Waste Management 79 (2018) 356–361

Contents lists available at ScienceDirect

Waste Management
journal homepage: www.elsevier.com/locate/wasman

Developing a compression moulded thermal insulation panel using

postindustrial textile waste
D.G.K. Dissanayake ⇑, D.U. Weerasinghe, K.A.P. Wijesinghe, K.M.D.M.P. Kalpage
Department of Textile and Clothing Technology, Faculty of Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Sri Lanka

a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t

Article history: Postindustrial textile has incrementally become a major issue of global concern over the last decade,
Received 18 May 2018 especially, synthetic textiles, given their non-biodegradability, toxicity and expected growth with ever-
Revised 13 June 2018 increasing production quantities. Absence of proper waste management facilities and technologies poses
Accepted 1 August 2018
both environmental and social challenges in textile waste management. Multi-material systems further
increase the complexities in textile recycling. Mixing of Spandex with Nylon to improve stretchability of
fabrics is extremely common nowadays although it renders Nylon almost impossible to be recycled. Here
Keywords:
in, a complete process to develop a novel thermal insulation material is presented, using synthetic mate-
Postindustrial textile waste
Thermal insulation material
rial cutting waste (Nylon/Spandex and Polyurethane). Thermal insulation panels were developed using
Compression moulding compression moulding. A sample matrix of panels with different proportions of Nylon/Spandex and
Textile waste management Polyurethane was subjected to testing for thermal conductivity. The combination giving the best thermal
Nylon spandex waste insulation was experimentally found to be 60% Nylon/Spandex fabric shreds mixed with 40%
Textile recycling Polyurethane shreds. The thermal insulative behaviour of the novel material was modeled using a power
series, using the material thickness as the parameter.
Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction
1.1. Textiles waste context
Textile and apparel production involves one of the most compli-
cated global industrial chains in product manufacturing (Fletcher,
2008; Köksal et al., 2017). Consumption of textile products has
been growing over time due to rising population and changing con-
sumption patterns (Tojo et al, 2012; Marshall and Farahbakhsh,
2013). This situation has accelerated the environmental conse-
quences associated with the global textile industry. While environ-
mental impacts arise at all stages of a textile product life cycle, key
environmental issues are highlighted as the consumption of mas-
sive amounts of energy, water, hazardous chemicals, and the gen-
eration of hazardous waste (WRAP, 2017; Chapman, 2010).
Textile waste can be either postindustrial or postconsumer.
Postindustrial textile waste refers to the waste generated during
manufacturing process and usually includes apparel cutting waste,
Abbreviations: NS, nylon/spandex; PU, polyurethane.
⇑ Corresponding author at: Department of Textile and Clothing Technology,
Faculty of Engineering, University of Moratuwa, Katubedda, Moratuwa, 10400, Sri
Lanka.
E-mail address: geethadis@uom.lk (D.G.K. Dissanayake).
excess fabrics and rejections due to quality issues (Tomovska et al.,
2016). Postindustrial textile waste is often referred to as ’clean
waste’ since fabrics are unused at the time of disposal. Postcon-
sumer waste refers to the unwanted garments that are discarded
by the consumer after being used. Sustainability efforts to date
have incorporated managing postconsumer textile waste, yet, little
attention has been paid towards managing postindustrial textile
waste. However, increasing fashion consumption means rising pro-
duction quantities, and subsequent generation of postindustrial
waste, particularly in developing countries, where most of the
manufacturing facilities are located in. This issue has been further
complicated by the absence of proper waste management systems
in place to deal with postindustrial textile wastes generated in
hundreds of tonnes on a daily basis. The amount of textile wastes
generated daily is so enormous and an accurate figure cannot be
placed due to proper systems to track these statistics being
unavailable.
Solid waste management poses challenges in developing coun-
tries, mainly due to technological and financial barriers (Guerrero
et al., 2013). General understanding is that municipal councils
are responsible for waste management, but they often fail to
implement appropriate waste management systems due to lack
of technical skills, lack of investments and limited resources
(Jordeva et al., 2015). Priority is given only to remove wastes from

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.wasman.2018.08.001
0956-053X/Ó 2018 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.
 D.G.K. Dissanayake et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 356–361
urban areas and their disposal is mostly unregulated (Wilson,
2007). Open dumping and landfilling of wastes have become
increasingly problematic due to public health as well as environ-
mental implications (Marshall and Farahbakhsh, 2013). Waste
management in developing countries is typically limited to a col-
lection and removal service, and the environmental protection or
resource recovery has been given little or no attention (Guerrero
et al., 2013).
Environmental concerns associated with textile wastes are
increasing with the rising volumes of textile consumption
(Briga-Sá et al., 2013). While cotton remains important in the
market as a natural fiber, world synthetic fiber consumption keeps
growing. Synthetic fiber consumption in 2016 was reported to be
64% of the total fiber consumption (Textile Exchange, 2017).
Textile wastes become a serious threat to the environment when
landfilled since they carry the potential of groundwater contami-
nation and formation of greenhouse gases upon decomposition.
Decomposition of biodegradable textile waste generates methane,
a powerful greenhouse gas contributing to global warming (Wang,
2010). Decomposition of organic yarns such as wool generates
ammonia, which is highly toxic in both terrestrial and aquatic
fields (Jayasinghe et al., 2010). Nevertheless, the highest contribu-
tor to the carbon footprint in the apparel production chain is the
fiber extraction or agriculture (WRAP, 2017), in which case dispos-
ing fabrics that have never been used is a serious concern:
resources are being depleted and the environment is being pol-
luted to produce something that is being thrown away without
even being used.
Moving from landfill-based to resource recovery-based solu-
tions requires accurate knowledge of waste composition as well
as implementation of waste collection and characterization
processes (Adeniran et al., 2017; Burnley, 2007). According to
Briga-Sá et al. (2013), textile wastes carry a group of reusable
materials with different possibilities and applications. Recovery
routes of textile waste generally include reuse or recycling. It is
estimated that 95% of textile waste can be recycled. According to
Wang (2006), recycling technologies are divided into four cate-
gories: primary (recycling industrial scrap), secondary (mechanical
processing of postconsumer products), tertiary (converting plastic
waste into chemicals, monomers or fuels) and quaternary (burning
for heat generation). Depending on the point of waste generation,
said technologies could vary from single polymer to multi materi-
als, and a waste stream of a single type of polymer is easier to recy-
cle than a mix of polymer materials (Wang, 2010). Yet, the
practical scenario is that, postindustrial textile wastes represent
different sizes, shapes, compositions and properties, which
increase the difficulty in finding appropriate recycling solutions
(Briga-Sá et al., 2013).
1.2. Textile waste management in manufacturing hubs
While global apparel consumption is highly concentrated in the
European Union, United States and Japan, manufacturing facilities
are mainly located in third world countries, given the availability
of cheap labour (Cattaneo et al., 2010). Even though there are strict
legislations and regulations in place in the developed part of the
world in terms of textile waste management, the apparel manufac-
turer of the supply chain has neither commitment nor facilities to
manage their textile wastes. In third world countries such as Ban-
gladesh, Sri Lanka and Vietnam where the apparel industry is dom-
inant, significant amount of postindustrial textile wastes are being
generated, yet recycling rates are considerably low. Even though
landfill disposal is the least preferred option in any waste manage-
ment strategy, that remains the most preferred option in the man-
ufacturers’ point of view (Jordeva et al., 2015).
357
Apparel industry in Sri Lanka is the strongest manufacturing
sector of the country in terms of employment generation and for-
eign exchange earnings. This export oriented industry has achieved
a high growth rate over the last decade, with a total export income
of USD 4.6 Bn, representing 46% of the total merchandise exports of
the country (EDB, 2017). These values are expected to grow in the
near future due to the regaining of GSP + tariff concession by the
European Union. Sri Lankan apparel industry produces a wide
range of fashion clothing for various international fashion brands
such as Victoria’s Secret, Marks & Spencer, Nike, GAP, La Senza,
H&M etc., mainly for the USA and EU markets. Approximately
300 manufacturing units are scattered around the country, and
the majority belongs to 10 major apparel exporters (EDB, 2012).
High quality, sustainable and ethical manufacturing practices have
placed the Sri Lankan apparel industry in a competitive position in
the global market.
In 2014 alone, a total of 294,000 tonnes of textiles were
imported and a minimum of 44,100 tonnes of textile waste was
generated (Park, 2017). Textile waste generation is predicted to
be increased with the rising quantities of production. Currently,
there are no recycling facilities available in Sri Lanka and effective
waste management programs are yet to be developed. Current
practice is to remove waste from urban areas to be eventually sent
for open dumping. Recent incident of toppling of one of the ‘waste
mountains’ in Meethotamulla area that caused deaths of 30 people
living nearby indicates the inappropriate selection of landfill
spaces by the authorities. Moreover, analysis of this situation by
a set of experts from Japan reported a high concentration of
methane in the area, indicating a highly polluted environment that
is unsuitable for human habitat in that area. However, open dump-
ing of waste in selected lands is still continued as the general prac-
tice, irrespective of the environmental and health concerns poised.
Usually municipal councils do not have any systematic process
to separate and collect textile waste from other waste categories,
thus textiles are contaminated with other industrial wastes, if
directed to the general waste stream. In addition, no substantial
textile recycling activities take place in Sri Lanka, and postindus-
trial textile wastes are being sent for open dumping or incinera-
tion. Those textile wastes mostly consist of synthetic materials,
Particularly NS that are being used to manufacture both active
wear and intimate wear, and are problematic to recycle. Currently,
recycling technologies for NS blended fabrics are limited, even
though Nylon, as a single polymer, could be recycled (Yin et al.,
2014). Similarly, significant amount of PU foam wastes are gener-
ated during the bra cup manufacturing process, which eventually
end up in landfills, causing environmental issues.
Primary objective of this research was to convert postindustrial
textile waste into a useful material that would otherwise end up in
landfills. Recycling of NS blended fabrics remains a challenge to
date, and hence this research aimed at providing a novel solution
to manage such NS blended textile waste. The other material used
in this research is postindustrial PU waste, considering its avail-
ability and thermal performance. The possibility of converting
the aforementioned textile wastes; specifically into a thermal insu-
lation material was further explored on the grounds that PU is an
excellent thermal insulator by itself, while NS would provide bind-
ing upon melting to form a rigid, composite material.
2. Materials and methods
2.1. Materials
PU and NS fabric offcuts as input were obtained from a local
apparel manufacturer. The type of PU used in the experiment
was thermoset PU. The percentage of Nylon by weight in the NS
358 D.G.K. Dissanayake et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 356–361

fabric waste input ranged from 75% to 95% and was a random mix-
ture thereof. The Nylon polymer in the NS fabrics was Nylon 6.
Both PU and NS fabric offcuts were shredded down to 2 mm  2
mm pieces before further processing using a commercial shredding
machine. Fig. 1(a) and (b) show the shredded PU and NS, respec-
tively. The composition was varied discreetly from 0 to 100% for
both PU and NS to determine the optimum material ratio for the Fig. 2. Configuration of the Sandwiched Sample.
best insulation properties.

2.2. Compression moulding of the samples

The pressure used was 2T and the temperature was set to 215 °C,
the melting temperature of Nylon 6. Heating and cooling times
Compression moulding was used where the input materials
were set to 40 min and 10 min respectively. The composition was
were heat-pressed in a custom-made mould to produce circular
varied from 100% NS to 100% PU at 5% intervals. The density was
specimens with varying thicknesses. The outer diameter of the
kept constant at 1060 kg/m3.
specimens was set to 60 mm to suit the specimen size as specified
Thermal conductivity of all the samples was measured. The
by ASTM C177 standard. The mould was made of steel with a hol-
composition at which the thermal conductivity was the minimum
low cylinder with an inner diameter of 60 mm and an outer diam-
was selected as the optimum composition for insulation proper-
eter of 70 mm. Mould height was 60 mm and the height of the steel
ties. Fig. 3 shows one of the developed samples.
die used was 75 mm. The hollow cylinder was firmly fixed to a
steel plate using four M9 bolts.
2.5. Variation of thermal conductivity with thickness at the optimum
2.3. Measuring thermal conductivity composition

Thermal Conductivity of all the developed samples was tested
by the Lee’s Disc Method, a test method conducted under the prin-
ciple of Guarded Hot Plate Method – Standard of ASTM C177.
2.4. Determining the optimal NS:PU ratio and composition
Given the proven superiority of PU as an insulating material, the
ideal thermal insulator in question should have been 100% PU.
However, since the offcut PU foam was of type thermoset, it was
practically impossible to produce such a material by compression
moulding under heat. Nylon 6 polymer in the NS fabric offcuts
were therefore used to bind thermoset PU to form a compromised
insulative panel, since Nylon 6 melts at 215 °C. Subsequently,
Nylon polymer binds with thermoset PU when cooling to form a
firm and rigid panel. An additional binder was not used.
A laminated configuration where a PU panel is sandwiched in
between two NS panels was used rather than a mixture of shred-
ded particles thereof, considering the homogeneity, additional cost
of extensive mixing as well as better insulation properties (Chen
et al., 2017). PU panel was sandwiched in between the NS panels
as shown in Fig. 2.
Different combinations of PU and NS were compression
moulded using 30 g of waste material in total for each specimen.
Since thermal conductivity is inversely proportional to thick-
ness, it is already established that with increasing thickness, ther-
mal conductivity will be decreased. However, it is important to
establish this relationship quantitatively for this new material in
order to be used in specific applications. Therefore, after the opti-
mum composition was determined, the thickness of the specimen
was varied by varying the amount of input materials while keeping
the process conditions the same as described in Section 2.4, in
order to observe the thickness-conductivity relationship quantita-
tively. The amount of input materials was varied from 20 g to 30 g
at 2.5 g intervals to produce five different samples. The density was
kept constant at about 1200 kg/m3 for this experiment. They were
tested for thermal conductivity and subsequently the behaviour
was modeled using a power series fit using MATLABÒ Curve Fitting
tool.
3. Results and discussion
3.1. Thickness of the moulded panels
The maximum panel thickness obtainable using the mould was
10 mm. Each specimen made was therefore 10 mm in thickness.

Fig. 1. (a) Shredded PU and (b) Shredded NS.

 D.G.K. Dissanayake et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 356–361 359

Table 2
Thermal conductivity at different thickness values at 60:40 NS:PU composition.

Sample Amount of waste Thickness of the Thermal conductivity

used (g) sample (mm) (W/mK)
1 20.0 6.0 0.1960
2 22.5 6.6 0.1619
3 25.0 7.5 0.1213
4 27.5 8.2 0.0981
5 30 10 0.0953

This data was input; thickness of the samples on the horizontal

axis and thermal conductivity values on the vertical axis and a
curve approximately representing the behaviour was generated
using MATLABÒ Curve Fitting Tool. Since thermal conductivity
decreases with increasing thickness, but do not attain negative
values, a linear polynomial cannot represent this behaviour with
sufficient accuracy. Therefore, a power series fit was used of type
Fig. 3. Compression moulded sample.
axb + c, where a, b and c are real constants. Moreover, least abso-
3.2. Thermal conductivity measurement of sandwiched NS and PU lute residuals (LAR) method was also incorporated to the model.
panels The values of a, b and c are 1367, 5.272 and 0.08799, respectively.
Fig. 4 shows the fit of this model to the results displayed in Table 2.
When the PU percentage was increased over 70%, the physical The goodness of the fit is as described by the following indicators.
integrity of the specimens was not favourable. This is because of Sum of squares due to error (SSE) is 0.0001878, Coefficient of
the insufficiency of Nylon polymer as the binding material to keep determination (R-Square) is 0.9752 and the root mean square error
the increasing PU parts in place. Therefore, the least amount of NS (RMSE) is 0.009689.
fabric that could be used was 30%. Performance of this material for different thicknesses can there-
Measured thermal conductivity values of the sandwiched pan- fore be approximately modeled using the formula, 1367 * T 5.272 +
els are as displayed in Table 1. 0.08799, where T is the thickness of the sample.
It can be seen that the heat conductivity decreases down to a
certain point with the increase of PU% added. Since PU foam is a 3.4. Potential and limitations of the novel method
porous structure it can retard heat more efficiently than NS, there-
fore it acts as a barrier for heat conduction when PU foam is sand- The presented method is sustainable, cheap and easily imple-
wiched in between two NS layers. Since a high proportion of small mentable while achieving a lower thermal conductivity in compar-
voids is present in the PU layer and these voids are not big enough ison to previous research which use textile waste (Binici et al.,
to transmit heat by convection or radiation, the heat flow is 2014) as well as other recycled or natural materials (Annie Paul
retarded. However, further increment of PU foam has contributed et al., 2008; Pinto et al., 2012; Ramanaiah et al., 2011). Table 3 pre-
to an increase in the thermal conductivity. This could be due to sents a further comparison of commercially available insulation
the increased the number of void spaces in between two NS layers, materials used mainly in construction. However, it can be observed
large enough to transmit heat by convection, thereby increasing that the novel material shows a significantly higher density value
thermal conductivity. and also a higher thermal conductivity, and therefore indicates
The least thermal conductivity was observed at the composition inferior performance with respect to commercial insulation mate-
60% NS : 40% PU, at 0.0953 W/mK. rials. Moreover, this is a significant achievement since there is little
or no research addressing the issue of humungous amounts of NS
3.3. Modeling the variation of thermal conductivity with thickness at fabric waste ending up in landfills. Mixing Spandex with Nylon
the optimum composition to achieve elastic properties required in common sportswear
makes it extremely hard to recycle. Researchers have achieved lim-
Thermal conductivity values for the five samples were as dis- ited success in physically separating these constituents while
played in Table 2. chemical separation uses notorious amounts of chemicals and
heat. Therefore, the proposed method is an attractive solution for
Table 1
Measured thermal conductivity values of the sandwiched NS and PU panels. the problem of open dumping NS fabric in landfills.
Moreover, most of the previous research has been focused on
Sample Composition Thermal conductivity (W/mK)
Polyester, which can be justified, given its superior insulation
1 100%NS 0.2630 properties and wide use in the textile industry. However, most of
2 95%NS_5%PU 0.2501
this research work seems to focus on fiber as the raw material,
3 90%NS_10%PU 0.2396
4 85%NS_15%PU 0.2348
rather than fabrics, while the presented method directly takes NS
5 80%NS_20%PU 0.2212 fabrics and PU offcuts as inputs, reducing the cost of production
6 75%NS_25%PU 0.1688 remarkably. This increases the practicality of this concept in the
7 70%NS_30%PU 0.1149 real world. Its simplicity and low cost are particularly attractive
8 65%NS_35%PU 0.1126
to third world countries such as Sri Lanka and Bangladesh that
9 60%NS_40%PU 0.0953
10 55%NS_45%PU 0.1339 are being used as manufacturing hubs for the western world.
11 50%NS_50%PU 0.1583 One of the main limitations of this study was the limitation of
12 45%NS_55%PU 0.1609 panel thickness, since a mould was used. The mould was designed
13 40%NS_60%PU 0.1666 to produce panels with thickness of 10 mm, considering the lim-
14 35%NS_65%PU 0.1696
15 30%NS_70%PU 0.1796
ited facilities available. By using different/bigger moulds, higher
thicknesses can be achieved which in turn will yield better
360 D.G.K. Dissanayake et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 356–361

Fig. 4. Power series fit to the obtained results.

Table 3 Even though the current study has only used postindustrial
Comparison of density and thermal conductivity of commercial insulation materials waste as input for the material, the same concept can also be
vs the novel material (Greenspec, 2018).
used for postconsumer fabric waste. Therefore, using postcon-
Material Density Thermal sumer fabric waste is also recommended as further research.
(kg/m3) conductivity
(W/mK)
4. Conclusion
Wood fiber (Rigid) 160 0.038
Wood fiber (Flexible) 50 0.038
Cellulose (blown/sprayed) 27–65 0.038–0.040 A method to produce novel heat insulating materials by com-
Wool 23 0.038 pression moulding, using postindustrial waste NS fabrics and PU
Hemp 25–38 0.039–0.040 offcuts is presented. The material composition is a sandwiched
Hempcrete 275 0.060
tri-layer in the sequence NS/PU/NS. The best thermal insulation
Cellular glass 115 0.041
Straw 110–130 0.08 property is exhibited at the composition (%W/W) 60:40, NS: PU
Glass mineral wool 20 0.035 as experimentally determined by the study. Thermal conductivity
Icynene H2FoamLite/LD-C-50 7.5–8.3 0.039 at this composition is 0.0953 W/mK. Its thermal conductivity can
Phenolic foam 35 0.020 be approximately described in the form 1367 * T 5.272 + 0.08799,
Polyisocyanurate/Polyurethane 30–40 0.023–0.026
where ‘‘T” represents the thickness of the panel.
foam (PIR/PUR)
Expanded polystyrene (EPS) 15–30 0.034–0.038 In order to produce a panel of one square meter with a 10 mm
Extruded polystyrene (XPS) 20–40 0.033–0.035 thickness, roughly 10 kg of waste material is used. Therefore, this
Aerogel 150 0.014 method holds true promise in utilizing gigantic amounts of postin-
New material 993 0.095
dustrial textile wastes, dumped in tonnes per day. This is a note-
worthy innovation from a resource-recovery point of view, since
this method makes it possible to recycle 100% of the NS as well
as PU that would otherwise go unused into landfills. This also rep-
insulation properties. Another limitation was the constraint of this resents a win from an environmental point of view, since this
study about using NS fabrics with only Nylon 6 polymer. The same method can directly recycle multi-material systems such as NS
method is viable for Nylon 6,6 polymer as well but higher temper- that would otherwise be extremely challenging without pre-
atures must be used for compression moulding, owing to the processing. Moreover, in contrast to other methods of producing
higher melting temperature of Nylon 6,6. thermal insulative panels using waste materials, this method uses
minimal pre-processing of the input materials. While the input is
3.5. Recommendations shredded down to 2 mm  2 mm particles, no additional chemical
or other treatments are necessary. Furthermore, the cost of an
This work is expected to be a precursor for further research, additional binding material is omitted since one of the raw mate-
considering a number of aspects of the current study. A lot of fur- rials (NS) itself acts as the binder. Therefore, this method, if com-
ther research is necessary before this concept can be mercialized, could be a very economical way of producing heat
commercialized. insulation materials for an array of different applications while
providing a truly sustainable solution for the postindustrial waste
This study has used fabric offcuts with Nylon 6 only. Since crisis, especially in developing countries that are being used as
Spandex is also mixed with Nylon 6,6, further research using manufacturing hubs.
Nylon 6,6 is recommended.
Using PU gives rise to serious health conditions and hazard in
case of fire. Hydrogen Cyanide and Isocyanates are released Funding
when PU is burned, and are known to be poisonous (Jelle
et al., 2010). Therefore, further research to decrease the This research did not receive any specific grant from funding
flammability or hazards of fire is highly recommended. agencies in the public, commercial, or not-for-profit sectors.
Even though this research investigates only the configuration
NS/PU/NS due to experimental limitations, other possible com- Conflict of interest
binations or an increased number of layers could yield superior
results, and are therefore recommended as further research. None.
 D.G.K. Dissanayake et al. / Waste Management 79 (2018) 356–361 361

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