CHAPTER-1 Introduction to Metrology

1. METROLOGICAL CONCEPTS

Metrology is the Science and Art of Measurement. For every kind

of quantity measured, there must be a unit to measure it and express
it in numbers of that unit.
Metrology is thus concerned with the establishment, reproduction,
conversion and transfer of units of measurements and their
standards. The practice of metrology involves precise measurements
requiring the use of apparatus and equipments (Instruments and
necessary accessories) to permit the degree of accuracy required to
be obtained.
The metrologist has to understand the main principles to be able to
design and develop new instruments and also to use the available
instruments in the best way. Metrology is also concerned with
methods, execution and estimation of accuracy of measurements;
Prepared by Ramaprasad.H,, Adama university.2014
Need for Measurement
•to ensure that the part to be measured conforms to the
established standard.
•to meet the interchangeability of manufacture.
•to provide customer satisfaction by ensuring that no
faulty product reaches the customers.
•to coordinate the functions of quality control,
production, procurement & other departments of the
organization.
•to judge the possibility of making some of the defective
parts acceptable after minor repairs.
Precision, Accuracy and Reliability
Example: Compare five men in a shooting match. Let us use ten shots for each.
Consider the target to be a circle. Shots inside it are good; outside bad.

The results of Mr. A are 5good, 5 bad. Was this Accurate? Precise? Reliable?
Mr. B produces a tight group – but all bad. This man is more precise, but not as
accurate as Mr A.
Mr. C produces a group similar to Mr. A. But all are good. Even though he is not
as precise as B, he is as precise as A and he is not accurate than A or B
Mr. D produces his tight group, all good. He is more precise than Mr. C.
Mr. E places tight group in the centre. Mr. E more Precise, Accurate and
Reliable.
Precision : It is the degree which determines how well
identically performed measurements agree with each
other. It is the repeatability of the measuring process.
Precision is concerned with the process or a set of
measurements. It tells us that how well the various
measurements performed by same instrument on the same
component agree with each other.
Accuracy is frequently called “the quality of conformity”
Accuracy is the agreement of the result of a measurement
with the true value of the measured quantity. The
accuracy of an instrument is its ability to give correct
results.
Reliability is the probability that the results will be as
predicted.
2. ABBE’S PRINCIPLE
Errors due to misalignment:
Abbe’s principle of alignment should be followed in measurements to
avoid cosine errors, sine errors, etc. According to Abbe’s principle,
“the axis or line of measurement of the measured part should
coincide with the line of measuring scale or the axis of measurement
of the measuring instrument”.
The degree to which an instrument conforms to Abbe’s law is the
most important measure of its inherent accuracy
3. NEED for High Precision measurements
Engineering manufacturing would be impossible if component
parts could not be produced to close dimensional tolerances.
It is essential that accuracy required should be built into the
machine tools, jigs & fixtures, press tools which produce them.
Precision measurement is concerned with the precise
determination of linear, angular and non linear functions of the
machine surfaces of the tools and devices used to produce
engineering components.
Precise measurements are required for two reasons:
- To test fundamental physical theories of matter and the
universe
-To provide the basis for the application of these tested physical
theories to practical life, through advanced technology.
Improved measurement accuracy leads to improved efficiency
in manufacturing high technology products.
The two types of measurement methods
The Interchange method - With this method both ends of the measured
length are observed at the same time E.g. use of the caliper instruments.
The caliper observes both ends of the part (B in Fig.6-10) and then
compares the separation to both ends of the standard simultaneously. It
is the basis of all transverse-comparators, whether they are mechanical,
optical, pneumatic or electronic.
The Displacement method – The displacement method uses a
longitudinal movement which is common to both the part and the
standard as the means for relating one to the other. It differs from
interchange method in this only one end of the measured length is
observed at one time.
Both the part and the standard are lined upto and index mark. They are
then moved together to see if another set of their reference points line up
with the same index mark.
This method is used usually for positioning in machine tools and
measuring machines like tool maker’s microscope, Profile projector.
Vernier caliper is an Eg.. for both methods.
4. PROBLEMS ASSOCIATED WITH HIGH PRECISION
MEASUREMENTS

•Lack of true geometric perfection makes it difficult to define and

control product quality characteristics. It may be easy to define
geometric form but difficult to produce. The geometric variations
known as macro errors concerns straightness, flatness, parallelism,
squareness, angular displacement, symmetry, concentricity,
eccentricity, roundness.
•Lack of perfect rigidity caused due to material properties like
expansion, stretching, springing, warping etc affect geometric form,
size and location conditions. This leads to variety of complex
measurement problems
•Sometimes the configuration of parts is such that accurate
measurement becomes difficult.
•Also improperly located dimensions can often have a greater effect
on correctness of dimensional measurements.
 CHAPTER-2 MEASUREMENT, GAUGING & SELECTIVE ASSEMBLY

1. Standards of LENGTH Measurement

Length is the fundamental unit of measurement. Two standard
systems for linear measurement used throughout the world are
English (Imperial Standard – YARD) and Metric system (METRE).
Most countries have adopted Metre as the fundamental unit of linear
measurement.
Linear measurement by
(i) Line standard
(ii) End standard
(iii) Wavelength standard
(i) Line standard:
a) YARD: The Imperial standard yard is a bronze bar of one inch square cross
section and 38 inches long. A round recess, one inch away from two ends is cut at
both ends up to central plane of the bar. A gold plug 1/10” diameter having three
lines engraved transversely, and two lines longitudinally is inserted into these holes
so that the lines are in neutral plane. Yard is then defined as the distance between the
two central transverse lines of the plug at 62°F. The purpose of keeping the gold plug
lines at neutral axis is that due to bending of beam, neutral axis remains unaffected.
Second purpose is the plug being in a well is protected from accidental damages.

Imperial standard yard

b) METRE: This is the distance between the centre portions of two lines engrave
on the polished surface of a bar of pure platinum-iridium alloy (90% Platinum
and 10% Iridium). It is not oxidisable and can have good polish required for
ruling good quality of lines. The bar is kept at 0°C and under normal atmospheric
pressure. It is supported by two rollers of 1cm diameter symmetrically situated in
the same horizontal plane at a distance of 751mm, so as to give minimum
deflection. It has a winged c/s shape as shown having a web whose surface lines
are on the neutral axis. Also the neutral axis lies at the top of the web and it can
be graduated. Over all width and depth are 16mm each. This is designated as
International prototype Metre-M. This standard is kept at BIPM at severs in Paris.
1Yard = 0.9144m
(ii)End Standard: For all practical measurements in work shop,
we use end standards. E.g. slip gauges, gap gauges, end of
micrometer anvils etc. An end standard consists fundamentally of a
block or bar of steel generally hardened whose end faces are
lapped flat and parallel to within a few millionth of a cm. By
lapping process, its size too can be controlled very accurately.

Characteristics of End standards

_Accurate and suitable for close tolerance measurements
_Time consuming to use
_Subjected to wear on measuring faces
_To get a size-blocks have to be wrung together
_Built in Datum in end standards because their measuring faces
are flat and parallel so +vely located on a datum surface
_No parallax effect, due to feel is involved in the instrument.
Examples are End bars and Slip gauges
End bars: Consists of bars of carbon steel about 20mmφ -10 to
1200mm. Ends are hardened.
Slip Gauges: For precision Engineering work. High grade carbon steel
and are hardened through out. Range 0.0025-100mm
(iii) Wavelength standard
By research it was found that Wavelengths of monochromatic light
might be used as natural and invariable units of length. Since
wavelength standard is not a physical one, it need not be preserved.
This is reproducible standard of length.
Finally it was decided that Kr86 is the most suitable element if used
in a hot cathode discharge lamp maintained at 68°K temperature.
According to this standard metre is defined as 1650763.73 X
Wavelength of the radiation corresponding to the transition between
the levels: 2p10 – 5d5 of the Krypton 86 atom in vacuum.

Standards hierarchy: Primary-Secondary-Tertiary-Working

Shop floor standards and their Calibration
Classification of Standards
National Standards
National Reference Standards
Working Standards
Plant’s Lab Reference Standards
Shop Floor Standards

The accuracy in a vast industrial complex can be maintained only if

its standards are traceable to a single source, usually the National
standard of the country which is further linked up with International
standards.
The accuracy of National standards is transferred to working
standards through a chain of intermediate standards. The accuracy of
a particular standard depends on a combination of the number of
times it has been compared with a standard of higher category.
Calibration:
•Calibration is the process of checking the dimensions and tolerances of
a measuring instrument and a gauge by comparing it to a similar
instrument/gauge that has been certified as a standard of known
accuracy.
•Calibration consists of comparing the output of the instrument under
test against the output of an instrument of known accuracy when the
same input (the measured quantity) is applied to both instruments.
• Instruments used as a standard in calibration procedures are usually
chosen to be of greater inherent accuracy than the process instruments
that they are used to calibrate.
Calibration is done by detecting and adjusting any discrepancies in
the instruments accuracy to bring it within acceptable limits.
Calibration is done over a period of time, according to the usage of
the instrument and materials of its parts.
The dimensions and tolerances of the instrument/gauge are checked
to determine whether it has departed from the previously accepted
certified condition. Certification is given by a comparison to a
reference standard whose calibration is traceable to an accepted
national standard.
Regarding the checking interval mainly depends upon the frequency
of use of the instruments and the precision requirement of the
measurements. Ex: in machine shop and tool room measurements
made are of more precise nature, so more frequent calibration is
required.
 Calibration card

Defects Errors / Details of Calibrated Place of use Next Calibration Remarks

found(if any) Defects repairs by calibration lab in
After carried out due on charge
repairs (if
any)

Instrument……………………Type and Class ……………………..Inventory No ……………………………

Slip gauge calibration
Slip gauges are rectangular blocks of steel having cross
section of about 30 by 10mm. These are first hardened to
resist wear and carefully stabilized. After hardening, slip
gauge blocks are carefully finished on the measuring faces
to such a fine degree of finish, flatness and accuracy that
two such faces may be wrung together.
Slip gauges are used as
a) Reference standards for transferring the dimensions of
the unit of length from primary standard to gauge
blocks of lower accuracy and for the verification and
graduation of measuring apparatus
b) Length measures for the regulation and adjustment of
indicating measuring apparatus and direct measurement
of linear dimensions of industrial components.
Grades of slip gauges
Grade 2- This is the workshop grade, used for setting up of machine tools,
positioning milling cutters
Grade 1- This is a Tool room grade used for precise work. Uses include setting up
sine bars and sine tables, checking gap gauges and setting dial test indicators to
zero.
Grade 0- This is an Inspection grade, Confined to Inspection department of tool
room or machine shop.
Grade00- This grade will be in the Standard room and to be used for work of the
highest precision only. For finding the errors present in the workshop or Grade 2
slips.
Calibration Grade- This is a special grade, with the actual sizes of slips calibrated
on a special chart supplied with the set.
In metric units slip gauge sets of 103, 76, 48 and 31 pieces are available.
For example 103 piece set made up of
49 pieces with range of 1.01mm to 1.49mm in steps of 0.01mm
49 pieces with a range of 0.50 to 24.50mm in steps of 0.50mm
4 pieces of 25, 50, 75 and 1000mm and 1 piece extra of 1.005mm
Calibration: Due to handling in the laboratory or inspection room, slip gauges are
liable to wear over a period of use, therefore should be checked or recalibrated at
regular intervals. Work shop and inspection grade gauges are calibrated by direct
comparison against the calibration grade gauges in a comparator.
Method-1 using Brook level comparator
This has an extremely sensitive level mounted on a
small aluminium cradle on the underside of which
balls are attached, and the whole unit is mounted on
a protection case. The gauges to be compared are
wrung on a circular steel platen in such a way that
the two balls bridge the gauges. The platen can be
rotated through 180° to reverse the position of the
gauges under the level.
The position of the end of the bubble is read off a
scale which is carried in the level housing and is
graduated so that one division represents a
difference in height of the balls of 0.00025mm
The level is raised while the platen is rotated
through 180°, then lowered again and a second
reading is taken.
For eg. 18.2 is first reading and 18.4 is second
reading then 18.4-18.2/2 =0.1X0.00025 =
0.000025mm, is the difference between standard
and the gauge.
 Light interference – Method of Coincidence
Method-2 using NPL-Pitter Gauge Interferometer
In operation Light from a cadmium lamp is condensed by lens on to the pin-hole plate G,
thus providing an intense point of source, in the focal plane of the collimating lens F.
The resulting parallel beam passes to the constant-deviation prism E, which disperses the
light into its several monochromatic rays. By rotating the prism, any one colour can be
selected and directed vertically downwards on the optical flat C, which is supported and a
slight inclination to the upper surface of the gauge F wrung on to a horizontal base plate.
The rays are reflected from two parallel surfaces-the upper surface of gauge and face of base
plate.
After re-traversing the prism and collimating lens are brought to a focus on a small
reflecting prism R which is close to the slit G
An eye placed close to this prism sees two sets of interference fringes which are formed
Part of the light transmitted through the proof plane to the upper surface of this slip gauge
and to the reference plane of platen B.
Light reflected from each of these surfaces passes back through optical system and a fringe
pattern observed as shown. One set of fringes due to reflecting surface of the platen and
superimposed on this are the fringes due to the upper surface of the slip gauges wrung to the
platen.
Generally, the sets of fringes will be displaced as shown in the figure.
The displacement observed a, is expressed as a fraction of the fringe spacing b, i.e f=a/b.
Fig-2.13 shows the arrangement of the reference plane or platen, slip gauge and proof plane, while Fig-also
shows the fringe relationship, a/b=0.65 for red radiation, as viewed through the eye piece of the instrument.
For each of the wave lengths, a different fraction a/b will be observed.
The height G of the gauge = H-h =n x λ/2 + (a/b)X λ/2
From each of the three radiation observed fractions are f1,f2,f3 resp
Then we get
G =λ1/2(n1+f1); G =λ2/2(n2+f2); G =λ3/2(n3+f3);
Finally a mean error for the gauge length can be calculated by the above equations.
Measurement errors
In any measurement, there is always a degree of uncertainty resulting from
measurement error. Measurement error is the difference between the indicated and
actual values of the measurand. The error could be expressed either as an absolute
error or on a relative scale commonly as a percentage of full scale.
Errors categorized as a) systematic (controllable) errors and b)
Random errors
a) Systematic or Controllable errors:
These are controllable in both their magnitude and sense.
These errors have a constant value or value changing according to
definite law. The error of this category is characterized by deviation
in one direction from the true value.
1. Calibration error: Variation from nominal value by small amount
of the actual length of standards such as slip gauges and scales
2. Ambient conditions: Variations in the ambient conditions from
internationally agreed standard value.
3. Stylus pressure: Errors induced due to stylus pressure.
4. Avoidable errors: parallax and the effect of misalignment.
b) Random Errors: These occur randomly and the specific cases of
such errors cannot be determined.
It is possible to minimize this type of error by repeating
measurements and applying statistical technique to get closer
value to the true value.
Likely sources may be

Small variations in the position of setting standard and work piece

Slight displacement of lever joints in the measuring joints in the
instrument

Friction and play in measuring instrument linkage

Operator errors in reading scale and pointer type displays
Angular measurement
Measurement of any angle precisely is one of the most important
activities. Angular measurement is involved with the
measurement of individual angles on gauges, tools as well as
small angular changes and deflections.

Principles and Instruments

1. Universal Bevel Protractors
In this type of bevel protractor, the blade can be rotated to
measure any angle which is made by providing a slot for the
protractor dial. Scale Graduation and parts are similar to vernier
bevel protractor. The blade can be set to a desired length and
located at any position.
2. Sine Bars
A sine bar is a tool used to measure angles in metalworking. It consists of a
hardened, precision ground body with two precision ground cylinders fixed at the
ends. The distance between the centers of the cylinders is precisely controlled,
and the top of the bar is parallel to a line through the centers of the two rollers as
shown in Fig. 1. Generally, the centre distance between two cylindrical rollers is
10 inch or 100 mm sine bar.
When a sine bar is placed on a level surface the top edge will be parallel to that
surface. If one roller is raised by a known distance, usually using gauge blocks,
then the top edge of the bar will be tilted by the same amount forming an angle
that may be calculated by the application of the sine rule.
Angles are measured using a sine bar with the help of gauge blocks and a dial
gauge or a spirit level. The aim of a measurement is to make the surface on which
the dial gauge or spirit level is placed horizontal. For example, to measure the
angle of a wedge, the sine bar is placed on a horizontal surface plate. The wedge is
clamped over the sine bar with inclined surface on the top. At this position, the top
surface of the wedge is inclined with respect to surface plate. Using slip gauges,
the top surface of wedge is made horizontal. The sine of the angle of inclination of
the wedge is the ratio of the height of the slip gauges used and the distance
between the centers of the cylinders.
Sine Bar Usage
1) Measure angles very accurately.
2) Locate the work piece to a given angle with very high precision
Diagram showing the use of a sine bar for precision measurement
of work piece angles
To check unknown angles:
1. Before checking the unknown angle of the specimen, first the
angle θ of given specimen is found approximately by bevel
protractor.
2. Then the sine bar is set at angle of θ and clamped on the angle
plate.
3. Now, the work is placed on the sine bar and the dial indicator
is set at one end of the work is moved across the work piece and
deviation is noted.
4. Slip gauges are adjusted so that the dial indicator reads zero
throughout the work surface
 Angle Gauges
An angle gauge is a hardened steel block approximately 75mm long and 1mm wide
which has two lapped flat working faces lying at a precise angle to each other as
shown in Fig 2.114. Angle gauges supplied in sets and can be wrung together to
form desired angles. The angle gauges are supplied in set of thirteen pieces in one
box given in table 2.3

For example to measure an angle 43° 24’12”

the following set of angle gauge can be used
GEAR MEASUREMENT
Gears are mechanical drives which transmit power through toothed wheel. In this
gear drive, the driving wheel is in direct contact with driven wheel. The accuracy
of gearing is very important factor when gears are manufactured. The transmission
efficiency is almost 99% for gears. So, it is very important to test and measure the
gears precisely. The gear blanks should be tested for dimensional accuracy and
tooth thickness for the forms of gears.
(i)Gear Tooth Vernier
(ii) Parkinson Gear Tester working principle:
The master gear is fixed on vertical spindle and the gear to be tested is fixed on
similar spindle which is mounted on a carriage. The carriage which can slide both
side and these gears are maintained in mesh by spring pressure. When the gears are
rotated, the movement of sliding carriage is indicated by a dial indicator and these
variations are the measure of any irregularities in the gear under test. The variation
is recorded in a recorder which is fitted in the form of a waxed circular chart.
In Fig 3.33, the gears are fitted on the mandrels and are free to rotate without
clearance. Left mandrel moves along the table and the right mandrel moves along
the spring Loaded carriage.
The two spindles can be adjusted so that the axial distance is equal and a scale is
attached to one side and vernier to the other, this enables center distance to be
measured to within 0.025mm.
If errors occur in the tooth form when gears will be in closer mesh,
pitch or concentricity of pitch line will cause a variation in center
distance from this movement of carriage as indicated to the dial gauge
will show the errors in the gear test. The recorder is also fitted in the
form of circular or rectangular chart and the errors are recorded.
Thread measurements

Introduction
Screw threads are used to transmit power and motion and also used
to fasten two components with the help of nuts, bolts and studs, There
is a large variety of screw threads varying n their form, by included
angle, head angle, helix angle etc. The screw threads are mainly
classified into 1) External thread 2) Internal thread
MEASUREMENT OF VARIOUS ELEMENTS OF SCREW
THREADS
To find out the accuracy of a screw thread, it will be necessary to
measure the following:
1. Major diameter. 2. Minor diameter. 3. Effective or Pitch diameter.
4. Pitch 5. Thread angle and form
Measurement of Effective diameter (Bench Micrometer or Floating
Carriage micrometer)
Bench micrometer:
For getting the greater accuracy, the bench micrometer is used for measuring the
major diameter. In this process, the variation is measured.

From the above fig 3.7, the fiducial indicator is used to ensure all the measurements
are made at the same pressure.
The instrument has a micrometer head with a vernier scale to read the accuracy of
0.002mm. Calibrated setting cylinder having the same diameter as the major diameter
of the thread to be measured is used as a setting standard. After setting the standard,
the setting cylinder is held between the anvils and the reading is taken.
Then the cylinder is replaced by the threaded work piece and the new reading is taken.
The major diameter of screw thread = S± (R2-R1)
Where, S = Diameter of the setting cylinder
R2= Micrometer Reading on screw thread
R1 = Micrometer reading on setting cylinder
Selective assembly
Sometimes it is found that it is not economical to manufacture parts
to the required high degree of accuracy for their correct functioning.
Instead they are made in an economic manner, measured to required
accuracy and graded, or sorted into groups. This each group contains
parts of the same size to within close limits. They are then assembled
with mating parts which are similarly graded.
Ex: Ball-bearing manufacture.

Both types of ring and the balls are graded automatically and when
assembled following conditions allowed:
a) Large balls are assembled into small inner and larger outer rings,
b) Medium balls are assembled into medium inner and outer rings,
c) Small balls are assembled into large inner and small outer rings.
Usually a selective assembly system is used where the assembly is
replaced as a unit rather than replacing parts.
Ex: replacement of whole bearing if one ball cracks instead of one.
COMPARATORS
Comparators are one form of linear measurement device which is quick
and more convenient for checking large number of identical
dimensions. Comparators normally will not show the actual dimensions
of the work piece. They will be shown only the deviation in size, i.e.
during the measurement;

Comparators are designed in several types to meet various conditions.

The comparators are classified according to the principles used for
obtaining magnification.
(i) Mechanical comparators
(ii) Electronic comparators
(iii) Optical comparators
(iv) Pneumatic comparators
Mechanical comparators
Mechanical comparator employs mechanical means for magnifying
all deviations. The method of magnifying small movement of the
indicator in all mechanical comparators are effected by means of
levers, gear trains or a combination of these elements. Mechanical
comparators are available having magnifications from 300–5000:1.
These are mostly used for inspection of small parts machined to close
limits.
a) Dial Indicator
A dial indicator or dial gauge is used as a mechanical comparator.
The essential parts of the instrument are like a small clock with a
plunger projecting at the bottom as shown and experimental set up as
shown in fig. 2.70.
b) Reed type mechanical comparator
In this type of comparator, the linear movement of the plunger specified by means of
reed mechanism. The mechanism of this type illustrated in fig. 2.72. Initially, the
comparator is set with the help of known dimension e.g. set of slip gauges. Then the
indicator reading adjusted to zero. When the part to be measured is kept under the
point then the comparator displays the deviation of this dimension either in or out
side of the set dimension.

Advantages:
It is usually robust, compact and easy to handle.
There is no external supply such as electricity,
air required.
It has very simple mechanism and is cheaper when
compared to other types.
Disadvantages:
Any slackness will reduce accuracy.
It has more moving parts and hence friction is more
and accuracy is less.
The range of the instrument is limited since pointer
is moving over a fixed scale.
Electronic comparator
In electronic comparator, transducer induction or the principle of
application of frequency modulation is followed.
Construction details:
(i) Transducer: It converts the movement of the plunger into an
electrical signal and is connected with oscillator.
(ii) Oscillator: The oscillator which receives electrical signal from
the transducer and raises the amplitude of frequency wave by adding
carrier frequency called as modulation.
(iii) Amplifier: An amplifier is connected in between oscillator and
demodulator The signal coming out of the oscillator is amplified into
the required level
(iv)Demodulator: Demodulator is nothing but a device which cuts of
external carrier wave frequency. i.e. It converts the modulated wave
into original wave as electrical signal.
(v) Meter: This is nothing but a display device from which the output
can be obtained as a linear measurement.
Principle of operation:
The work to be measured is placed under the plunger of the electronic
comparator. Both work and Comparator are made to rest on the surface
plate. The linear movement of the plunger is converted into electrica1
signal by a suitable transducer. Then it is sent to an oscillator to
modulate the electrical signal by adding carrier frequency of wave.
After that the amplified signal is sent to demodulator in which the
carrier waves are cut off. Finally, the demodulated signal is passed to
the meter to convert the probe tip movement into linear measurement
as an output signal.
Advantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator:
(I) It has less number of moving parts.
(ii) Magnification obtained is very high.
(iii) Two or more magnifications are provided in
the same instrument to use various ranges.
(iv) The pointer is made very light so that it is
more sensitive to vibration.
(v) The instrument is very compact.
Disadvantages of Electrical and Electronic comparator:
(i) External agency is required to meter for actuation.
(ii) Variation of voltage or frequency may affect the accuracy of output.
Optical comparator
In this type of comparator, a small plunger displacement is amplified by both mechanical and optical
system. The amplification is first done by a pivoted lever and then by simple optical system.
Construction details:
The optical comparator consists of the following parts such as
(i) Pivoted lever
(ii) Objective lens
(iii) Scale
(iv) Plunger
(v) Table and Base, and
(vi) Mirror

Working principle:
During the measurement, the vertical displacement of the plunger is magnified by the ratio of
the lever arm. The lever tilts the mirror about its hinge to again magnify. The light rays from
the lamp are condensed by a condensing less. Then the condensed light falls on the objective
lens. Here, the light rays are converted into parallel beams. Again the parallel beams of light
ray fall on the mirror.
The mirror reflects the light rays on a screen. This type of comparator can also be used for
inspecting small parts like screw threads gear teeth, saw teeth, cutting tools, needles, cam
profiles etc.
For example, the difference ‘x’ between two dimensions may be used to actuate a lever to
displace by ‘y’. Same displacement causes a ray o light, which was initially at zero angle to
get displaced by 2θ because, the mirror is deflected by ‘θ’ (See Fig.2.75). This magnified
reading is a measure of the displacement x. Here also, the scale is calibrated by gauge blocks.