Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
www.gradeup.co
Pressure (P):
• If F be the normal force acting on a surface of area A in contact with liquid,then
pressure exerted by liquid on this surface is: P =F / A
• Units : N /m2 or Pascal (S.I.) and Dyne/cm2 (C.G.S.)
[F] [MLT 2 ]
• Dimension [P] = = =[ML-1T -2
]
[A] [L2 ]
:
• Atmospheric pressure:Its value on the surface of the earth at sea level is nearly
1.01*10 5N/ m2 or Pascal in S.I. other practical units of pressure are atmosphere,
bar and torr (mm of Hg)
• 1atm = 1.01 *10 5Pa = 1.01bar = 760 torr
dF
• Fluid Pressure at aPoint: dp=
dA
Density ( ρ):
• In a fluid, at a point, density ρ is defined as: Mass/volume
• In case of homogenous isotropic substance, it has no directional properties, so is
a scalar.
• It has dimensions [ML-3] and S.I. unit kg/m3 while C.G.S. unit g/ccwith
1g / cc = 10 3kg / m 3
2
www.gradeup.co
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Bulk Modulus
dP
• Bulk modulus K= dV
−V
1 −dV dρ
• K = VdP = ρdP
Compressibility (β) =
Where K= Bulk modulus of elasticity, ρ= Density and V= Specific volume
Surface Tension
• The cohesive forces between liquid molecules are responsible for the phenomenon known as surface
tension
• Unit N/m
4σ
• Pressure inside drop P =
d
8σ
• Pressure inside bubble P=
d
2σ
• Pressure inside jet P=
d
Where d= Diameter of drop, P= Gauge pressure and σ= Surface tension
3
www.gradeup.co
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Capillary Action
𝟒𝝈𝑪𝒐𝒔𝜽
• Height of water in capillary tube- 𝒉=
𝝆𝒈𝒅
ℎ=rise in capillary 𝜎= Surface tension of water
D= Diameter of tube
𝜃=Angle of contact between liquid and material
𝜃=<90o for water and glass and >90o for mercury and glass
Absolute Pressure
Pabs = Patm + Pgauge
Pabs = Patm − Pvac
Hydrostatic law
𝒅𝑷
= 𝝆𝒈
𝒅𝒉
𝐖𝐡𝐞𝐫𝐞 𝛒 = 𝐃𝐞𝐧𝐬𝐢𝐭𝐲 𝐚𝐧𝐝 𝐠 = 𝐀𝐜𝐜𝐞𝐥𝐞𝐫𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐝𝐮𝐞 𝐭𝐨 𝐠𝐫𝐚𝐯𝐢𝐭𝐲
Manometers
• Piezometers
p A = gh
4
www.gradeup.co
MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
• U-Tube Manometer
PA + s1 gh1 − sm gh − h2 gs2 = PB
Where s1,s2 and sm are density of fluids in
manometer
• Horizontal Surface
Total Force 𝐅 = 𝛒𝐠𝐀𝐡̅
• Center of Pressure
𝒉∗ = 𝒙
̅
5
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
∗
𝑰𝒈 𝑺𝒊𝒏𝟐 𝜽
𝒉 = + 𝒉𝑪.𝑮
𝑨𝒉𝑪.𝑮
• Curved Surface –
FR = Fh 2 + Fv 2
Fv
tan =
Fh
Vertical component of force Fv
Weight of the liquid supported by
the curved surface over it up to the
free liquid surface
FB = 1 gV1 + 2 gV2
Where V1 and V2 are volumes
6
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Principal of floatation
• If the body weight is equal to the buoyant force, the body will float
Mg = W = FB = gV
Condition of stability
• Floating body
Stable Equilibrium: M above G
Unstable Equilibrium: M below G
Neutral Equilibrium: M coincides with G
I
BM =
V
• Metacentric Height (GM)
GM = BM − BG
I
GM = − BG
V
7
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Where I= Second moment area about body surface vertical axis
V = Volume of water displaced
Time period of transverse oscillation of floating body
KG
• T = 2 KG= Least radius of gyration, GM=Meta- Centric Height
gGM
Continuity Equation
• ρ1 A1 V1 = ρ2 A2 V2
Where A,V are cross-section area of the flow and Velocity of flow respectively
For incompressible flow ρ=constant so
A1 V1 = A2 V2
Generalized differential Continuity Equation
𝑑𝜌 𝑑(𝜌𝑢) 𝑑(𝜌𝑣) 𝑑(𝜌𝑤)
• + + + =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧
𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑣
Acceleration in Y-direction 𝑎𝑦 = =𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤 𝑑𝑤
Acceleration in Y-direction 𝑎𝑧 = =𝑢 +𝑣 +𝑤 +
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑦 𝑑𝑧 𝑑𝑡
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
For steady flow = = =0
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑎 = √𝑎𝑥 2 + 𝑎𝑦 2 + 𝑎𝑤 2
Note- Local Acceleration due to increase in rate of velocity with respect to time at a point and
𝑑𝑢 𝑑𝑣 𝑑𝑤
convective acceleration due to rate of change of position ( = = = 0)
𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑑𝑡
8
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Rotational fluid
1 ∂V ∂U
ωz = ( − )
2 ∂x ∂y
Vortex flow
• Free Vortex V*r=Constant
𝜔2 𝑟 2
• Forced Vortex V=r ω and 𝐻 =
2𝑔
Velocity potential
• If ∅ is the velocity function, then
𝜕∅ 𝜕∅ 𝜕∅
𝑢=− , v=− ,𝑤 =−
𝜕𝑥 𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑧
• Polar direction
𝜕∅ 1 𝜕∅
𝑢𝑟 = − 𝜕𝑟 ,𝑢𝜃 = −
𝑟 𝜕𝜃
Stream Function
• If is the Stream function , then
𝜕 𝜕
𝑢=− , v=
𝜕𝑦 𝜕𝑥
Equipotential line
• Condition for Equipotential line 𝑑∅ = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑢
So =−
𝑑𝑥 𝑣
Line of constant stream function
• Condition for constant stream function d = 0
𝑑𝑦 𝑣
=
𝑑𝑥 𝑢
Relation between stream function and velocity potential function
∂∅ ∂ ∂∅ ∂
• = , =−
∂x ∂y ∂y ∂x
Equation of motion
• 𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑃 + 𝐹𝛾 + 𝐹𝑡 + 𝐹𝐶
Where,
Gravity force 𝐹𝑔
9
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Pressure force 𝐹𝑃
Viscosity force 𝐹𝛾
Turbulance force 𝐹𝑡
Compressibility force 𝐹𝐶
• When Compressibility force 𝐹𝐶 is negligible
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑃 + 𝐹𝛾 + 𝐹𝑡 is Reynold’s equation of motion
• 𝐹𝑡 is negligible
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑃 + 𝐹𝛾 is Navier- Stokes equation of motion
• When flow is assumed to be ideal, 𝐹𝛾 = 0
𝐹𝑥 = 𝐹𝑔 + 𝐹𝑃 is Euler’s equation of motion
Euler’s equation of motion
𝑑𝑝
• + 𝑔𝑑𝑧 + 𝑣𝑑𝑣 = 0
𝜌
Bernoulli’s equation
𝜌𝑉 2
• 𝑃 + 𝜌𝑔𝑧 + =0
2
P V2
• +z+ =0
ρg 2g
Where,
P
= Pressure head
ρg
Z = Potential head
V2
= Kinetic head
2g
10
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
2
√1−(ao)
a1
Discharge 𝐶𝑑 = 𝐶𝑐 2
where,
√1−(ao) 𝑐𝑐 2
a1
ao =Area of orifice
• Pitot Tube
𝐕𝐚𝐜𝐭 = 𝐂𝐯 √𝟐𝐠(𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐠𝐧𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐨𝐧 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝 − 𝐒𝐭𝐚𝐭𝐢𝐜 𝐡𝐞𝐚𝐝)
Where 𝐂𝐯 is co-efficient of velocity
Momentum Equation
• F.dt= d(mv) known as impulse- momentum equation
Force exerted on flowing fluid by a bend pipe
• If 𝜌1 = 𝜌2 then net force acting on a fluid
• 𝑃1 𝐴1 − 𝑃1 𝐴1 𝐶𝑜𝑠𝜃 − 𝐹𝑥 =
Change in velocity in horizontal ∗ mass of fluid
• Fy = ρQ(change in velocity vertically) − P2 A2 Sinθ
Where, v=velocity of flow, 𝜇= viscosity of flow, D= Diameter of piper and 𝜌= Density of fluid
11
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
1 ∂P
➢ Velocity u =
4μ
(− ∂x ) [R2 − r 2 ]
∂P r
➢ Shear stress 𝜏 = (− )
∂x 2
➢ Ratio of maximum to average velocity
Maximum Velocity
=2
Average Velocity
➢ Drop of pressure in given length
P1 − P2 32u̅μL
= hf =
ρg ρgD2
Also called Hagen Poiseuille Equation
Here u̅=average velocity, P1 , P2 = Pressure at two different points in the pipe
• Flow of viscous fluid between two parallel plates
1 ∂P
➢ Velocity u =
2μ
(− ∂x ) [ty − y 2 ]
1 ∂P
➢ Shear Stress 𝜏 = 2 (− ∂x ) [t − 2y]
➢ Ratio of maximum to average velocity
Maximum Velocity 3
=2
Average Velocity
12
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Where f= friction co-efficient
16
For laminar flow 𝑓 = where Re is Reynold’s number
𝑅𝑒
0.079
For turbulent flow, coefficient of friction f = 1
Re4
Chezy’s Formula
ρg
V = C√mi , C = Chezy Constant = √ f
ℎ𝑓
i = Loss of head per unit length of pipe= (hydraulic slope tan θ)
𝐿
m = Hydraulic mean depth
Area (A)
Mean velocity of flow m = Wetted Perimeter(P)
13
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
𝐿 𝐿1 𝐿2 𝐿3
= 5 + 5 +
𝑑5 𝑑1 𝑑2 𝑑3 5
Power Transmission through pipes
ρgAV
• P= (H − hf )
1000
hf = loss due to friction
• Efficency of power transmission
𝐻−ℎ𝑓
=
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑎𝑣𝑎𝑖𝑙𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑎𝑡 𝑜𝑢𝑡𝑙𝑒𝑡 =
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑢𝑝𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑒𝑑 𝐻
14
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Acceleration a LT -2
Momentum/Impulse mv MLT -1
Force F MLT -2
Energy - Work W ML 2T -2
Power P ML 2T -3
Moment of Force M ML 2T -2
Angular momentum - ML 2T -1
Angle η M 0L 0T 0
Angular Velocity ω T -1
Angular acceleration α T -2
Area A L2
Volume V L3
First Moment of Area Ar L3
Second Moment of Area I L4
Density ρ ML -3
Specific heat- Cp L 2 T -2 θ -1
Constant
Pressure
Elastic Modulus E ML -1T -2
Flexural Rigidity EI ML 3T -2
Shear Modulus G ML -1T -2
Torsional rigidity GJ ML 3T -2
Stiffness k MT -2
Angular stiffness T/η ML 2T -2
Flexibiity 1/k M -1T 2
Vorticity - T -1
Circulation - L 2T -1
Viscosity μ ML -1T -1
Kinematic Viscosity τ L 2T -1
Diffusivity - L 2T -1
Friction coefficient f /μ M 0L 0T 0
Restitution coefficient M 0L 0T 0
Specific heat- Cv
Constant volume L 2 T-2 θ -1
15
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Dimensionless number
• Reynold’s number (Re)
𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜌𝑉𝐷
𝑅𝑒 = =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝜇
• Froude’s Number (Fe)
Inertia Force 𝑉
Fe = √ =
Gravity Force √𝐿𝑔
16
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
17
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
18
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Hydraulic Efficiency =
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐝𝐞𝐥𝐢𝐯𝐞𝐫𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐫𝐮𝐧𝐧𝐞𝐫 𝐑.𝐏
=
𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫 𝐬𝐮𝐩𝐩𝐥𝐢𝐞𝐝 𝐭𝐨 𝐢𝐧𝐥𝐞𝐭 𝐖.𝐏
𝐒𝐡𝐚𝐟𝐭 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫
Overall Efficiency = = Hydraulic Efficiency * Mechanical Efficiency
𝐖𝐚𝐭𝐞𝐫 𝐏𝐨𝐰𝐞𝐫
19
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
Pelton 8.5 to 30 10 to 35
𝑁√𝑄
For Pumps, 𝑁𝑠 = 3 where Q is discharge
𝐻 ⁄4
Unit quantities
• Unit speed (Nu): N = Nu√H
• Unit Power (Pu): P = Pu ∗ H
3⁄
2
𝐻
• = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑁2 𝐷2
𝑃
• = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝑁3 𝐷5
𝑃
• 3 = 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑡
𝐻 ⁄2 𝐷2
Net Positive suction Head in pump
• NPSH= Pressure head + Static head - Vapor pressure head of your product – Friction head loss
21
www.gradeup.co MECHANICAL ENGINEERING – FLUIDMECHANICS
22