CHAPTER NO.

LUMBER

WOOD

Is that fibrous substance which composes the trunk and branches of a tree that lies
between the pitch and the bark. More specifically, wood is defined as the lignified water
conducting, strengthening and storage tissues of branches, stem, and roots of trees.
Technically, wood is known as Xylem.
Properties of Wood as Building Material

1. Strong Material
2. Durable
3. Light in Weight
4. Ease of working and fastening
5. With artistic and natural beauty

Advantages of Wood as Building Material

1. In proportion to weight, wood is stronger than other materials.

2. Wood is easily worked out with tools and fabricated into many shapes, sizes and
design.
3. Wood is excellent non-conductor of heat. It is warm in winter, and cool in summer.
4. With artistic grains and appearance conductive to architectural designs, adding
beauty, and attraction to furniture and interior finishes.
5. It is abundant in many shapes, color, sizes, and as renewable resources.
6. The use of timber connectors in wide trusses and spans generally permit the use
of small members.
7. In terms of value, wood does not deteriorate if properly handled and protected.
8. It is not readily affected by changing styles.
9. It has prompt resale value.
10. Neither heat nor cold or climate changes would seriously affect the physical
properties of wood.

Physical Properties of Wood

Strength is the general term used with respect to the ability of wood in resisting stress
and strain. However, strength of different wood varies in the following manner:

1. Wood is resistant to compression along the fibers.

2. Stiffness or the ability to resist bending stress as in floor joists, beams and rafters
supporting heavy load.
3. Strength in tension or the ability to resist lengthwise stresses.

4. Shearing strength or the ability of the fibers to resist rupture along or across the
grain.
Moisture

Is an important factor affecting the strength of wood. To a certain extent, strength

increases with the degree of wood seasoning.
 Compression Failure

Tension Failure

Knots and other defects in wood materially affect the strength more particularly
the size, character, and location of the knots or defects.

Weight of wood is another important consideration because heavy woods are

generally stronger than lighter wood.

Hardness is expressed as resistance to indentation or to the saw or axe across the

grain. Hardness is generally dependent on the weight of wood, structural elements
and degree of seasoning. These features are important in several methods of
utilization such as flooring, furniture, cross ties, handles, and many small wood items.

Cleavability is the resistance of wood to split along the grains. The line of least
resistance to splitting is along the radius because the wood rays are in this direction.
Wood splits much more easily when wet because moisture softens the fibers and
reduces adhesion across the grain. Straightness in the grain however, determines the
ease with which wood splits.
 Flexibility and Toughness

The moisture content of wood influences flexibility to a considerable degree.

Toughness refers to the combined strength, shock resistance, and pliability or
flexibility of wood.

Durability as applied to wood means the ability to resist decay or simply the length
of its life under a given condition. Durability also includes the resistance of the wood
to the influence of mechanical wear.

Wood Durability, Physical and Mechanical Properties

Absolutely, there is no direct relation between the physical and mechanical properties
of wood and its durability. For instance, weight, strength, stiffness, hardness, or
toughness do not seem to have any influence on the durability of wood. Some of
these properties however, may aid in the prevention of injurious effects of abrasion
due to mechanical wear.

There are obvious relationship between the color of the heartwood and durability. The
darker the heartwood, the more durable is the wood. Many species with light colored
heartwood are perishable. Indeed, the durability of any species depends on certain
chemical component present in the wood such as:

1. Resins of the wood.

2. Gums of the wood.
3. Tannin and other decay resisting materials.

These chemical components provide a dark discoloration to the heartwood of

several species. This phenomenon explains the relationship of color to durability of wood.

Color is often a means of identifying wood. As mentioned earlier, heartwood is

generally much darker in color than sapwood, although in some species, there is a little
differentiation in color between the heartwood and the sapwood.

All freshly sawed woods are much lighter in color than when exposed to the air or
sunshine for some time. Oxidation turns wood to darker shade.

Classification of Wood

Wood which are classified as good lumber for building constructions are those that grows
larger by the addition of a new layer on the outer surface each year identified by
botanists as Oxogens.
Some tree grows rapidly depending upon the climate, soil, moisture and food elements.
Others grow up to 1/8’’ or ½’’ in diameter per year or more. Likewise, there are trees
that grows at the rate of only ¼’’ to ½’’ in 10 to 15 years or sometimes more.

 Mode of Growth is either:

1. Exogenous are those outward growing trees most preferred for lumbering.
2. Indigenous are those inside growing trees. This kind of tree is less
preferred for lumbering because the center core of the log is soft and brittle
in character.

 Density refers to the quality of the mass and volume of the wood classified as:
1. Softwood known as conifers or evergreen.
2. Hardwood is generally deciduous with broad leaves.

 Leaves: The characteristics of trees with respect to the form of their leaves are
either
1. Needle Shape
 2. Broad Shape

 Shades or Color of Wood varies from either:

1. White
2. Red
3. Yellow
4. Brown
5. Orange
6. Black, etc.

 Grain: The grain of wood is classified into:

1. Straight
2. Cross
3. Fine
4. Coarse

 Nature of the surface when sewed:

1. Plain
2. Grained
3. Figured or marked
 Cross Section Of A Tree

Preparation of Wood

Logging is defined as the harvesting of the tree crops consisting of a sequence of

operations such as:

1. Cutting of the tree.

2. Skidding is the term used when logs are moved to an assembly area loaded to
transport equipment then carried out of the forest to the sawmill.
3. Bucking is the process of sawing into smaller pieces after the removal of branches.

Previously, all felling and buckling operations were done by the use of axe, saw, and
wedges. Lately however, the felling of trees were done using motor powered chain saw
because of the following advantages:

1. Substantially lower labor cost

2. Bigger Production
3. Time Elements

Skidded is the term used when the log is dragged and carried down to an assembly
area.

Yarded – When the logs are delivered through the cable or a helium filled balloon.

Lumbering is the term applied to the operation performed in preparing wood for
commercial purposes.
Two Methods of Log Sawing Employed are:

1. Plain or Bastard Sawing

2. Quarter or Rift Sawing

Plain or Bastard Sawing is by cutting the logs entirely through the diameter with a
parallel chord tangential to the annual rings.

Quarter or Rift Sawing is categorized into four methods of sawing:

 Radial Method
 Tangential Method
 Quarter Tangential
 Combined Radial and Tangential
DEFINITION OF TERMS

Surfaced or Dressed Lumber

Is a planed lumber having at least one smooth side.

S2s and S4s

Are planed or dressed lumber of which the number connotes the smooth sides. S2s
means smooth on two sides and S4s on four sides.

Slab

Is a kind of rough lumber cut tangent to the annual rings of wood running the full length
of the log and containing at least one flat surface.
Timber

Is a piece of lumber five inches or larger in its smallest dimension.

Plank

Is a wide piece of lumber from 2 to 5 inches thick

Board

Is a piece of lumber less than 1 ½’’ thick and at least 4 inches wide.
Flitch

Is a thick piece of lumber

Fine Grain

When the annual rings are small, the grain marking which separates the adjacent rings
is said to be fine grain. When large, it is called Coarse-Grained.

Seasoning

Means drying of lumber.

Straight Grained

When the directions of the wood fibers are nearly parallel with the sides and edges of
the board, it is said to be straight grained. When the lumber is taken from a crooked
tree, it is classified as crooked or cross-grained.
Lumber

Is the term applied to wood after it was sawed or sliced into boards, planks, sticks, etc.
for commercial purposes.

Rough Lumber

Is the term applied to newly sawed lumber.

Silviculture

Is the process of growing timber crops of a better and more valuable species as rapidly
as possible through scientific forestry.

Defects in Wood

Irregularities found in wood are considered as defects. The most common defects are:

A. Abnormal Growth

1. Heart Shakes are radial cracks originating at the heart of the logs.
2. Wind Shakes or Cup Shakes are cracks or breaks across the annual rings of
timber during its growth caused by excessive bending.
3. Star Shakes is composed of several heart shakes radiating from the center of the
log in a star-like manner.
4. Knots usually occurs at the starting point of a limb or branch of the wood.
 B. Due to Deterioration

1. Dry Rot – is the presence of moisture in seasoned wood caused by fungi.

2. Wet Rot – usually takes place sometime in the growth of trees caused by
water saturation.

Measuring Wood

Board foot means one square foot of wood one inch thick or 144 cubic inches. The
formula used to find board foot is:

𝑇ℎ𝑖𝑐𝑘𝑛𝑒𝑠𝑠 𝑥 𝑊𝑖𝑑𝑡ℎ 𝑥 𝐿𝑒𝑛𝑔𝑡ℎ

𝐵𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡 =
12

Where:

Thickness is in Inches

Width is in Inches

Length is in Feet
EXAMPLES

1. Find the total board foot of 5 pieces 2’’ x 6’’ x 14’

Solution:

𝟓 𝒑𝒄𝒔. 𝒙 𝟐 𝒙 𝟔 𝒙 𝟏𝟒
𝑩𝒅. 𝑭𝒕. = = 𝟕𝟎 𝒃𝒅. 𝒇𝒕.
𝟏𝟐

Note: One cubic meter of wood is equal to 423.67 bd.ft.

2. Find the total net board foot lumber that could be obtained from the log.

How to determine board foot in a round log

The total net board foot in a round log is computed using the following formula:

(𝐷 − 4)2 𝑥 𝐿
𝐵𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝐹𝑜𝑜𝑡 =
16

Where:

D = The smaller diameter of the log in inches.

L = Length of the log in feet.

(24 − 4)2 𝑥 18
𝐵𝑑. 𝐹𝑡. = = 𝟒𝟓𝟎 𝒃𝒅. 𝒇𝒕.
16
3. How much will it cost to slice a 6’’ x 6’’ x 3.00 m wood to produce a 2 x 6 lumber if
the unit price is P2.00 per board ft.

Solution: (Board Foot Method)

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑡𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑏𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑 𝑓𝑜𝑜𝑡 𝑜𝑓 𝑙𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟

6′′ 𝑥 6′′ 𝑥 10′

𝑏𝑑. 𝑓𝑡. = = 30 𝑏𝑑. 𝑓𝑡.
12
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑢𝑛𝑖𝑡 𝑝𝑟𝑖𝑐𝑒 𝑠𝑎𝑦 𝑃2.00

𝐶𝑜𝑠𝑡 = 30 𝑥 2.00 = 𝑃60.00

STUD

Is the structural member in building construction wherein the sidings or partition boards
are fastened. It is sometimes referred to as the ribs of wooden walls or partitions.
Lumber intended for studs should be straight and uniform in width of either S2s or S4s
for uniformity of wall thickness.
 STUDS

Advantage of Using S2s and S4s Lumber

1. Good quality, straight and uniform in thickness.

2. It is economical in terms of labor cost.
3. The work progress is not affected or delayed.

There are two methods presented on how to find the quantity of studs at a given
vertical and horizontal spacing.

1. By Direct Counting Method.

2. By the Square Meter Method.
By Direct Counting Method is simply counting the number of vertical and horizontal
member from a detailed plan. In the absence of a detailed drawing plan, an imaginary
counting through arithmetical calculation will do.

By Area or Square Meter Method is simply finding the wall area multiplied by the
values given in the table corresponding to the size and spacing of the studs.

NUMBER OF BOARD FOOT OF STUDS AND NAILING JOIST PER SQUARE METER

4. A wall partition 5.80 meters long and 3.40 meters high specify the use of 2’’ x 3’’
studs spaced at 60 centimeters on center both ways. Find the total board foot required.
SOLUTION:

BY DIRECT COUNTING

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠

5.80
= 10 (𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
0.60
𝐴𝑑𝑑 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠:

10 + 1 = 11 𝑝𝑐𝑠. 𝑎𝑡 3.40𝑚 𝑜𝑟 12𝑓𝑡

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠

3.40
= 6 (𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
0.60
𝐴𝑑𝑑 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠:

6 + 1 = 7 𝑝𝑐𝑠. 𝑎𝑡 5.80𝑚 𝑜𝑟 20𝑓𝑡

𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟:

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠: 11 − 2′′ 𝑥 3′′ 𝑥 12′ = 66 𝑏𝑑. 𝑓𝑡.

𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠: 7 − 2′′ 𝑥 3′′ 𝑥 20′ = 70 𝑏𝑑. 𝑓𝑡.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙: 66 + 70 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔 𝒃𝒅. 𝒇𝒕.

BY AREA METHOD:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑤𝑎𝑙𝑙 𝑝𝑎𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 5.80 𝑥 3.40 = 19.72 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 2′′ 𝑥 3′′ 𝑎𝑡 0.60𝑚 𝑥 0.60𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦:

19.72 𝑥 6.898 = 𝟏𝟑𝟔 𝒃𝒅. 𝒇𝒕. 𝟐′′ 𝒙 𝟑′′ 𝒍𝒖𝒎𝒃𝒆𝒓

CEILING JOIST

Is the structural member in building construction where the ceiling board is fastened. It
is otherwise known as the nailing strip. The common size used for ceiling joist are 1’’ x
2’’, 1 ½’’ x 2’’, 2’’ x 2’’, and 2’’ x 3’’ lumber spaced to suit the size of the ceiling board.
In short, the ceiling board dimensions govern the spacing of the ceiling joist for
economical reasons.
 CEILING JOIST

5. Find the total board foot required for a 4.00 x 5.80 meters living room using 2’’ x 2’’
ceiling joist spaced at 40 x 40 centimeters on center.
SOLUTION:

BY DIRECT COUNTING

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠

5.80
= 15 (𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑛𝑑𝑒𝑑) = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
0.40
𝐴𝑑𝑑 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠:

15 + 1 = 16 𝑝𝑐𝑠. 𝑎𝑡 4.00𝑚 𝑜𝑟 14𝑓𝑡

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠

4.00
= 10 = 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝑆𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔
0.40
𝐴𝑑𝑑 1 𝑡𝑜 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑛𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 ℎ𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑠𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠:

10 + 1 = 11 𝑝𝑐𝑠. 𝑎𝑡 5.80𝑚 𝑜𝑟 20𝑓𝑡

𝑂𝑟𝑑𝑒𝑟:

𝑉𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠: 16 − 2′′ 𝑥 2′′ 𝑥 14′ = 74.66 𝑏𝑑. 𝑓𝑡.

𝐻𝑜𝑟𝑖𝑧𝑜𝑛𝑡𝑎𝑙 𝑆𝑡𝑢𝑑𝑠: 11 − 2′′ 𝑥 2′′ 𝑥 20′ = 73.33 𝑏𝑑. 𝑓𝑡.

𝑇𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑙: 74.66 + 73.33 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟗𝟗 𝒃𝒅. 𝒇𝒕.

BY AREA METHOD:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4.00 𝑥 5.80 = 23.2 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 2′′ 𝑥 2′′ 𝑎𝑡 0.40𝑚 𝑥 0.40𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦:

23.2 𝑥 6.379 = 𝟏𝟒𝟕. 𝟗𝟗 𝒃𝒅. 𝒇𝒕.

CEILING BOARD

There are numerous kinds of ceiling board with different brand, quality, and dimensions
available for building construction. However, the simplest way of finding the number of
boards required is to divide the total ceiling area by the effective covering of one ceiling
board chosen or by the square meter method.
6. A bedroom with a general dimensions of 4.00 x 5.00 meters specify the use of ¼’’ x 4’
x 8’ plywood ceiling on a 2’’ x 2’’ ceiling joist spaced at 40 x 60 centimeters. Find the
number of plywood and the ceiling joist required if there are 5 rooms of the same size.
SOLUTION:

A. CEILING JOIST – AREA METHOD:

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4.00 𝑥 5.00 = 20.0 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 2′′ 𝑥 2′′ 𝑎𝑡 0.40𝑚 𝑥 0.60𝑚 𝑠𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑛𝑔, 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦:

20.0 𝑥 5.373 = 𝟏𝟎𝟕. 𝟒𝟔 𝒃𝒅. 𝒇𝒕.

𝐹𝑜𝑟 5 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑠:

107.46 𝑥 5 = 𝟓𝟑𝟕. 𝟑 𝒃𝒅. 𝒇𝒕. 𝒐𝒇 𝟐′′ 𝒙 𝟐′′

B. CEILING BOARD (EFFECTIVE AREA COVERAGE METHOD)

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎 𝑜𝑓 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑐𝑒𝑖𝑙𝑖𝑛𝑔.

𝐴𝑟𝑒𝑎 = 4.00 𝑥 5.00 = 20.0 𝑠𝑞. 𝑚

𝑅𝑒𝑓𝑒𝑟 𝑡𝑜 𝑡𝑎𝑏𝑙𝑒 𝑢𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑔 1.20 𝑥 2.40𝑚 𝑝𝑙𝑦𝑤𝑜𝑜𝑑, 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒:

20.0
= 𝟕 𝒑𝒊𝒆𝒄𝒆𝒔 𝒑𝒆𝒓 𝒓𝒐𝒐𝒎
2.88
𝐹𝑜𝑟 5 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑠:

7 𝑥 5 = 𝟑𝟓 − 𝟏/𝟒′′𝒙 𝟒′ 𝒙 𝟖′ 𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅

(DIRECT COUNTING METHOD)

𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 4.00𝑚

4.00
= 3.333 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠
1.20
𝐹𝑖𝑛𝑑 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑁𝑢𝑚𝑏𝑒𝑟 𝑜𝑓 𝐵𝑜𝑎𝑟𝑑𝑠 𝑎𝑙𝑜𝑛𝑔 𝑡ℎ𝑒 5.00𝑚

5.00
= 2.083 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠
2.40
𝑀𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦:

3.333 𝑥 2.083 = 6.97 = 7.00 𝑝𝑖𝑒𝑐𝑒𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑟𝑜𝑜𝑚

𝐹𝑜𝑟 5 𝑅𝑜𝑜𝑚𝑠

7 𝑥 5 = 𝟑𝟓 − 𝟏/𝟒′′𝒙 𝟒′ 𝒙 𝟖′ 𝒑𝒍𝒚𝒘𝒐𝒐𝒅