Complex Shape Design

Introduction
Complex shapes are often found in molded consumer products and parts created
as castings. These parts have specific requirements, such as complicated draft
surfaces,
smooth surface continuity between part faces, and surfaces that are based on
splines rather than line and arc profiles. Achieving complex shape design
successfully requires you to have a good understanding of all part modeling
tools, and how to select the proper tools to complete a robust design. As you
model a complex part, you discover how the individual features interact. Your
initial approach may expose unforeseen difficulties or suggest that another
workflow is more appropriate. You should not hesitate to restart the model if you
can identify a different workflow to create a more robust design.

Growing demand exists for more complex yet aesthetically pleasing designs in
many industries and markets. A good understanding of the geometry and
workflow’s required to create complex shapes can improve your modeling skills
regardless of the designs you create.

The following illustration shows a molded plastic vacuum body. All of the pieces
feature complex spline-based surfaces.

Shape Continuity
The aesthetic appeal of a product is dependent on many variables but the
smoothness or continuity between surfaces is a key factor. Light reflected from
the part surfaces provides visual cues to the change in curvature between
adjacent surfaces. Sharp edges are easily identified, but even small variations in
curvature are discernible, especially on glossy or highly reflective surfaces.
Control of surface curvature is a key component in the creation of appealing
designs. Of course not every design has the same requirements for surface
smoothness and continuity. With a good understanding of curvature and

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continuity, you can choose the correct modeling tools and techniques to generate
designs with the appropriate level of surface quality.

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Definition of Curvature
Complex molded and cast components often require specific control of continuity
between part surfaces and also between adjoining edges. The curvature of a
surface or curve is the measurement used to analyze and compare surfaces and
edges for continuity.

Curvature is used to describe both curves and surfaces. For complex curves and
surfaces the value is constantly changing over the geometry. Its instantaneous
value is simply the inverse of the radius of the curve or surface at a contact point.
For a line, the radius at any point along the line is infinite, so the curvature at all
points along the line is zero. For a circle or arc, the radius is constant at all points
along the curve, therefore the curvature is also constant and nonzero. For a
spline, the radius, and thus curvature, are constantly changing along the length
of the curve. The curvature at any point on a surface is a more complex
calculation but describes the same information as the curvature of a curve.

The following illustration shows how curvature is determined at any point along a
2D spline curve. The curvature of a spline smoothly changes as you move along
its length. At any point on the spline you can fit a circle tangent to the spline and
of the same radius as the instantaneous radius of the spline at the point. A line
from the circle center point to the spline point describes the instantaneous
curvature direction.

Spline curve.
Evaluation point along the spline.
Circle centered at instantaneous radius.
Instantaneous radius of curve at evaluation point. Curvature = 1/R.
Curvature description at second point along curve.

Definition of Continuity
Continuity describes the curvature changes between connected curves or
surfaces. Molded components typically require high standards for continuity
between surfaces, including the surfaces formed by radii between larger

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surfaces. Although continuity is typically judged between part surfaces, the
underlying curves are the geometry that controls the quality of the surfaces and
the continuity between surfaces. As with curvature, continuity applies equally to
curves and surfaces.

You can specify continuity conditions between both curves and surfaces as you
develop your designs. Geometric sketch constraints and specialized controls for
spline curves enable you to control continuity between sketch geometry, and
between sketch geometry and existing part edges. A number of feature creation
tools enable you to control surface continuity with adjacent geometry.

G0 continuity – Curves are joined at their

endpoints and surfaces contact at a common
edge. The connection forms a geometric
discontinuity, a sharp change in direction between
two curves or a sharp edge between surfaces.

G1 continuity – Connected curves or surfaces

are tangent. The illustration to the right shows
the curvature of two lines joined by an arc that is
tangent to both lines. At the two connection
points the curvature jumps from zero (line) to the
constant curvature of the arc.

G2 continuity – The curvature varies smoothly

between connected curves or surfaces. The
illustration to the right shows two lines joined by
a spline. Because the curvature of a spline is
constantly changing, it can match the zero
curvature of the adjacent lines.

2D Sketch Tools
Spline Curvature Analysis
You can display a plot of the changing curvature along the length
of the spline to evaluate its smoothness. This curvature comb
indicates the relative curvature at each point along the curve. You
can adjust the density and relative height of the comb to optimize
the view of the spline curvature.

To access curvature display, right click on a spline and choose

Display Curvature. To set the properties of the comb, right click
on the spline and choose Setup Curvature Display.

The following image illustrates a curvature comb display for a 2D spline.

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Smooth Constraint
There is a new constraint available that allows you to create a curvature
continuity constraint between two splines or a spline and a line, arc, or ellipse.

In the following three images, note the differences between two splines with no
constraint, tangent, and smooth constraints.

3D Sketch Tools

3D Intersect
You use 3D splines as paths and guides to help control the shape of complex
features such as lofts and sweeps. These 3D splines are often generated from
projecting existing geometry rather than by creating the spline directly through a
set of control points. Although some spline creation and edit techniques are
common between 2D and 3D splines, unique methods and workflow exist for
creating and editing 3D splines.

The following image illustrates a common 3D spline creation workflow. The 3D

spline is generated at the projected intersection of two 2D splines on orthogonal
planes.

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 2D splines
3D spline at projected intersection of 2D splines

Project a Curve to a Face

In the following image, three planar lines in a 2D sketch have been projected
onto a cylindrical face. The left image is a view normal to the 2D sketch. The right
image is the same geometry with the view slightly rotated up. Work axes have
been added to illustrate alignment from the projected geometry to the original
sketch geometry.

Project Use to project the sketch in the direction of an vector. When

Along projecting 2D sketch geometry, the default direction is perpendicular
Vector to the sketch. You can select any edge or axis in the part to define the
projection vector. This type of projection is the primary projection
method used to create 3D splines. The 2D sketch geometry can be
projected to any surface or face.

Project Use to create a curve on a surface where a perpendicular line to the

to surface through that point will pass through the corresponding point
Closest on the 2D sketch being projected. Although this type of projection is
Point more commonly used to clean up imported surface geometry, you
can project the 2D sketch geometry to any face or surface feature.

Wrap Use to create a curve on a flat, cylindrical, or conical face that wraps
to to the face from the sketch’s current position and perpendicular to the
Surface face. This type of projection is useful for generating precise guide
paths for sweep features on cylindrical or conical surfaces. It is
important to note that you cannot use this type of projection to
surfaces that are not cylindrical or conical.

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Complex Solids and Surfaces

Ergonomics has become an important aspect of contemporary design. Products that are
safe, easy to use, and aesthetically pleasing often require shapes that go beyond the
rectangles and circles of traditional machine design. For the designer, mastery of the
concepts of complex shape design can open up new possibilities for meeting design
objectives.

Lofts
A loft is a sophisticated type of extrusion that uses multiple profile sections, as
well as other controlling elements, to create organic, free-form shapes. Three
elements comprise a loft:
• Sections - Sections are profiles that define the shape of the loft extrusion.
A section may be an open or closed sketch profile, a part face, or a point.
Points are valid only for the starting and ending sections of a loft.
• Tangent conditions and weighting - Tangent conditions and weighting
determine the behavior of the loft extrusion as it passes through a loft
section. Adding a tangency condition to the section forces the extrusion
tangent to the plane of the section. An angle value other than 90 degrees
can also be set. Weighting determines the amount of effect the tangent
condition has on the extrusion.
• Loft controllers - Loft controllers guide the path and sometimes the
shape of the loft extrusion. Examples of loft controllers include guide rails,
and point-to-point mapping.

This lofted body has two sections and four guide rails.

Lofted Surfaces
The ability to loft surfaces is possibly the single most powerful element in
Autodesk Inventor for creating complex shapes. You can use lofted surfaces in
several different ways:

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 • A lofted surface may be used as the termination surface for an Extrude
feature.
• Lofted surfaces may be combined with other extruded surfaces using the
Boundary Patch and Stitch tools to create a new solid.
• A lofted surface may be used with the new Sculpt tool to trim an existing
solid that it intersects.
• A lofted surface may be used with the Replace Face tool to reshape an
existing face of a solid.

The following illustration shows a lofted surface with a centerline guide rail for
use as a trimming plane for the Sculpt tool.

Loft to a point
You can also select a point for the first and last loft sections. You use this option
to close the ends of lofts and other complex shapes in a smooth, contiguous
manner. A loft to point requires one profile section, and a point on another plane.
If the end of a feature is selected for the profile, the option is provided to make
the new loft tangent or G2 smooth to the existing geometry.

The tip of this wind generator rotor was modeled using a loft to point option.

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Tangent and angle conditions
The behavior of the loft at a section may be controlled by specifying a tangent or
angle condition. Tangencies are allowed when a solid or surface is available at
the sections. Depending on the type of loft being created, different options for the
tangency may be available. Tangent conditions are also available in a loft to
point. Angle conditions are similar to tangencies. They define the angle of the
section plane to the loft. Weighting is often added to control the extent of the
effect.

In the left-hand loft shown below, the sections are in a free condition so that the
loft takes the straightest possible path between sections. In the loft on the right,
both sections are set at a 90-degree angle condition with weighting added to
extend the effect of the condition.

Weighting
Weighting is not a control in itself, but is used in conjunction with tangent and
angle conditions. Adding a weight value to a loft profile determines the extent that
the tangency condition affects the loft.

The images below both show a loft to point with a tangency condition applied to
the point. In the left image, the weight value is 1.5. In the right image, the weight
value is .75. Because the weight value is a unitless number which is relative to
the size of the model, some experimentation is often needed to find a value that
delivers the desired results.

G2 Condition
The edge of an existing surface can be used as a section to create a loft. When
this is the case, a G2 condition can be applied to the intersection of the surfaces.
This ensures continuity of curvature between the surfaces.

Sweeps
Generally speaking, sweeps are not difficult to model, and their functionality is
easy to understand. Sweeps behave in much the same way as normal extrusion
features, and have many of the same options and requirements. The
differentiating aspect of a sweep is the addition of the path sketch and, in certain

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cases, a guide rail. Creating a stable sweep results from managing the
interaction between these elements.

Creating Sweeps with Surface Guides

Creating a sweep that uses a surface for a guide is normally a fairly
straightforward process, because the surface itself is usually already created as
part of the model. Because the purpose of this type of sweep is to conform the
extrusion to an irregular surface, the path is normally a
3D sketch projected onto the surface in some fashion.
The addition to the sweep of the surface as a
controlling element ensures that the profile maintains a
consistent relationship to the surface as it follows the
path.

A path projected onto a cylinder, and used with the path

and guide surface sweep, enables modeling
complicated machined extrusions. The slot on this
cylinder stays normal to the cylinder surface as though
it had been cut with a milling machine.

Creating Sweeps with Guide Rails

Constructing a sweep with an added guide rail is similar in most respects to
modeling a conventional sweep. The profile and path elements are the same.
The addition of the guide rail allows an added element of control, as the profile
conforms to the guide rail in both size and orientation (twist) as it follows the
path.

When a curved guide rail is added to a normal hexagon-shaped sweep:

The profile shape follows the guide rail. In the previous illustration, the scaling is
affecting both the X and Y axes. If the scaling is set to affect the X axis only:

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Using the Sculpt Command
The Sculpt tool is a unique Autodesk Inventor surface modeling tool that enables
you to use surface features to create and edit solid models without the
complexity of traditional surface modeling. You can use any set of surfaces that
forms a closed volume to add or remove material from the part. A key feature of
this workflow is that you can specify that material be added or removed on either
or both sides of each of the participating surfaces. The side selections for all
input surfaces are evaluated to determine the bounded volume or volumes. If the
inputs define at least one closed volume, the result is previewed in the graphics
window. If a preview is displayed, you can be confident that the sculpt feature is
successful. Any edits you make to the side selections are automatically reflected
in the preview.

The following illustration shows a base feature generated with the Sculpt tool.
The single closed volume bounded by the three spline-based features and a
single work plane forms the resulting solid.

The sculpt tool can be used to create a solid from surfaces without having to trim
them first, as shown above, or to add or remove material from an existing solid.

The process for creating a sculpt feature is shown below:

1. Create one or more surfaces that
form a closed boundary or combine
with existing part faces to form a
closed boundary. The surfaces can
extend past each other but ensure
that they do not intersect to form
additional, unwanted closed
volumes.

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2. You can select to either add or
remove material. Select the surfaces
to describe a closed volume. If the
part has existing geometry, the part
faces are automatically included as
boundary surfaces.

3. If required, change the sculpt

direction for one or more surfaces
with either the side direction arrows
in the graphics window or the Side
Selection list in the Sculpt dialog box.

4. Use the preview to determine if the

selected surfaces form a closed
volume. If no preview is displayed,
the current selection set does not
form a closed volume and the sculpt
will not succeed.

Advanced Filleting

Edge Fillets
Edge fillets can have either standard tangency (G1) or smooth (G2) continuity
applied.

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Definition of Fillet Continuity - The definition of a standard fillet is that the edge
between two surfaces is rounded with a specified radius. But this does not
specify the type of tangency between the fillet face and adjacent faces.

A tangent fillet is one where the fillet face meets the adjacent face in a tangent,
but the curvature changes abruptly. This is called a G1 continuity, and is the
most common type of fillet.

A smooth fillet is one where the fillet face is not only tangent to the adjacent
faces, but the fillet face curvature gradually changes from the face curvature to
the fillet radius curvature. The effect is subtle, but aesthetically pleasing. This is
referred to as a G2 continuity.

Generally, in industrial design, you would use the G2 fillet. But because of the
extra complexity associated with these fillets, they can cause difficulties
downstream. For example, if you add G2 fillets to a design and then try to shell
the part, you may discover that the shell feature is approximate or cannot be
done. Changing the G2 fillets to a standard G1 type sometimes solves the
problem.

The differences between the two fillets are sometimes hard to see simply by
looking, but clearly show up in analysis of the model.

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In the following image a comparison of the two fillets is shown. The left image is
the tangent (G1) fillet, and the right one is the G2 fillet.

Face Fillets and Full Round Fillets

Full-Round Fillets
A full-round fillet replaces a center face with a fillet. By selecting three adjacent
faces, the application attempts to create a full-round fillet spanning the two outer
faces. It is not always possible to create this full-round fillet.

Full-round fillets can be used on thin edges such as the top faces of rib features.

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The process for creating a face fillet is shown below:

1. Click the Fillet tool, and then click the Face

Fillet button.

2. Select the two face sets, and then enter a

radius.

3. If necessary, use the Help Point to determine

the location of the fillet.

4. The applied fillet covers the edges in between

the two faces.

The process for creating a full round fillet is shown below:

1. Click the Fillet tool, and then click the Full Round
Fillet button.

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2. Select the three adjacent faces.

3. The resulting full-round fillet is created.

Conclusion

Complex shapes are not just beneficial for consumer product design, they are
essential. Autodesk Inventor provides these tools in a powerful yet accessible
package. Mastery of the techniques involved takes practice, but the results are
designs not possible with conventional modeling techniques.

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