SEMINAR REPORT FUEL CELL

1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 FUEL CELL

A fuel cell is an electrochemical cell that converts the chemical energy from a fuel into
electricity through an electrochemical reaction of hydrogen fuel with oxygen. Fuel cells are
different from batteries as it requires a continuous source of fuel and oxygen (usually from
air) to sustain the chemical reaction, whereas in a battery the chemical energy comes from
chemicals already present in the battery. Fuel cells can produce electricity continuously for
as long as fuel and oxygen are supplied

There are many types of fuel cells, but they all consist of an anode, a cathode, and
an electrolyte that allows positively charged hydrogen ions (protons) to move between the
two sides of the fuel cell. At the anode a catalyst causes the fuel to undergo oxidation
reactions that generate protons (positively charged hydrogen ions) and electrons. The
protons flow from the anode to the cathode through the electrolyte after the reaction. At the
same time, electrons are drawn from the anode to the cathode through an external circuit,
producing direct current electricity. At the cathode, another catalyst causes hydrogen ions,
electrons, and oxygen to react, forming water

Fig 1: Fuel cell Model

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2.HISTORY OF FUEL CELL

The first references to hydrogen fuel cells appeared in 1838. In a letter dated October 1838
but published in the December 1838 edition of The London and Edinburgh Philosophical
Magazine and Journal of Science, Welsh physicist and barrister William Grove wrote about
the development of his first crude fuel cells. He used a combination of sheet iron, copper
and porcelain plates, and a solution of sulphate of copper and dilute acid. In a letter to the
same publication written in December 1838 but published in June 1839, German physicist
Christian Friedrich Schönbein discussed the first crude fuel cell that he had invented.

His letter discussed current generated from hydrogen and oxygen dissolved in water.
Grove later sketched his design, in 1842, in the same journal. The fuel cell he made used
similar materials to today's phosphoric-acid fuel cell.

Fig 2.1: Sketch of fuel cell from William grove design

In 1939, British engineer Francis Thomas Bacon successfully developed a 5 kW

stationary fuel cell. In 1955, W. Thomas Grubb, a chemist working for the General Electric

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Company (GE), further modified the original fuel cell design by using a sulphonated
polystyrene ion-exchange membrane as the electrolyte. Three years later another GE
chemist, Leonard Niedrach, devised a way of depositing platinum onto the membrane,
which served as catalyst for the necessary hydrogen oxidation and oxygen reduction
reactions. This became known as the "Grubb-Niedrach fuel cell".GE went on to develop
this technology with NASA and McDonnell Aircraft, leading to its use during Project
Gemini. This was the first commercial use of a fuel cell.

In 1959, a team led by Harry Ihrig built a 15 kW fuel cell tractor for Allis-Chalmers,
which was demonstrated across the U.S. at state fairs. This system used potassium
hydroxide as the electrolyte and compressed hydrogen and oxygen as the reactants. Later in
1959, Bacon and his colleagues demonstrated a practical five-kilowatt unit capable of
powering a welding machine. In the 1960s, Pratt and Whitney licensed Bacon's U.S. patents
for use in the U.S. space program to supply electricity and drinking water (hydrogen and
oxygen being readily available from the spacecraft tanks). In 1991, the first hydrogen fuel
cell automobile was developed by Roger Billings.

In 1991, the first hydrogen fuel cell automobile was developed by Roger Billings. UTC
Power was the first company to manufacture and commercialize a large, stationary fuel cell
system for use as a co-generation power plant in hospitals, universities and large office
buildings. In recognition of the fuel cell industry and America’s role in fuel cell
development, the US Senate recognized 8 October 2015 as National Hydrogen and Fuel
Cell Day, passing S. RES 217. The date was chosen in recognition of the atomic weight of
hydrogen (1.008).

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3. WORKING OF FUEL CELL

Basically, a fuel cell is a device that converts directly the chemical energy stored in gaseous
molecules of fuel and oxidant into electrical energy. When the fuel is hydrogen the only by
products are pure water and heat. The overall process is the reverse of water electrolysis. In
electrolysis, an electric current applied to water produces hydrogen and oxygen; by
reversing the process, hydrogen and oxygen are combined to produce electricity and water
(and heat).

In a fuel cell the direct conversion of the chemical energy of covalent bonds into
electrical energy is made possible by the spatial separation of the hydrogen and oxygen
reactants by the electrolyte. The electron transfer necessary to complete the bonding
reconfiguration into water molecules occurs over a much longer length scale. This allows
direct collection of electrons as a current in fuel cells and leads to fuel efficiencies two to
three times higher than in internal combustion engine. Unlike batteries, there is no chemical
transformation of any component of the fuel cell device during operation and it can
generate power without recharging, as long as it is being fed with fuel.

Fig 3.1: Working of Fuel Cell

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Fuel cell reactants are classified as fuels and oxidants on the basis on their electron
donor and electron acceptor properties. Oxidants mainly include pure oxygen and oxygen‐
containing gases e.g. air, or halogens e.g. chlorine. Fuels include pure hydrogen and
hydrogen containing gases, e.g. methanol, ethanol, natural gas, gasoline, biogas, diesel, etc.

The hydrogen fuel cell the combustion of hydrogen into water is split into two
electrochemical reactions occurring at the anode and cathode, respectively, which are
termed as the two half-cell reactions:

At anode:-H2 = 2 H+ + 2 e-

At cathode:- ½ O2 + 2 H+ + 2 e- = H2O

Combination of the two half-cell reactions gives the overall combustion reaction:
H2 + ½ O2 → H2O

Fig 3.2: Inside of fuel cell

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In any fuel cell configuration the role of the electrolyte is crucial because it must
insulate the two half cell reactions electrically in a strict sense while allowing the ionic
passage of protons produced at the anode to the cathode side where they will combine and
form a molecule of water. As a consequence, electrolytes are both good proton conductors
and electric insulators. The third requirement for electrolytes is impermeability to gases in
order to separate the anodic and the cathodic compartments, and thus prevent parasitic
reactions due to gas crossover. Finally, the electrolyte has to be chemically resistant to any
reactant or product during the process.

As passage of electrons is hindered through the electrolyte, they are forced to flow
another way. To this purpose, electrodes are connected to an external electrical circuit and
instead to follow protons the electrons take this second pathway. This allows direct
collection of electricity. Depending on the type of fuel cell, the most suitable electrode
materials are of various natures: metals or oxides, catalyzed or not. They are described in
the section relative to the members of the fuel cell family.

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4. TYPES OF FUEL CELL

Fuel cells come in many varieties; however, they all work in the same general manner.
They are made up of three adjacent segments: the anode, the electrolyte, and the cathode.
Two chemical reactions occur at the interfaces of the three different segments. The net
result of the two reactions is that fuel is consumed, water or carbon dioxide is created, and
an electric current is created, which can be used to power electrical devices, normally
referred to as the load.

Fig 4.1: Block diagram of Fuel Cell

On the basis of type of Electrolyte

1. Alkaline Fuel cell (AFC)

2. Phosphoric Acid Fuel cell (PAFC)

3. Polymer Electrolytic Membrane Fuel Cell (PEMFC)
4. Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell (MCFC)
5. Solid Oxide Fuel Cell (SOFC)

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4.1 ALKALINE FUEL CELL

Fig 4.2: Alkaline Fuel Cell

The alkaline fuel cell uses an alkaline electrolyte such as 40% aqueous potassium
hydroxide. In alkaline fuel cells, negative ions travel through the electrolyte to the
anode where they combine with hydrogen to generate water and electrons.

It was originally used by NASA on space missions. NASA space shuttles use
Alkaline Fuel Cells. Alkaline fuel cells (AFCs) were one of the first fuel cell
technologies developed, and they were the first type widely used in the U.S. space
program to produce electrical energy and water onboard spacecraft. These fuel cells use
a solution of potassium hydroxide in water as the electrolyte and can use a variety of
non-precious metals as a catalyst at the anode and cathode. High-temperature AFCs
operate at temperatures between 100ºC and 250ºC (212ºF and 482ºF). However, more-
recent AFC designs operate at lower temperatures of roughly 23ºC to 70ºC (74ºF to
158ºF).

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The disadvantage of this fuel cell type is that it is easily poisoned by carbon dioxide
(CO2). In fact, even the small amount of CO2 in the air can affect the cell's operation,
making it necessary to purify both the hydrogen and oxygen used in the cell. CO 2 can
combine with KOH to form potassium carbonate which will increase the resistance.
This purification process is costly. Susceptibility to poisoning also affects the cell's
lifetime (the amount of time before it must be replaced), further adding to cost. Cost is
less of a factor for remote locations such as space or under the sea. However, to
effectively compete in most mainstream commercial markets, these fuel cells will have
to become more cost effective. AFC stacks have been shown to maintain sufficiently
stable operation for more than 8,000 operating hours.

Chemical reaction is:-

Anode Reaction: 2H2 + 4OH- → 4H2O + 4e-

Cathode Reaction: O2 + 2H2O + 4e- → 4OH-

4.2. MOLTEN CARBONATE FUEL CELL (MCFC):

Fig 4.3: Structure of Molten Carbonate Fuel Cell

The molten carbonate fuel cell uses a molten carbonate salt as the electrolyte. It has the
potential to be fuelled with coal- derived fuel gases, methane or natural gas. These fuel
cells can work at up to 60% efficiency in molten carbonate fuel cells, negative ions travel
through the electrolyte to the anode where they combine with hydrogen to generate water

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and electrons. Molten carbonate fuel cells (MCFCs) are currently being developed for
natural gas and coal-based power plants for electrical utility, industrial, and military
applications. MCFCs are high-temperature fuel cells that use an electrolyte composed of a
molten carbonate salt mixture suspended in a porous, chemically inert ceramic lithium
aluminum oxide (LiAlO2) matrix. Since they operate at extremely high temperatures of
650ºC and above, nonprecious metals can be used as catalysts at the anode and cathode,
reducing costs.

Unlike alkaline, phosphoric acid, and polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells, MCFCs
don't require an external reformer to convert more energy-dense fuels to hydrogen. Due to
the high temperatures at which they operate, these fuels are converted to hydrogen within
the fuel cell itself by a process called internal reforming, which also reduces cost. Although
they are more resistant to impurities than other fuel cell types, scientists are looking for
ways to make MCFCs resistant enough to impurities from coal, such as sulfur and
particulates. The primary disadvantage of current MCFC technology is durability. The high
temperatures at which these cells operate and the corrosive electrolyte used accelerate
component breakdown and corrosion, decreasing cell life.

Anode Reaction:
CO3-2 + H2 → H2O + CO2 + 2e-
Cathode Reaction:
CO2 + ½O2 + 2e- → CO3-2
Overall Cell Reaction:
H2 + ½O2 → H2O

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Fig 4.4: Reaction of Molten Carbonate Fuel cell

4.3 PHOSPHORIC ACID FUEL CELL

Fig 4.5: Structure of Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cell

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A phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) consists of an anode and a cathode made of a finely
dispersed platinum catalyst on carbon and a silicon carbide structure that holds the
phosphoric acid electrolyte. In phosphoric acid fuel cells, protons move through the
electrolyte to the cathode to combine with oxygen and electrons, producing water and heat.
This is the most commercially developed type of fuel cell and is being used to power many
commercial premises

Phosphoric acid fuel cells use liquid phosphoric acid as an electrolyte the acid is
contained in a Teflon-bonded silicon carbide matrix and porous carbon electrodes
containing a platinum catalyst.

The phosphoric acid fuel cell (PAFC) is considered the "first generation" of modern fuel
cells. It is one of the most mature cell types and the first to be used commercially, with over
200 units currently in use. This type of fuel cell is typically used for stationary power
generation, but some PAFCs have been used to power large vehicles such as city buses

They are 85 percent efficient when used for the co-generation of electricity and heat, but
less efficient at generating electricity alone (37 to 42 percent). PAFCs are also less
powerful than other fuel cells, given the same weight and volume. As a result, these fuel
cells are typically large and heavy. PAFCs are also expensive. Like PEM fuel cells, PAFCs
require an expensive platinum catalyst, which raises the cost of the fuel cell.

Chemical reaction

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4.4 PROTRON EXCHNGER MEMBRANE (PEM) fuel cells

(PEMFC)

In polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cells, protons move through the electrolyte to
the cathode to combine with oxygen and electrons, producing water and heat. Polymer
electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel cell uses a polymeric membrane as the electrolyte, with
platinum electrodes.

Fig4.6: Structure of Polymer Electrolyte Membrane Fuel Cell

These cells operate at relatively low temperatures. These cells are the best candidates for
cars, for buildings and smaller applications. Polymer electrolyte membrane (PEM) fuel
cells—also called proton exchange membrane fuel cells deliver high power density and

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offer the advantages of low weight and volume, compared to other fuel cells. PEM fuel
cells use a solid polymer as an electrolyte and porous carbon electrodes containing a
platinum catalyst. They only hydrogen, oxygen from the air, and water to operate and do
not require corrosive fluids like some fuel cells. They are typically fueled with pure
hydrogen supplied from storage tanks or onboard reformers

Polymer electrolyte membrane fuel cells operate at relatively low temperatures, around
80°C (176°F). Low temperature operation allows them to start quickly (less warm-up time)
and results in less wear on system components, resulting in better durability. However, it
requires that a noble metal catalyst (typically platinum) be used to separate the hydrogen's
electrons and protons, adding to system cost. The platinum catalyst is also extremely
sensitive to CO poisoning, making it necessary to employ an additional reactor to reduce
CO in the fuel gas if the hydrogen is derived from an alcohol or hydrocarbon fuel. This also
adds cost. Developers are currently exploring platinum/ruthenium catalysts that are more
resistant to CO.

Fig 4.7: Working of Proton Exchange Membrane Fuel Cell

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Chemical reaction

4.5 SOLID OXIDE FUEL CELL (SOFC)

They use a solid ceramic electrolyte, such as zirconium oxide stabilized with yttrium oxide,
instead of a liquid and operate at 800 to 1,000°C. In solid oxide fuel cells, negative ions
travel through the electrolyte to the anode where they combine with hydrogen to generate
water and electrons

.
Fig 4.8: Structure of Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

Efficiencies of around 60 per cent and are expected to be used for generating electricity
and heat in industry and potentially for providing auxiliary power in vehicles.Since the
electrolyte is a solid, the cells do not have to be constructed in the plate-like configuration
typical of other fuel cell types.

High temperature operation removes the need for precious-metal catalyst, thereby
reducing cost. They are not poisoned by carbon monoxide (CO), which can even be used as
fuel. sulphur resistant. This allows SOFCs to use gases made from coal. Scientists are
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currently exploring the potential for developing lower-temperature SOFCs operating at or

below 800ºC that have fewer durability problems and cost less

Fig 13: Solid Oxide Fuel Cell

4.6 REGENRATIVE FUEL CELL (RFC):

This class of fuel cells produces electricity from hydrogen and oxygen, but can be reversed
powered with electricity to produce hydrogen and oxygen; effectively storing energy or
electric

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5. NEED OF FUEL CELL

Stationary fuel cells are an economically compelling solution for distributed electric power
generation with continuous base load availability. This ―green‖ technology has become
increasingly popular with facilities looking to implement an environmentally-friendly electric
power generation system without sacrificing efficiency, availability and performance.

Fuel cells make much more efficient use of fuels than other distributed generation
technologies such as reciprocating engines and gas turbines, and generate virtually no pollution
such as nitrogen oxide (NOx), sulfur oxide (SOx), or particulate matter (PM10) and dramatically
reduced carbon dioxide (CO2). And with availability ratings better than 90%, fuel cells are not
hampered by external influences such as time of day or weather that affect other
environmentally-friendly technologies such as wind turbines and solar power.

Direct Fuel Cell power plant systems from Fuel Cell Energy also offer many additional
features that make them an attractive addition for a wide variety of applications. The ability to
generate Combined Heat and Power (CHP) and utilize a variety of fuels such as anaerobic
digestor gas also help to make DFC power plants from Fuel Cell Energy the most efficient and
economical means of generating base load power for a wide variety of facilities across multiple
markets and industries.

Fig 5.1: Showing comparison between fuel cell and normal engine

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6. ADVANTAGES AND DISADVANTAGE OF

FUEL CELL

6.1 ADVANTAGES

1. Efficiency

Fuel cells combine many of the advantages of both internal combustion engines (ICE) and
batteries. Thanks to the direct conversion of chemical energy into electrical energy, fuel cells
are 2;3 times as efficient as ICEs for vehicle propulsion: the net electrical efficiency of a
PEMFC ranges between 40 and above 50% in a driving schedule, which is favorably
compared to the 21-24% efficiency range of ICEs ―from well to wheel‖, i.e. accounting for
the type of fuel used and its entire life cycle. Now if we add in the calculations the reforming
process of gasoline and methanol or the use of compressed hydrogen in the calculations the
efficiencies are 33, 38, and about 50%, respectively. Interestingly, the fuel cell efficiency
does not drop for small systems because it does not depend on its size: unlike gas turbines for
example that suffer from scale effects, small fuel cell devices are quite as efficient as larger
ones. Accounting for energy losses in ancillaries the efficiency is somewhat lowered but is in
any case higher than conventional systems. In co-generation mode with simultaneous use of
electricity and heat, a global efficiency has to be considered. This explains that stationary
systems like fuel cell power plants can attain energy efficiencies of 85%. Thanks to the
thermal yield the global efficiency is roughly doubled with respect to the use of electrical
yield only. This is a huge improvement!

2. Reduced emission

Because fuel cells are electrochemical systems and do not rely on combustion, they are the
cleanest fuel-consuming energy technology, with near zero smog causing emissions. They
produce benefits in all applications: power generation, industrial equipment, transportation,
military power and consumer electronics. The emissions produced by a fuel cell system
strongly depend on the fuel used and its origin. For example, a FC vehicle produces only
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water if it is fed by compressed hydrogen, some CO, CO2 and CH4 if it is fed with ethanol,
and additional SO2 if it is fed with gasoline. Under fuel cell operation, undesirable products
such as carbon monoxide CO, sulfur oxides SOx or nitrogen oxides NOx, ashes and carbon
particulate emissions are virtually zero. Best results are achieved with a fuel cell system
running on hydrogen, the hydrogen being produced by water electrolysis from renewable
electricity. Emissions of pollutants are increased for electricity from the grid, i.e. a mixture of
thermic, nuclear and renewable sources

3. Reliability, low maintenance and quietness

Fuel cells can help provide stability and continuity to the electric grid since they can maintain
a continuous base power in parallel with or independent of the grid. Fuel cells provide high
quality power without any risk of power outage. They have more predictable performance
over wider operating temperature ranges than lead acid batteries. Fuel cells can be recharged
everywhere within a few minutes by refueling while batteries have to be plugged in for time
consuming recharge (and eventually replaced). They operate at constant peak performance
from fuel replenishment to depletion. Therefore operation time is well known and directly
proportional to the amount of fuel supplied. Fuel cells systems have practically no rotating or
even moving parts. Certain types of fuel cells (PEMFC, SOFC) are all solid state thus close to
mechanically ideal. This means less noise and potentially reduced maintenance work (and
related costs) besides refueling. Stationary fuel cells require only minimal maintenance (once
every one to three years) compared to monthly or quaterly site visits to lead acid battery
based installations. Fuel cells are relatively silent systems making them suitable for
residential areas. The only parts that are liable to cause moderate noise are the pieces of
ancillary equipment like fans, compressors and pumps. Noise levels measured on stationary
systems are typically as low as 50, 60 dB.

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Fig 6.1: Comparison weight hydrogen fuel cell vs other

4. Sustainability

Fuel cells are powered by hydrogen, the most abundant element in the Universe. Hydrogen
can be produced from a variety of sources including fossil fuels, natural gas, methanol, and
various renewable energy sources: wind, photovoltaic, geothermic, waves, etc. This is a key
point asset from the perspective of greenhouse gas reduction and follow‐ on process of the
Kyoto Conference. Fuel cells are essential to achieving carbon reduction goals, with CO2
reduction ranging from 40% or better using conventional fuels to nearly 100% using
renewable derived hydrogen, as compared to conventional power sources. Fuel cells can
contribute to the world’s end of dependence on hydrocarbons. They can greatly simplify the
sequestration of CO2 from hydrocarbon fuels, enabling the use of domestically‐ produced
fuels including coal, biomass and hydrogen. Due to their low environmental footprint, fuel
cells are a realistic option in several fields concerned by the climate change debate:
automotive, residential, industrial.

5. Compactness

Fuel cells offer higher energy density and higher storage capacity compared to batteries, and
thus good compactness, which is an interesting feature especially for portable applications.

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6. Modularity and flexibility

Fuel cells allow independent scaling between power (determined by the fuel cell size) and
capacity (determined by the fuel reservoir size). The fuel cell size can be adapted by simply
changing the number of elementary cells and the active area. Scale up is therefore very easy,
from the W range of a cell phone to the MW range of a power utility plant. For miniaturized
systems techniques derived from microelectronics are being developed. Fuel cells are the
ideal solution when space is limited or weight is a concern, offering clean and quiet operation
in a wide range of installation conditions. For example, the reduced footprint requirements
for normal rooftop loading limits, and zero emission combined with silent operation make
them highly suitable for indoor/outdoor, urban/rural applications. In addition, they can be
fueled by a variety of fuels including intermittent renewable energy.

2. DISADVANTAGES

1. The lack of hydrogen infrastructure

Lack of infrastructure has long been considered the biggest obstacle in particular for
introduction of fuel cell vehicles, although this question resembles the classic car and engine
problem (there are no FCVs because there are no hydrogen fueling stations, but there are no
hydrogen fueling stations because there is no demand for hydrogen as fuel for FCVs…).
Establishing the necessary infrastructure for hydrogen production, transport and distribution
would require significant capital investment, but there is no absolute impediment, since
hundreds of hydrogen refueling stations already exist in the U.S.A., Japan, and Europe.
Obviously, legislation and standards are however still missing. In a recent paper published by
General Motors, it is projected that consumers will not have to pay significantly more for
hydrogen than gasoline in the longer term and also that the key challenge remains matching
scale and timing of hydrogen investment with actual hydrogen demand.

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Fig6.2 Problems of fuel cell

2. Cost

3. Durability

4. It is a very flammable gas (think of the Hindenburg), which further adds to the on-board
storage problems

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7. APPLICATION OF FUEL CELLS

1. Automotive applications (50-250 kW)

This section is limited to the application of fuel cells for light‐ duty vehicle and bus
propulsion. The other related application as an auxiliary power unit onboard the vehicle will
be treated in the next section named ―Niche transport applications‖

1. Light duty vehicles (50 kW)

Fig7.1: Fuel cell car

Almost all major car manufacturers have demonstrated prototype fuel cell vehicles and
have announced plans for production and commercialization in the near to midterm future
(5‐ 10 years). The race to develop a viable fuel cell vehicle and bring it to market began
during the 1990s and continues today. The big drivers for the development of automotive fuel
cell technology are its efficiency, low or zero emissions, and fuel that could be produced
from local sources rather than imported. The main obstacles for fuel cell commercialization
in automobiles are the cost of components and the availability of hydrogen.

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PEMFC’s meet the 4000 h lifetime target for automotive applications at the laboratory
scale. The effect of real‐ life conditions on the fuel cell system (repeated startups and
shutdowns, impurities in fuel and air, low and high temperatures) has to be assessed more
thoroughly. Startup and steady operation in extremely cold climates (‐ 40°C) require specific
water management controls, whereas the heat rejection system must be sized for hot weather
conditions (+40°C). Water balance is a prerequisite in a PEMFC for optimal operation; this
results also in an additional cooling system.

A hydrogen fuel cell vehicle does not generate any pollution and is qualified as Zero
Emission Vehicle (ZEV). If another fuel is used and reformed onboard, the propulsion system
has some emissions generated during the reforming process, but those emissions are in
general still much lower than the emissions from an internal combustion engine (ICE);
therefore the fuel cell vehicles using a fuel reformer are typically qualified as Ultra Low
Emission Vehicles (ULEV). Hydrogen is the only fuel that results in a zero emission vehicle,
particularly if hydrogen is produced from renewable sources. Use of hydrogen as
transportation fuel could reduce dependency on imported oil. A fuel cell system that runs on
pure hydrogen is relatively simple, has the best performance, runs more efficiently, and has
the longest stack life. Hydrogen is nontoxic and, despite its reputation, has some very safe
features. One of the biggest problems related to hydrogen use in passenger cars is its onboard
storage. Hydrogen can be stored as compressed gas, as cryogenic liquid, or in metal hydrides.
Tanks for gaseous hydrogen are bulky, and the amount to be stored depends on the fuel
efficiency and the required range (typically 300 miles or 500 km). In order to achieve a better
match between the storage capacity of the tank, the fuel efficiency of the car and its range,
further improvements in vehicle design, introduction of new lightweight composite materials,
and compression of hydrogen at 700 bars are mandatory. The difficulty of storing hydrogen
onboard a vehicle, as well as lack of hydrogen infrastructure has forced car manufacturers to
consider other, more conveniently supplied fuels. In that case the fuel cell must be integrated
with a fuel processor that produces hydrogen from gasoline or methanol.

First model is based on a specific fuel cell design; all the others are derived from standard
ICEs, with mere replacement of the propulsion engine by a fuel cell system. Alone amongst
the major automakers, BMW is developing a SOFC‐ based auxiliary power unit for its 7‐
series luxury car model
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Fig 7.2: Working of fuel cell car

As of 2015, two Fuel cell vehicles have been introduced for commercial lease and sale in
limited quantities: the Toyota Mirai and the Hyundai ix35 FCEV. Additional demonstration
models include the Honda FCX Clarity, and Mercedes-Benz F-Cell. As of June 2011
demonstration FCEVs had driven more than 4,800,000 km (3,000,000 mi), with more than
27,000 refuelings. Demonstration fuel cell vehicles have been produced with "a driving range
of more than 400 km (250 mi) between refueling". They can be refueled in less than 5
minutes. The U.S. Department of Energy's Fuel Cell Technology Program claims that, as of
2011, fuel cells achieved 53–59% efficiency at one-quarter power and 42–53% vehicle
efficiency at full power, and a durability of over 120,000 km (75,000 mi) with less than 10%
degradation.
Fuel cell vehicles, because they are still an immature technology and thus are
manufactured on a prototype level, are far more expensive than mass‐produced ICEs.
However, forecast studies conducted by car manufacturers have shown that
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cost‐competitively could be achieved accounting for mass production manufacturing

techniques. The main high‐cost components in the fuel cell stack are the catalyst precious
metal Pt, or Pt‐based alloy, the ionomer membrane, Nafion or fluoropolymer, and the
graphite bipolar plates. The cost target for fuel cell vehicles, similar to the current production
cost of ICEs, i.e. Rs 100 –Rs 110 per kW, demands large economies of scale during
manufacturing of the stacks and performance improvements in terms of Watts per unit active
area.

The future remains positive, since major manufacturers worldwide are about to release
fleets of hundreds of fuel cell vehicles as Honda did in 2008 in California, and the prospect of
thousands of vehicles available to individual consumers after 2012 is strong.

Some fuel cell car companies are:-Toyota Mirai, Hyundai Nexo, Honda Clarity FCV, and
Mercedes Benz F-cell Car

2. Buses (250KW)

Fig 7.3: Mercedes Benz fuel cell Bus

Buses for city and regional transport are considered the most likely type of vehicles for an
early market introduction of the PEMFC technology. Most of the issues discussed in the
previous section, Light Duty Vehicles, also apply for the fuel cell applications in buses. The

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major differences are in power requirements, operating conditions and resulting lifetime,
space available for hydrogen storage, and refueling sites.

Buses require typically 250 kW under high demanding, intermittent conditions, with
frequent starts and stops. Compared to their diesel engine equivalent the efficiency gain is
about 15%.

Buses are almost always operated as a fleet and refueled in a central facility. Storage of
large quantities of hydrogen onboard (the roof location is very safe for a gas lighter than air)
is not a concern. These two characteristics make use of hydrogen much easier. Thanks to use
of hydrogen, fuel cell buses are Zero Emission Vehicles (ZEVs), which is a big advantage
over diesel buses in densely populated regions. Demonstration programs funded from local to
international level have seen several fleets of fuel cell buses deployed in European cities
(Clean Urban Transport for Europe program), in the U.S.A. (Sun line Transit Authority in
Palm Springs), and in large cities worldwide (United Nations Development Program, Global
Environment Facility).

The main obstacles for commercialization of fuel cell buses are their cost and durability.
Because the production series for buses are smaller than for passenger cars, their cost per kW
is somewhat higher, as is the expected lifetime. Together with the intermittent operating
regime, this could eventually challenge the current fuel cell technology

3. Motorcycles and bicycles

In 2005 a British manufacturer of hydrogen-powered fuel cells, Intelligent Energy (IE),

produced the first working hydrogen run motorcycle called the ENV (Emission Neutral
Vehicle). The motorcycle holds enough fuel to run for four hours, and to travel 160 km (100
mi) in an urban area, at a top speed of 80 km/h (50 mph). In 2004 Honda developed a fuel-
cell motorcycle that utilized the Honda FC Stack.

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Fig7.4: Hydrogen fuel cell cycle, China

Other examples of motorbikes and bicycles that use hydrogen fuel cells include the
Taiwanese company APFCT's scooter using the fueling system from Italy's Acta SpA and the
Suzuki Burgman scooter with an IE fuel cell that received EU Whole Vehicle Type Approval
in 2011. Suzuki Motor Corp. and IE have announced a joint venture to accelerate the
commercialization of zero-emission vehicles.

4. Airplanes

Fig7.5: Boeing fuel cell airplane

Boeing researchers and industry partners throughout Europe conducted experimental flight
tests in February 2008 of a manned airplane powered only by a fuel cell and lightweight
batteries. The fuel cell demonstrator airplane, as it was called, used a proton exchange
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membrane (PEM) fuel cell/lithium-ion battery hybrid system to power an electric motor,
which was coupled to a conventional propeller. In 2003, the world's first propeller-driven
airplane to be powered entirely by a fuel cell was flown. The fuel cell was a unique Flat Stack
stack design, which allowed the fuel cell to be integrated with the aerodynamic surfaces of
the plane.

There have been several fuel-cell-powered unmanned aerial vehicles (UAV). A Horizon
fuel cell UAV set the record distance flown for a small UAV in 2007. The military is
especially interested in this application because of the low noise, low thermal signature and
ability to attain high altitude. In 2009 the Naval Research Laboratory's (NRL's) Ion Tiger
utilized a hydrogen-powered fuel cell and flew for 23 hours and 17 minutes. Fuel cells are
also being used to provide auxiliary power in aircraft, replacing fossil fuel generators that
were previously used to start the engines and power on board electrical needs. Fuel cells can
help airplanes reduce CO2 and other pollutant emissions and noise.

5. Boats

The world's first fuel-cell boat HYDRA used an AFC system with 6.5 kW net outputs.
Iceland has committed to converting its vast fishing fleet to use fuel cells to provide auxiliary
power by 2015 and, eventually, to provide primary power in its boats. Amsterdam recently
introduced its first fuel-cell-powered boat that ferries people around the city's famous and
beautiful canals.

6. Submarines
The Type 212 submarines of the German and Italian navies use fuel cells to remain
submerged for weeks without the need to surface. The U212A is a non-nuclear submarine
developed by German naval shipyard Howaldtswerke Deutsche Werft. The system consists of
nine PEM fuel cells, providing between 30 kW and 50 kW each. The ship is silent giving it
an advantage in the detection of other submarines. A naval paper has theorized about the
possibility of a Nuclear-Fuel Cell Hybrid whereby the fuel cell is used when silent operations
are required and then replenished from the Nuclear reactor (and water).

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8. SCOPE OF FUEL CELL IN INDIA

The Government of India (GOI) has been supporting development of technologies in the area of
hydrogen energy and fuel cells for quite some time, which has created a good expertise and
infrastructure base. A well-framed national program with participation from various academic
institutions, R&D establishments and industries with expertise in different areas need to be
launched in the country to develop this technology, manufacture in large numbers and
demonstrate their application potentiality for the benefit of the society at large. Application areas
of the developed products, it be mobile towers or transportation or any other kind of application
should be chosen carefully so that the requirements of the user are fully satisfied. In addition,
areas are to be identified for long term / futuristic R&D, which also require adequate financial
support.

Several government laboratories and academic institutions together with a few private
organizations are actively pursuing different kinds of R&D programmes in this country for the
last couple of decades. Considerable expertise and infrastructure at different locations have
already been developed. In certain cases know-how’s have been transferred to industry and
limited scale production for particular type of fuel cell (PAFC) has also been initiated particularly
for defense use. Regular production even for the purpose of large scale demonstration for other
types of fuel cells is still a long way to travel. DRDO, CSIR, MNRE and DST have been the
major funding agencies for these activities. Industry participation for the developmental projects,
which is an important pre-requisite for technology development and demonstration, is still at its
infancy.

The most successful Research and Developmental effort in the area of fuel cell technology in
this country has been registered by DRDO particularly for PAFC. They have transferred the
developed technology to an Indian Industry, who has manufactured 24 Nos. of 3kW stack and
delivered them back to DRDO under a buy back arrangement. The industry is ready with the
manufacturing facility, which can be utilized for additional units in case a civilian utility is
identified and necessary funding is made available to them.

MCFC operates at a higher temperature and requires no external reformer. The fuel is
reformed internally to hydrogen. Very large capacity (>1MW) units are in operation in some of

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the advanced countries. In India work on MCFC was carried out during 1992 to 1998, by a
couple of organizations only with financial support from MNRE. However, currently there is
hardly any expertise to develop the basic fuel cell stack. Considering several advantages of this
type of fuel cell particularly as a distributed power plant, it is recommended that the country may
take a renewed interest in the R&D mode to develop the technology in near future.

MNRE is a major supporter for hydrogen and fuel cell research in the country for several
decades. It has funded nearly Rs. 5.0 crores during 11th Five Year Plan (2007-08 to 2011-12) and
Rs.1.00 crores during 12th Five Year Plan (2012-13 to December, 2014) for developing these
technologies.

MNRE guidelines state that financial assistance for RD&D projects including the technology
validation and demonstration projects that involve partnership with industry/civil society
organizations should normally be restricted to 50% of the project cost. However, for any proposal
from academic institutions, Government/non-profit research organizations and NGOs, Ministry
may provide up to 100% funding. Private academic institutions should adhere to certain
conditions for availing project grants from the Ministry.

DST has been supporting several basic R&D program in various hydrogen technologies in the
country through SERC (presently SERB). Several projects on PEMFC have been covered under
this scheme. The project budget details are not easily accessible. Besides this route, DST through
TIFAC has supported few hydrogen research programs. On a mission mode through the IRHPA
programs DST has sanctioned a project to ARCI to set-up a fuel cell technology Centre with a
specific aim of developing and demonstrating PEMFC in decentralized and transportations
applications. The total outlay for the 10 year project is about ~Rs.24.00 crore for the period
2004-2014 ( the project includes man power costs of all scientists , infrastructure cost such as
rent and maintenance, Utilities costs such as electricity, water etc., besides the development
costs). Future plans are not clear at the moment. DST has also funded several faculty/ students
exchange programs under International collaboration some of which have been used for work on
PEMFC. DST has also signed an agreement with UKRC in 2011for supporting projects
specifically on fuel cells and one of the projects is on PEMFC with an outlay of Rs.3.49 crore.

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9. CONCLUSION

With the growing population and its increasing standard of living, the demand for energy is
becoming higher continuously. In the long run this demand for energy can’t be met by the
depleting fossil fuels throughout the world, including India. It is therefore, pertinent to
develop clean and green alternate energy sources, which may protect the environment by not
creating any more pollution / with reduced level of pollution in the production of electricity
and running the vehicles. One of such alternate energy technology is fuel cell technology and
therefore, efforts are being made world over to develop them in a commercially viable
manner. It is an energy conversion device that converts chemical energy of a gaseous / liquid
(in some cases solid) fuel into electrical energy by electro-chemical reaction. Efforts are
being made to make this technology commercially viable by enhancing energy conversion
efficiency, electrode – electrolyte interface reaction, reducing the cost of the catalyst etc.

Focusing on and developing renewable energy resources will not only dramatically affect
the air quality and the environment, but it will also level the playing field in the global
political arena. Implementing clean energy technology over the next century could save
money, create jobs, reduce greenhouse emissions and sharply reduce air and water pollution.
Clearly renewable energy is the key to sustainable development.

Various kinds of fuel cells have been developed over the past few decades. They are
classified primarily by the kind of electrolyte they employ. This classification determines the
kind of electro-chemical reactions that take place in the cell, the kind of catalysts required,
the temperature range in which the cell operates, the fuel required, and other factors.
Important types of fuel cell under development are: Low and high temperature Proton
Exchange Membrane Fuel Cells (LT- & HT-PEMFC), Direct Methanol Fuel Cells (DMFC),
Phosphoric Acid Fuel Cells (PAFC), Alkaline Fuel Cells (AFC), Molten Carbonate Fuel
Cells (MCFC), Solid Oxide Fuel Cells (SOFC)

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