic in Middle East and Mediterranean basin date, cultivars free of vicine and convicine have not been devel-
and overall has seasonal distribution with peak incidence of cases oped and cooking and processing methods can only lower their
during the harvest season (Belsey 1973). In vivo, oxygen reacts amounts. In this regard, further technological developments are
with the pyrimidine glucosides leading to the formation of di- required to expand the fava bean market value.
vicine and isouramil, the oxidized forms of vicine and convicine,
respectively. In animals, reduced glutathione (GSH) reduces the
oxidized forms of pyrimidines, but, at the same time, it under- L-DOPA
goes oxidation to GSSG (Chevion and others 1982). Briefly, as Fava bean is a major natural source of free L-DOPA, and it is the
subjects deficient in glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase are not source from which the drug L-DOPA is produced commercially
able to cope with this altered mechanism of oxidoreduction and, (Beutler 1970; Shetty and others 2001). L-DOPA is produced
due to the limited NADPH supplies, they undergo red blood cell when tyrosine enters into the neuron through the action of the
hemolysis. Therefore, divicine and isouramil have been recognized enzyme tyrosine hydroxylase, then it is enzymatically converted
as the main active factors responsible for favism (D’Aquino and into dopamine (Elsworth and Roth 1997). L-DOPA is a nonpro-
others 1983). They are produced through cleavage from their re- tein amino acid (Cardador-Martı́nez and others 2012), which has
spective glucosides, in the large intestine and cecum, by means been identified as a useful drug for improving the motor activity
of β-glucosidases. Afterwards, they are absorbed and released into of patients with Parkinson’s disease (Rabey and others 1992). Syn-
the bloodstream, causing lethal cellular damages to erythrocytes thetic L-DOPA is associated with a variety of side effects, which
(Yannai and Marquardt 1985). limit its efficacy (Liu and others 2000). Patients with Parkinson’s
Vicine and convicine were completely removed from whole disease have described an amelioration of the motor symptoms
seeds of fava beans by continuous flow soaking in tap water for after ingestion of cooked fava bean seedlings and pods, and, in
72 h at 50 °C, 60 h at 55 °C, or 48 h at 60 °C with a flow rate of fact, the efficacy of the natural L-DOPA was found to be similar
0.5 mL/min in all cases (Jamalian and Ghorbani 2005). However, to the synthetic one (Apaydin and others 2000). This might also
acetic acid appears to enhance the permeability of vicine and con- be attributable to other products that are found in fava beans, such
vicine through the hulls (Allah and others 1988). Also, almost all of as C-DOPA (Mohseni and Golshani 2013).
the glucoside content can be removed from fava bean flour by soak- However, the content and distribution of L-DOPA in fava bean
ing in acid, alkaline, or water (Jamalian 1999). Moreover, as vicine depends on genetic and environmental factors, with fresh green
and convicine are partially thermolabile, cooking techniques such pods containing more than 6.5% (w/w), whereas in dry cotyledons
as roasting and boiling reduce the content of these pyrimidine gly- and seed coats its percentage is less than 0.06% (w/w; Burbano and
cosides in fava bean seeds, with convicine glycoside being the most others 1995). Consequently, the intake of cooked dry seeds of fava
heat sensitive (Cardador-Martı́nez and others 2012). Boiling was bean may not provide any clinical benefits in patients affected by
found to be more effective than roasting, as their solubility in wa- Parkinson’s disease. In fact, L-DOPA seems to be thermosensitive,
ter renders them more heat-labile (Cardador-Martı́nez and others as it has not been detected in cotyledons after roasting and boiling
2012). Frying is another effective method to reduce the amounts (Cardador-Martı́nez and others 2012). Because of the high content
of vicine and convicine; this could explain why their content in of L-DOPA in fresh green pods, fava bean might play a therapeutic
falafels, fried fava bean cakes popular in the Middle East, is re- role in the treatment of Parkinson’s disease. As L-DOPA alone has
duced by approximately 40% (Hussein and others 1986). In the little or no effect on red cell GSH (Beutler 1970), the consumption

C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists®

Vol. 14, 2015 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 515
Fava bean as future protein supply . . .

of raw fava bean pods could be considered safe, because vicine and the emulsion stability increases with the hydrophobic character
convicine are mainly found within the seeds. of the proteins (Cepeda and others 1998). As the foaming ability
of protein isolates from fava beans depends closely on the manner
Functional Properties of Fava Bean Protein Isolates of isolation and treatment of isolates, Schwenke and others (1983)
and Concentrates reported that highly hydrophilic succinylated fava bean isolates
The production of protein isolates and concentrates is an im- show excellent foaming properties in an unheated state, whereas
portant method to improve the nutritive value of legumes; as well heat denaturation is required to maximize the foaming capacity
as providing a sustainable way to re-evaluate underutilized crops of unmodified isolates. Karaca and others (2011) reported, for
and by-products (Pastor-Cavada and others 2010). Application of isolates obtained through isoelectric precipitation, an emulsify-
this technology to fava bean, which is rich in protein, but also ing capacity with flaxseed oil of about 513 g oil/g of protein
contains bioactive non- and antinutrients, must be investigated in and creaming stability of 98.74%, whereas for isolates obtained
order to produce novel functional food ingredients and nutritional through salt extraction an emulsion capacity of about 487 g oil/g
supplements (Arogundade and others 2006). Composition and protein and an absence of any creaming stability. Makri and others
functional properties of fava bean isolates depend on methods (2006) investigated the gelation of legume proteins in polysaccha-
and conditions of isolation, but also on intrinsic factors (size, ride systems, and fava bean isolates lead the formation of gels with
shape, amino acid composition, and conformation of proteins), low fracturability value, the structure of which is reinforced after
botanical variety of the crop, and environmental factors such 10 d of aging. Tsoukala and others (2006) examined the utility of
as interaction with other macromolecules. In this regard, it is enzymatic modifications (through induced autolysis) on legume
noteworthy that the isolation of fava bean proteins leads to the proteins, and even though the modified products have apparently
production of isolates virtually free of the glucosides; vicine and better emulsification functionality because of the lower molecular
convicine (Vioque and others 2012). mass, they lead to less stable systems through time. Muschiolik
Arogundade and others (2006) investigated the protein ex- and others (1987) indicated that acetylated fava bean protein iso-
tractability in various fava bean products. The maximal extractabil- lates have a higher emulsifying activity than unmodified proteins.
ity was found to be 62% to 71% at alkaline pH 10 to 12. This The data were confirmed by Krause and others (1996), which ex-
was for both samples with and without hulls and demonstrated plain the improved emulsifying properties of acetylated legumins
that the hull does not impair protein extractability. Moreover, as the result of the protein unfolding and, consequently, as a higher
the study demonstrated that at alkaline pH, ionic strength, and number of hydrophobic contacts.
protein solubility are inversely proportional, whereas the capac- Cai and others (2002) determined the relationship between tex-
ity to form protein-stabilized foam is highest (97%) at pH 12. tural property of legume curds and constituents of their proteins,
Fernández-Quintela and others (1997) prepared protein isolates claiming that the higher the 11S fraction in globulins, the greater
through lyophilization following an isoelectric point precipitation the hardness, springiness, and cohesiveness of curds. This explains
procedure. The preparation of isolates was performed in order why soybeans and fava beans produce curd with better texture than
to obtain products with some improved functional characteristics lentils, smooth peas, and mung beans, because of a higher propor-
and reduced levels of antinutrients. Protein isolates, from manu- tion of 11S proteins. Makri and others (2005) used unmodified
ally dehulled seeds, shown maximal solubility when obtained at protein isolates as emulsifiers and stabilizers in admixture with
pH 9.0, and high capacity of water and oil absorption (1.8 and polysaccharides. The presence of polysaccharides has been shown
1.6 g/g protein, respectively). The foam expansion was 15% and to increase the emulsion and foam stability of fava bean isolates.
foam stability was 77%. The gelation capacity was 14% (w/w) and, Among the various protein fractions, globulins contribute most to
according to Hsu and others (1982), was higher after seed germi- the texture of food products in which they are added as functional
nation. Although germination leads to marked changes in some ingredient. Legumin and vicilin exert different functional prop-
functional properties of protein isolates, the variability could also erties: vicilin proteins produce more stable foams and emulsions,
be attributed to some minor components because protein isolates whereas legumin has greater foam expansion and gelling capacity
exhibit only slight modification on gel electrophoresis after seed (Patterson and others 2010). However, the functional properties
germination (Hsu and others 1982). of legume isolates can only be fully exploited when the process
Otegui and others (1997) devoted special attention to manu- of isolation avoids irreversible denaturation and aggregation of the
facturing fava bean protein concentrates for potential industrial proteins (Schwenke 2001).
uses. The seed concentrates were obtained through spray-drying All the studies described above show that fava bean protein
technology, and the functional properties were similar to those isolates and concentrates have been widely studied, and that their
of the lyophilized concentrates: highest solubility at pH value structural and functional properties are strongly influenced by their
of 9.0, water absorption 1.98 g/g of protein; gelation 12.5%, methods of preparation. Fava bean protein isolates and concen-
foam expansion 15%, and foam stability 79%. Cepeda and others trates are gaining growing interest from the food industry because,
(1998) compared the functional properties of fava bean protein although produced at a lower cost than animal protein ingredients,
concentrates when prepared by spray drying and freeze-drying. they have positive effects on the structure and stability of many
The data were found to be similar to those described previously processed foods to which they are added.
(solubility less than 50%), but further information was provided
regarding the functional properties of fava bean concentrates. The Fava Bean Proteins as Functional Food Ingredients
spray-drying method appeared less damaging than freeze-drying, Several studies have focused on the partial substitution of tra-
with 100% of the original protein content being recovered com- ditional food ingredients by materials derived from fava bean.
pared to a denaturation level of 10% in freeze-dried concentrates. However, incorporating the legume into products that are ac-
Concerning emulsion capacity, as the stability of the emulsions ceptable to consumers is still a challenge for the food industry.
formed with both dried powders was high, it can be deduced that According to previous research, the use of pulse flours seems to
the studied powders have a high hydrophobic character, because be a convenient method for replacement of wheat flour in the

516 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 14, 2015 C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists®


Fava bean as future protein supply . . .
preparation of wheat-based food systems such as bakery products
and pasta (Wood 2009; Borsuk and others 2012). This prospect
is particularly promising for countries in which fava bean is an
indigenous crop, and where wheat is not produced locally, but still
an important part of the diet. Wood (2009) replaced wheat flour
with legume flour to produce fortified pasta, but the replacement
of more than 30% of the wheat flour resulted in a sticky dough,
which was hard to extrude. Consequently, further studies with
cereal products limited the enrichment with legume flour to less
than 30%. Giménez and others (2012) substituted semolina (wheat
middlings of T. durum wheat flour) with fava bean flour in order
to make fortified spaghetti. The rate of protein enrichment was
found to be approximately 2.25% for every 10% of fava bean flour.
The enhanced flour presented higher water absorption and lower
dough development compared to the wheat-based product. The
sensory characteristics were acceptable and with no differences
after lipoxygenase inactivation, concluding that the enzyme does
not affect the sensory attributes of the final product. The data
regarding the quality of this pasta-like product are confirmed by a
more recent study, from the same authors, during which corn/fava
bean spaghetti pasta was produced in a 70:30 ratio (Gimenez and
others 2013). The partial replacement of corn with 30% of fava
bean flour enriched the protein content by about 15%. The study
led to an optimization of the extrusion cooking process of en-
hanced pasta-like products which, at a temperature of 100 °C and
a moisture content of 28%, is considered appropriate to obtain
adequate physicochemical and textural end-products.
Petitot and others (2010a) inferred that to further improve the
production of fava bean fortified pasta, the mixing speed during
the mixing process must be 120 rpm in order to reduce parti-
cle agglomeration and dough lumps. Moreover, it was observed
that some color alterations of fortified pasta (lower brightness
and increased redness) were probably because of the ash content
(about 4%; White 1966) of the legume and to the development of
Maillard reaction products during the high-temperature drying
process. An opposite outcome was proposed in a study on baking
properties of fortified bread, conducted by Hsu and others (1982),
in which the replacement of wheat flour with 8% legume proteins,
also from fava bean, led to a pale crust color, which the author
attributed to the low availability of reducing sugars necessary for
the Maillard reaction.
The application of very high temperatures (90 °C) during the
drying process of fava bean-fortified pasta at low moisture con-
tent markedly slowed down the in vitro digestibility of the starch,
probably because of strengthening of the pasta protein network,
which protected starch from enzymatic cleavages (Petitot and
Micard 2010). This feature could be exploited in vivo to par-
tially modify the chemical composition of pasta, thus improving
the nutritional characteristics of the product through lowering
the glycemic index. Indeed, high-drying temperatures are critical
in reducing starch digestibility of pasta-like products, even if the
fortification of wheat pasta with fava bean did not significantly
lower the in vitro starch digestibility of the product when dried at
55 °C, apparently the improvement of the nutritional composi-
tion of pasta was mainly due to fiber and proteins provided by fava
bean (Petitot and others 2010b). Chillo and others (2008) demon-
strated that wholemeal amaranthus spaghetti enriched with 10.7%
fava bean flour had comparable quality to that of spaghetti made
with predominantly durum semolina, as the pasta-like product
showed good cooking performance and sensory properties.
Although the production of fava bean flour represents, without
doubt, a simple vehicle to improve the nutritional value of cereal
C 2015 Institute of Food Technologists®
Vol. 14, 2015 r Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety 517
products, the potential uses of fava bean as a non-conventional
protein source in the food industry is in its infancy. As inactivation
of food pathogens in perishable food is a primary concern for
the food industry (Vachon and others 2002), Sitohy and Osman
(2011) proved the effectiveness of fava bean native and esterified
proteins as antibacterial agents in the preservation of raw milk and
as enhancers of the shelf life of pasteurized milk. Moreover, fava
bean could also have potential in the manufacture of gluten-free
food considering its versatility in being processed as pasta, bread,
snacks, and so on. Novel pulse-based gluten-free products have
already been developed by the food industry and have exhib-
ited organoleptic characteristics similar to traditional wheat-based
products (Han and 2010). Furthermore, legume proteins have been
introduced in meat products as binders and extenders in order to
decrease the fat content and to enhance the nutritional value and
the sensory properties of meat-based foods at the same time (Ser-
daroğlu and others 2005). Therefore, fava beans could positively
be considered as an innovative food and food ingredients, with
good potential to replace even traditional staple foods in our diet
and to make our food choices “healthier” and more sustainable.
Numerous and Valuable Uses of Fava Bean as Feed
Although plant-based foods are generally considered an inferior
source of protein when compared with meat, fava bean has always
been appreciated for its overall high protein content and addi-
tional nutritional value. Thus, the various parts of the plant have
been widely used as feed in order to improve animal performance.
Indeed, farm animals like legume forage as its voluntary intake
is 10% to 15% higher than that of grasses of similar digestibility
(Lüscher and others 2014). Also, the environmental inefficiency
of some conventional feeds have driven efforts towards the use
of alternative nutrient dense crops such as fava bean to make our
food chain more sustainable. As the global population is expected
to grow quickly in the near future, along with the demand of
meat and animal products, we need to address the issue of find-
ing more resources to feed livestock. Fava bean is also a valuable
source of protein to meet the nutritional requirements of animals
without impairing their performance. However, the effects of a
fava bean–based diet have often been controversial. Fruhbeck and
others (1999) pointed out that a diet with fava beans as the only
source of protein alters muscle mass growth and liver weight in
growing rats. In fact, the antinutritional factors discussed earlier,
such as tannins, phytates, saponins, and trypsin inhibitors, when
consumed in large amounts could impair animal performance in-
cluding growth, milk and egg production, and decreasing protein
and energy bioavailability. However, fava bean is still considered a
valuable protein source for animal feed and many studies have been
conducted to explore this potential. Trials on broilers fed with pel-
leted fava bean up to 250 g/kg have shown that the legume is a
successful alternative protein source in feed as the heat generated
during the pelleting process destroys some of the antinutritional
factors without leading to any negative effect in bird performance
(Gous 2011). This outcome is indirectly confirmed by an older
study conducted on broiler chicks fed with tannin-rich fava bean
hulls (150 to 300 g hulls/kg of feed) not processed through heat,
which demonstrated that high dietary concentrations of tannins
reduced the activities of digesta lipase and α-amylase (Longstaff
and McNab 1991). Similarly, fava bean fails to cover the nutri-
tional requirements of growing chickens in the first rearing period
(Dal Bosco and others 2013).
Fava beans have also been used to feed lactating sows. Etienne
and others (1975) concluded that fava bean is satisfactory as the
Fava bean as future protein supply . . .
sole supplementary source of proteins in the diet of lactating sows,
provided that the diet is supplemented with methionine, so that
fava bean does not impair quantity and quality of the milk pro-
duced by the animal. In contrast, when fava bean hulls (200 g
hull/kg of feed) with high tannin content are incorporated in the
diet of pigs, the condensed tannins interact with both dietary and
endogenous proteins in the digestive tract, reducing the digestibil-
ity of dietary proteins and increasing the excretion of endogenous
proteins (Jansman and others 1995). Concerning the utilization of
fava beans in feeding growing pigs, the data are discordant. Ac-
cording to Brand and others (1995), fava bean can be used at levels
up to 20% as feed, without any decrease in the animal perfor-
mances, whereas according to Castell (1976) the replacement of
soy flour with fava bean, as the major protein source in the feed,
causes a linear reduction of the growth rate. However, recent stud-
ies, aiming to decrease the reliance on soybean meal in pig diet,
offer interesting causes for reflection. Fava bean as an alternative
rich protein feed reduces the indole concentration in the back fat
of both grower and finisher pigs (Smith and others 2013) and leads
to a high amount of phytoestrogens in the plasma and muscle of
the animals (Gatta and others 2013).
Several trials have been performed to examine the effect of re-
placement of soybean meal with fava bean as a protein source in
the diet of dairy cattle. Brunschwig and Lamy (2002) showed that
the use of 30% of ground fava bean in the feed of dairy cows
does not alter feed consumption, milk production (higher than
30 kg per cow per day), or milk composition (crude protein or
lipid). Recently, it was concluded that the various cultivars of fava
bean could differently affect performance and metabolism of dairy
cattle, although even fava bean cultivars with a high content of
antinutritional factors can be used up to 20% in the feed without
any alteration of cow metabolism and performance (daily milk
yield and protein and lactose production; Melicharová and oth-
ers 2009). Noteworthy is that when young Mediterranean bulls
were fed with fava bean concentrate-enriched feed they produced
meat with a more favorable lipid profile than when fed with soy
concentrate-enriched feed, as the meat was lower in fat percent-
age, cholesterol, and total saturated fatty acid content (Calabrò and
others 2014).
Unlike poultry and pigs, which are sensitive to antinutritional
factors, rabbits can use fava bean efficiently without pretreatment,
and therefore, fava bean could virtually replace all the soybean meal
used for their feeding (Berchiche and others 1995). Also, in the
aquaculture industry, the demand for alternative protein sources
has increased and for this reason, fava bean has been considered as a
potential feed for fish species such as Nile tilapia (Azaza and others
2009) and rainbow trout (Ouraji and others 2013). According
to the outcomes of these studies, fish can tolerate about 30% of
fava bean meal in their diet. It is clear then that fava bean has
a valuable potential as animal feed, particularly as an alternative
to soybean meal (Laudadio and otehrs 2011). However, further
improvements to be obtained through processing methods, such
as heat treatment, are necessary to expand the full potential of the
crop (Yu and others 2001).
Conclusion
Alternative protein sources are required to meet the nutritional
requirements of the growing world population. These proteins
will need to be produced in a sustainable manner, with little
detrimental effect on the environment and be both economically
and agriculturally advantageous. In addition, the food produced
should be beneficial to combat the worldwide increase in chronic
518 Comprehensive Reviews in Food Science and Food Safety r Vol. 14, 2015
disorders (diabetes, cardiovascular disease, obesity, and cancer) and
acceptable to both the food industry and consumers. Research on
the nutritional and agronomic properties of legumes, along with
advances in food processing and production, suggest that fava bean
will become an important agricultural commodity. Several agro-
nomic features of fava bean, including symbiotic nitrogen fixation,
may help address future agricultural challenges. Nutritionally, the
high fiber and the richness and diversity of bioactive compounds
point to fava bean as having a potential role in maintaining human
health and disease prevention. It is clear that, where appropriate,
fava bean could replace soy proteins in both feed and food prod-
ucts, as well as partially replacing meat and meat-based products
in the human diet. It is now important that research and tech-
nological innovation focuses on producing fava bean products of
optimum nutritional value and consumer acceptability.
Acknowledgments
This work was funded by the Scottish Government Food, Land
and People programme.
Authors’ Contributions
S. Multari gave substantial contributions to the conception and
design of this review. D. Stewart and W.R. Russell critically revised
the work and approved the final version for publication.
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