CE211: Circuit & Electronics

Lecture: 3-4

Chapter 2: Resistive
Circuits

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 Circuit Laws
• To design an eletrical system, knowledge of
fundamental electric circuit laws is necessary

– Ohm’s law

– Kirchoff’s current law (KCL)

– Kirchoff’s voltage law (KVL)

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 Ohm’s Law
• Named after the German physicist Georg
Simon Ohm who established the voltage-
current relationship for resistance
Statement: The voltage across a resistance is
directly proportional to the current flowing
through it.

• The resistance measured in ohms, is the

constant of proportionality between the
voltage and current
• Mathematically: v(t) = R i(t) ; R ≥ 0
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Symbol for a resistor

Typical Discrete resistors

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 Linear Relationship
• While obeying Ohm’s law, the relation between
the volatge and current is always linear
(Assumption: Resistance is constant) - Fig-a
• However at times, e.g; in case of a light bulb,
non-linear characteristics can be noticed -Fig-b

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 What Is Resistance?
• Resistance is the property of a resistor by virtue of which it
offers opposition to the flow of current through it.

• Resistance is measured in Ohms

• Thus, v(t) = R i(t) can be written as

R = v(t) / i(t)
=> Ohm = Volts/Ampere

• The symbol for Ohm is Ω

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 Resistance, Power and Conductance
• Energy absorbed by resistor is dissipated in the form of
heat
• Power absorbed by a resistor is a non-linear fucntion of
either current or voltage
• Reciprocal of resistance is called conductance
• Mathematically
Conductance (G) = 1/Resistance (Ω)
The unit for conductance is siemens denoted by S
1S = 1A/V
• Conducatnce can be substituted in I-V or power
equations in place of resistance
• I-V equation with conductance in place of resistance is
another form of Ohm’s law i.e; V = I/G 7
• P = VI
– V = IR or V = I/G
– P = I2R or P = I2/G
• Also I = V/R
– P = V2/R or P = V2G

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 Two Special Cases
1. R = 0 (short circuit)
Resistance beacome so small that it can be replaced by
a short circuit (Fig-b)
2. R = ∞ (Open circuit)
Resistance becomes infinite and can be replaced by an open circuit
(Fig-c)

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 V=IR
• R = 0 (Short Circuit)
=> V = 0
I could be theoratically any value
• R = ∞ (Open circuit)
=> I = 0
V could be theoretically any value

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 Example 2.1, Pg: 28
• Determine the current and power absorbed
by the resistor

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 Kirchoff’s Laws
• Used for calculating voltages, currents etc in complicated networks

• When do we use Kirchoff’s Laws?

When two or more simple elements (resistors, capacitors, inductors, voltage
sources etc) are interconnected in a circuit

• Ohm’s law alone can not solve these circuits

• Assumption: Lumped-parameter circuit i.e; conductors (wires)

connecting the elements have zero resistance => perfect conductors
OR
Ideal components interconnected through ideal wires or conductors

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 Node, Loop and Branch
• Node: A point of connection of two or more circuit elements
OR
A point in circuit where current divides between two or more
paths
• Fig-a & Fig-b are two different representations of the same
circuit

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• Loop: Any closed path in a circuit in which no
node is encountered more than once
• A loop starts at a node then passes through
other nodes and returns to the starting node
without passing through any node more than
once

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• One loop would contain elements R1, v2, R4 and i1 (Red Loop)
• Another loop can be R2, v1, v2, R4 and i1 (Orange Loop)
• R1, v1, R5, v2, R3 and i1 is not a loop (Black Loop)
– Because node 3 was passed twice

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• Branch: Portion of a circuit that contains only a single
element and nodes at each end of the element
• In simplest terms a branch is two terminals of an
element
• A total of 3 branches in the following figure

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 KCL: Kirchoff’s Current Law
• Statement: The algebraic sum of currents entering and leaving a node is zero
OR
The total current flowing into a node is equal to the total current flowing out of
that node

– e.g; total current at node 3 is equal to zero

• Assumptions: If currents flowing towards a node are taken as positive then the
currents flowing away from a node must be taken as negative and vice versa.

• Note: The sum over here is Algebraic Sum

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 Example 2.6 Pg: 33
• To find the unknown currents in the following
network

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 Example 2.7 Pg: 33
• Write KCL equations for nodes 1 through 4

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 KCL and Closed Surface
• Closed Surface: Set of elements completely contained within a
surface that are interconnected

• Current entering each element within the surface is equal to that

leaving the element

• The algebraic sum of the currents entering and leaving any closed
surface is zero

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 Example 2.8, Pg: 34
• Find I4 and I1 in the following network

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• A short ciruit with two nodes actually
becomes one node

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 KVL: Kirchoff’s Voltage Law
• Statement: The algebraic sum of voltages around any loop is equal
to zero

• As we move through a circuit, energy level either increases or

decreases through each element

• These increases and decreses are summed up to zero in a loop

• Rule of Thumb:
• Decrease in energy level = Positive
• Increase in energy level = Negative

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 More About Energy Levels
Flow of Current Energy Level Sign
Positive to Negative Terminal Decreased Positive sign with Voltage
Negative to Positive Terminal Increased Negative sign with Voltage

Note that decreased and increased energy level

quantities would be written with a positive and negetaive
sign respectively if they are written on the same side of
the equation. e.g; V1 + V2 –V3 +V4 –V5 = 0

Otherwise use positive sign with every energy level if

quantities are written on different sides of an equation.
e.g; V1 +V2 +V4 = V3 + V5
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 Example 2.9, Pg: 36
• Find VR3 if VR1 and VR2 are known quantities

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 Example 2.10, Pg: 36
• A total of 3 closed paths in the following figure

• Left Loop, Right Loop and Outer Loop

• Adding the equations for left and rigth loop will result in outer loop equation
– Thus, the 3 equations are NOT Linearly Independant equations
– Adding equation A and B gives C => A, B, and C are not linearly independant as equation C can b derived
from equations A and B
– Linearly independant equations are the one which can not be derived algebraically from other equations

• But Equations for left and right loop are linearly independant

• But the voltages can be calculated using left and right loop only

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 Convention For Higher Potential
• Vab→ Voltage at point a is at higher poten al w.r.t voltage at point b (a is posi ve
relative to b) {Fig-a}

• Potential is measured between 2 points and an arrow can be used which points
towards the higher potential {Fig-b}

• + and – signs across an element can also indicate higher and lower potentials
respectively {Fig-c}

• Double subscript notation, + and – sign notation and arrow head notation are all
same if arrow head points towards the positive terminal and first subscript in the
double subscript notation {Fig-d}

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 Example 2.11, Pg: 37
• To find the voltage between
• a and e
• e and c

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 Example 2.12, Pg: 38
• Write KVL equations for two closed paths
abda and bcdb

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 E 2.8, Pg: 38
• Find Vad and Veb

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 E2.9, Pg: 32
• Find Vbd in the circuit

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