Post-depositional Structures and Diagenesis

of the volcaniclastic sediment may be completely lost as a result of alteration during diagenesis. Tonsteins
are kaolinite-rich mudrocks formed from volcanic, and bentonites are composed mainly of smectite clays
that are alteration products of basaltic rocks (Spears 2003). The interaction of volcaniclastic material and
alkaline waters results in the formation of members of the zeolite group of silicate minerals that may occur
as replacements or cements in volcaniclastic succes- sions. Where the original volcanic material has been
largely altered during diagenesis the only clues to the origin of the sediment may be the mineralogy of the
clays in a mudrock, such as the presence of a high proportion of smectite, and the relics of glass shards and
mineral crystals preserved in the sediment.

18.5 FOR M ATION OF COAL, OIL AND GAS

The branch of geology that has the greatest economic importance worldwide is the study of fossil fuels
(coal, oil and natural gas): they form by diagenetic processes that alter material made up of the remains
of organisms. The places where the original organic material forms can be understood by studying
deposi- tional processes, but the formation of coal from plant material and the migration of volatile
hydrocarbons
as oil and gas require an understanding of the diage- netic history of the sedimentary rocks where they
are found.

18.5.1 Coal-forming environments

Vegetation on the land surface is usually broken down either by grazing animals or by microbial activ-
ity. Preservation of the plant material is only likely if the availability of oxygen is restricted, as this will
slow down microbial decomposition and allow the forma- tion of peat, which is material produced by the
decay of land vegetation (3.6.1). In areas of standing or slowly flowing water conditions can become
anaero- bic if the oxygen dissolved in the water is used up as part of the decay process. These waterlogged
areas of accumulation of organic material are called mires, and are the principal sites for the formation
of thick layers of peat (3.6.1).
Mires can be divided into two types: areas where most of the input of water is from rainfall are known
as ombotrophic mires or bogs; places where there is a through-flow of groundwater are called rheo-
trophic mires or swamps. In addition there are also rheotrophic mires that have an input of clastic
sediment, and these are referred to as marshes, or salt marshes if the water input is saline (Fig. 18.23).