ME 270 - Basic Mechanics I Forces, Moments, and Stress in the Mechanical World Eric A. Nauman Kent Butz Charles M. Krousgrill Dianne Atkinson Monica Susilo Morgan Murphy 3rd Edition, 6 January 2014 ©2014 Eric A. Nauman, Kent Butz, Charles M. Krousgrill, Dianne Atkinson, Monica Susilo, Morgan Murphy All rights reservedChapter 0:Contents 1 Course Outline and Course Policies for Fall 2013 1.1 Outline of the Course 1.2. Bxams and Grading 1.3. Academic Integrity 1.4 Tutorial Room 1.5 Pandemic Planning . 1.6 Course Evaluation 2 A Short History of Mechanics 2.1 Overview 2.2 Historical Perspective 2.24 2.2.2 2.2.3 2.24 Pre-Scientific Revolution ‘The Beginnings of the Industrial Revolution. . . Second Industrial Revolution Information Revolution 3. Global Aspects of Engineering BL Overview 3.2 Cultures 3.3 China Ll 12 13 13. 14 14 2A pat 22 22 26 28 29 31 BL 3438 3.9 Germany . inde ; Japan ee Mexico . ‘The United States ‘The United Arab Emirates . 3.10 Important Data . 3.11 The Grand Challenges. 3.12 Homework Problems for Chapter 3 Fundamentals and Basic Concepts 41 42 43, 44 45 46 47 48 49 Overview . Useful Idealizations . Dimensional Consistency . Unit Conversions. Significant Figures ‘Trigonometiic Identities Important Equations . Important Numbers Homework Problems for Chapter 4 Vectors Bal Overview Important Points Components of a Vector 5.3.1 Some Fine Points 5.3.2. Breaking Down Vectors in Three Dimensions Chapter 0: CONTENTS 36 37 38 3-10 3 3-13 313 318 318Chapter 0: CONTENTS 54 The Dot Product. 5.5 Homework Problems for Chapter 5 6 Equilibrium of Particles 6.1 Overview. 6.2 Important Points . . 6.3 Examples 6.3.1 Falling at constant velocity 6.3.2. The A-10 Thunderbolt . 6.3.3 Drawing Free Body Diagrams for Particle Problems 6.3.4 The Splashdown of Apollo 14 6.3.5 The Splashdown of Apollo 15 6.4 Homework Problems for Chapter 6. 7 Moments 71 Overview 7.2 Calculating Cross Products Quickly and Accurately 7.3 Force Couples . 7A Equivalent Systems 7.5 Homework Problems for Chapter 7 8 Equilibrium of Rigid Bodies 8.1 Overview 8.2 Important Points . 8.3 Introduction 8.4 More Useful Idealizations . 84.1 Roller Supports 5-33 5-39 6-4 6-9 G-lL - 614 - 6-29 TA TH 73 = 7-10 TAL 7-19 81 82 83 88 896 842 843. 844 84.5, Pin Joint Ball and Socket Joint Hinge Joints Cantilevered Supports 8.5 Homework Problems for Chapter 8 Chapter 0: CONTENTS 8-10 S41 813 814 + 831 9 Equivalent Systems, Distributed Loads, Centers of Mass, and Centroids 9.1 Overview. 9.2. Important Points 9.8 Distributed Loads 9.4 Centers of Mass and Centroids 944 Centers of Mass and Centroids by Integration 9.4.2 Centers of Mass and Centroids by Composite Parts 9.5 Homework Problems for Chapter 9 10 Fluid Statics 10.1 Overview 10.2 Buoyancy 10.3 Fluid Statics and Distributed Loads . 10.4 Homework Problems for Chapter 10 11 Friction 11.1 Overview 11.2 Dry friction and equilibrium 11.3 Wedges . 114 Slipping and Tipping . 11.5 Belt Friction 9-1 91 92 O-4 98 9-9 9-15 9-21 10-1 10-1 10-2 10-6 10-13 11 1 1-5 1-17 11-32 11-40Chapter 0: CONTENTS 7 11.6 Homework Problems for Chapter 11 11-50 12 Structures: Trusses, Frames and Machines 124 12.1 Overview 12-1 12.2 Important Points 12-2 12.3 The Golden Gate Bridge 123 12.4 Two Force Members... 0.2... Goubbo5G 125 12.5 Trusses . 12-6 12.5.1 A Simple ‘Truss - Method of Joints 126 12.5.2 The Method of Sections 1215 12.5.3 The Fine Points of Trusses . 12-21 12.6 Frames and Machines 1221 12.7 Homework Problems for Chapter 12 12-48 18 Analysis of Internal Forces and Couples 134 13.1 Overview . 13-1 13.2 General Analysis of Internal Forces and Moments 13-2 13.3 Shear-force and Bending-Moment Diagrams 13-16 13.3.1 Sign Conventions . 5 13-16 13.3.2 Shear-Force and Bending-Moment Diagrams: Concentrated Applied Loads . . we 13-17 13.3.3 Shear-Porce and Bending-Moment Diagrams: Distributed Applied Loads13-21 13.3.4 Shear-Force and Bending-Moment Diagrams: General Applied Loads 13.4 Statically-Indeterminate Structures 13.5 Homework Problems for Chapter 13 14 Normal Stress: Axial Loading 14.1 Overview - 13-28 13-33 13-36 141 Ved8 : Chapter 0: CONTENTS 14.2 Basie Definitions and Relations... 6. eee M2 14.2.1 Normal Stress Resultants .. . bene 14-2 14.22 Axial Strains ©... 5 , 15 14.2.3 Measuring Strains... . a 14-6 14.2.4 Mechanical Properties of Materials. 5 eee eee LT 14.2.5 Hooke’s Law and Poisson's Ratio . . nee . 14-9 14.3 Stress Analysis for Axially-Loaded Structural Members... .. . 1412 14.4 Design for Allowable Stress in Axially-Loaded Members... .... . 14-15, 14.5 Homework Problems for Chapter Mo... 0... 14-19 15 Shear Stresses - Direct and Torsional Loadings 15-1 15.1 Overview oc peepee ods onbao 151 15.2 Basic Definitions and Relations ne ee 15.2.1 Shear Stress we we ae . 15-2 15.2.2. Shear Strain fees 1d 15.2.3 Hooke’s Law for Shear 15-5 15.2.4 Direct Shear. ....... ae . we 15-7 15.3 Shear Stress Resulting from Punching Operations . A 15-9 15.4 Shear Stress in Two-Sided Bolted and Pinned Connections... 2.5... 15-11 15.5 Shear Stress Due to Torsion in Circular Members - 15-13 15.5.1 Shear Stress and Strain due to Torsion . . pb odo08 15-13 15.5.2. Geometry of Torsional Deformation . . . cee VLE 15.5.3. Discussion of Results ec ee bly 15.6 Homework Problems for Chapter 15 . aan od ee pal 16 Normal and Shear Stresses in Beams. 16-1 16.1 Overview... . bee . 16-1Chapter 0: CONTENTS 9 16.2 16.3 16.4 16.5 Stresses due to Pure Bending oe + 161 16.2.1 Beam Deformation due to Pure Bending»... 2.0... » 16-3 16.2.2 Euler-Bernonlli Definitions and Kinematic Assumptions for Thin Beams16-4 16.2.3 Consequences of the Bnler-Bernoulli, Assumptions: oe 165 16.2.4 Summary ~ Stress Distribution due to Pure Bending at a Beam Cut . 16-7 Second Moment of Area for a Cross-Section... 2... « eee 1612 Stresses due to General ‘Transverse Force and Bending-Couple Loading of Beams16-29 16.4.1, Stress Distribution due to Combined Shear Force and Bending Couple at Cut... Pee le 16.4.2. Summary: Stress Distribution due to Combined Shear Force and Bend- ing Couple at Cut. ee : ee 16-32 Problem Solving... 0.00... 5 . 2. 16-3510 Chapter 0; CONTENTSChapter 1: Course Outline and Course Policies for Full 2013 LI Chapter 1 Course Outline and Course Policies for Fall 2013 High achievement always takes place in the framework of high expect ~Charles F. Kettering 1.1 Outline of the Course ‘This couse brings together your past experiences in physics, mathematies, and modeling and builds upon them, It covers statics and an introduction to the analysis of the strength of materials and is the foundation for later courses on dynamics, strength of materials, design, ane most other courses in mechanical, aerospace, civil, materials, and nuclear engineering, We will cover a considerable amount of material in this course, beginning with a short history of mechanics just to put things in perspective and, perhaps, give the student a slightly different view of engineering and its role in modern society. We will then cover the importance of global awareness and the role of engineers in the international community. ‘This information will be very helpful as we look at case studies throughout the course. Following that, we will start the more traditional aspects of Basic Mechanics: basic con- cepts and mathematics, vector operations, and particle equilibrium. While most students will have seen this information previously, we will introduce a methodology (the O’Reilly- Krousgrill (OK) four step plan)! that will help us tackle all the subsequent problems. Once Phere are numerous ways to interpret the abbreviation for the O’Reilly-Kronsgeill method. ‘The first is12 __ Chapter 1: Course Outline and Course Policies for Fall 2013 we have a handle on particles, we will cover cross products and moments as a precursor to solving rigid body equilibrium problems. In the next section of the course, we will try to make the problems as realistic as possible. We will then analyze structures (trusses, frames, and machines). At this point, you will be able to design things that can transmit very large forces so we will emphasize techniques for making sure you get the correct answers, by incorporating friction, centroids and centers of mass, and distributed loads. Finally, we will look at stresses in structures. Quantifying the stress will help you determine and when things fail, This is where you begin to step into a larger world and learn how to design mechanical devi 1.2. Exams and Grading One of the biggest complaints about ME 270 is that the exams are either too hard, too long, or both. ‘There are many reasons for this view, but it should be noted that, as far as difficulty goes, the exams questions are very similar to the homework questions. If you practice doing the problems on your own and understand the overall approach that we emphasize throughout the course, then the primary challenge is the fact that there is a time limit on the exam, Typically, you will have approximately 20 minutes to complete each problem. ‘That is where the need for practice comes in and that is the reason that. we ask you to complete at least three homework problems per lecture. In truth, you probably want to do more to ensure that you have the material at your fingertips. The last bit of advice is to remember that the exams are not meant to be a punishment. Rather, they should be viewed as celebrations of knowledge, and we do not want a single poor exam to ruin your grade, Consequently, the first one is only 10% of the grade. ‘This allows you to develop a sense for the level of difficulty and intensity expected. The second two exams are averaged and compared to the final. Whichever is higher will be 50% of your grade and whichever is lower will be 25% of your grade (homework makes up the final 15%). ‘This arrangement ensures that the vast majority of students have every opportunity to obtain a good grade, and can be especially beneficial to those students who have trouble with details until they understand the entirety of the course. Remember that, because there are multiple sections of the course, the exams will be given on the scheduled dates and will cover the assigned material. No make-up exams will be given. If an exam is missed, the grade will be recorded as zero except in the event of illness or serious emergency (in such a case, please contact your instructor). Note that a logical presentation of your work will be considered while grading; a completely correct answer need not be given full points. thot, iF you follow it, you will be OK. The second is that itis just an OI method for solving Basic Mechanics problem, ‘The proper interpretation is the formerChapter 1: Course Outline and Course Policies for Fall 2013 13 All examinations will be closed book and closed notes. You should bring to the examination only the following material, pencil(s), exaser, calculator that will work throughout the entire examination, and a straight edge. Please do not bring any computers or cell phones to any examination. If you have such material with you, all cell phones must be turned off and all computers and cell phones placed in a bag that is never opened during the examination, 1.3 Academic Integrity Academic integrity is an extremely important consideration for the courses you take in the College of Engineering, You are following in the footsteps of some of the greatest engineers in the world. Consequently, we expect you to demonstrate a high level of ethical conduct. If any student is found to be cheating on the homework, quizzes, or an examination, that student has the potential to receive a failing semester grade for ME 270 and will be referred to the Dean’s office for further evaluation. Two aetions, among others, that will be considered as cheating are: (1) directly copying the homework solution from another student, a file or a solution manual and (2) using any other material in an examination other than what was specified above. 1.4 Tutorial Room Much will be asked of you, the student, this semester. You are following in some impressive footsteps*, To aid yon in this effort, we will provide a tutorial room (in addition to online resources). The location and operating hours for the tutorial room will be provided during the first week of the semester. It should be noted that, during most semesters, the tutorial room operates at least 40 hours per week and provides an opportunity for students to ask questions about homeworks, Between the tutorial room, online resources, and faculty availability, ME 270 students have a considerable amount of assistance available to them. The key to taking advantage of all of this assistance is to make sure that you have given an honest effort before you start taking exams. [ny this particular ease we are not referring to your instructors although their footsteps are notable. Here \we are referring to previous Purdue graduates ane we expect that you will work as if you are trying to impress those that have gone before, If you put in that effort, we will make sure that you have the instruction and assistance needed to succeed.14 Chapter 1: Course Outline and Course Policies for Fall 2013, 1.5 Pandemic Planning In the event of a major campus emergency, course requirements, deadlines and grading percentages are subject to changes that may be necessitated by a revised semester calendar or other circumstances. The School of Mechanical Engineering will provide information regarding access to information online and any additional procedures that may be needed as soon as they are available. 1.6 Course Evaluation During the last two weeks of the semester, you will be provided an opportunity to evaluate this comse and your instruetor(s). To this end, Purdue has transitioned to online course evaluations. On Monday of the fifteenth week of classes, you will receive an official email from evaluation administrators with a link to the online evaluation site, You will have two weeks to complete this evaluation. Your participation in this evaluation is an integral part of this course. Your feedback is vital to improving education at Purdue University. We strongly urge yon to participate in the evaluation system, Before we start the proper lectures, we should leave you with some important things to remember, “Impossible is just a big word thrown around by small men who find it easier to live in the world they’ve been given than to explore the power they have to change it. Impossible is not a fact. It’s an opinion. Impossible is not a declara- tion. It’s a dare, Impossible is potential. Impossible is temporary. Impossible is, nothing,” ~ Muhammad Ali If we could give you all the answers, we would not waste time teaching this material. We would simply give you a book with the pictures and the numbers and be done with it. With the rapid pace of teclmological advancement, however, engineers are presented with new applications on a daily basis and many of them may seem impossible (or at least: too complicated to solve) at first glance, As Muhammad Ali says, “hnpossible is nothing,” provided you learn how to solve problems. Getting the correct. number is nice, but pales in comparison to understanding how to approach something new and different in a systematic way so that: you can figure it out. ‘That is what we will emphasize here and we will provide you with a variety of resources to help you improve your problem solving skills. ‘These homework problems are provided to help you practice your problem solving techniques. For the first few chapters, you will practice some basic manipulations. Starting with chapter 6,Chapter 1: Course Outline and Course Policies for Fall 2013 15 however, virtually all of your homeworks will require you to use the O'Reilly - Krousgrill (O- K) method. Make sure you start with a free body diagram. Then write out the governing equations. Third, you will write down all the assumptions, kinematics, and constraints. Finally, you will solve the problem. “The illiterate of the 21st century will not be those who cannot read and write, but those who cannot learn, unlearn, and relearn. ” ~ Alvin Toffler16 Chapter 1: Course Outline and Course Policies for Fall 2013Chapter 2: A Short History of Mechanics 21 Chapter 2 A Short History of Mechanics “A scientist discovers that which exists. An engineer creates that which never was, ~ Theodore von Karman 2.1 Overview Mechanics is the science that describes and predicts the conditions of rest or motion of bodies subjected to forces. In engineering, we customarily divide mechanics into three disciplines, Mechanics of Rigid Bodies, Mechanics of Deformable Bodies, and Mechanics of Fluids (j cluding liquids and gases). Statics is the most fundamental field of Engineering Mechanics and is usually defined as the analysis of bodies at rest or moving with constant velocity under the influence of various arrangements of forces. The concepts addressed herein are prerequi- sites for virtually all the courses in mechanical, aerospace, civil, environmental, mechanical, industrial, and nuclear. ‘At the end of this chapter, you will be able to: 1. Document the role of the early mechanicians, especially Aristotle, Archimedes, and da Vinci, 2. Be able to list, Newton’s laws for particle motion in order, 3. Understand the role of steel and the transistor in the development of the engineering sciences,22 Chapter 2: A Short History of Mechanics 4, Document the origins and role of each branch of the engineering sciences, 5. Understand the global pressures that influence the education of engineers in the modern day, and 6. Possibly, predict the next revolution in the engineering sciences. 2.2 Historical Perspective 2.2.1 Pre-Scientific Revolution Prior to Newton’s many and varied discoveries, progress in the field of mechanics oceurred slowly, much of it by trial and error punetuated by impressive leaps of insight. Aristotle (384-322 B.C.) was the first to investigate the statics of levers and developed some of the first theories of dynamics (1, 2]. Archimedes (287- 212 B.C.) explained the lever fulcrum and the theory of buoyancy [1]. The Romans (27 BC - 476 AD) used these simple principles, precision stone work, and a grand vision to construct some of the most impressive structures ever. Possibly because too much credit was given the early philosophers, there were very few developments over the next: 1000 years. Not until Leonardo da Vinei (1452-1519) continued Archimedes’ work on levers was any substantial progress made. Of particular importance was da Vinei’s theory of moments in relation to the equilibrium of three-dimensional bodies [1], Mathematics began to advance shortly after da Vinei’s time. It provided an opportunity for scientists to quantitatively describe what they saw in the natural world. Subsequently, the sixteenth century witnessed a number of important developments. Tycho Brahe made extremely accurate astronomical measurements that were later mathematically analyzed by Kepler! and formed the basis of his three laws [6] 1. The path of each planet is an ellipse with the Sun at a focus. 2. A straight line joining the Sun and a planet sweeps out equal areas in equal times. 3. The square of each planet’s period is proportional to the cube of the semi-major axis of its elliptic orbit. It is worth noting that these three laws took years to verify and were later shown to be a consequence of Newton's Law of Gravitation, Subsequently, Stevinus (1548 - 1620), Galileo (1564-1642), and Descartes (1596-1650) de- veloped the theories that motivated Newton's work. Stevinus first conceived of the laws of Phe sheer number of brute force calculations performed by Kepler bexgar the imagination.Chapter 2: A Short History of Mechanics 23 Figure 2.1: A portrait of Johannes Kepler painted in 1610. Kepler was born in 1571 and passed away in 1630. He exhibited a strong interest in astronomy at an early age and pursued the understanding of planetary motion with a “bigotry of purpose,” a phrase originally used, to describe Ahab’s fascination with killing Moby Dick. cquilibrium and the parallelogram law for vector addition [1]. Galileo performed careful ex- periments in statics and dynamics and was especially interested in the motion of projectiles {9]. Pethaps Galileo's greatest, contribution to statics, and science in general, was his strong, stance, in the face of natural philosophers and the Catholic Church, that experiments should guide the development: of theory: Anistotle says that a hundred-pound ball falling from a height of a hundred braceia (arm lengths) hits the ground before a one pound ball has fallen one braccia, I say they arrive at the same time. You find, on making the test, that the larger ball beats the smaller one by two inches. Now, behind those two inches you want to hide Atistotle’s ninety-nine braccia and, speaking only of my tiny error, remain silent about his enormous mistake [9]. In addition to the accomplishments of the great mathematicians and mechanicians that established the very early foundations of engineering, the role of engineering in early cultures deserves some mention. Engineering has been around for hundreds, if not thousands, of years. Engineering was important enough to the Ancient Babylonians, that rules governing their conduct were set aside in the Code of Hammurabi which dates back to 1772 B.C. It established many of the first known laws governing the efforts of engineers, ¢ Ifa builder has built a house for a man, and has not made his work sound, and the24 Chapter 2: A Short History of Mechanics house he built has fallen, and caused the death of its owner, that builder shall be put to death, © If it is the owner's son that is killed, the builder’s son shall be put to death. © If he has caused the loss of goods, he shall render back whatever he has destroyed. Moreover, because he did not make sound the house he built, and it fell, at his own cost he shall rebuild the house that fell. ? ‘The early Romans were also engineers. ‘They were clearly not the first engineers, and maybe not even the best of their age, but they did set a precedent. Their society was one of the first that depended largely on the skill of their engineers. They forged weapons, built fortifications, and constructed impressive roadways and aqueducts (Fig. 2.2). Figure 2.2: The Aqueduct of Segovia (Spain) was an example of the precision construction that enabled the Romans to conquer much of what is now Europe, Roman aqueducts transported 300 million gallons of water to Rome every day (their water usage rivaled that of modern cities) and they built roads, dams, bridges, the Collsseum and a host of other structures. In short, the Romans were primarily military engineers and there seemed to be a military sensibility to their raft. It has been said that the Romans required their engineers to stand under the bridge while the scaffolding was removed so that the designer would be the first to die if a mistake had been made. Some historians suggest that troops would then march over the bridge to further test the engineer’s skill It should be noted that military arians, and boatmen, ily (his fet, but it is still a good story. Interestingly, there are similar rules for surgeons, veter We have not been able to find a primary reference toChapt 2: A Short History of Mechanics 25 engineers dominated the field until quite recently. In the late 1800s and early 1900s, the field of civil engineering applied the knowledge gained by the militaxy’s physicists and thelr manufacturing ability to problems that affected civilians, such as roadways, buildings, levees, and other types of societal infrastructure, primarily struetures loaded in compression. Over time, civil engineering evolved to include environmental science, composites manufacturing, fluid flow, and many other areas of expertise. 2.2.2 The Beginnings of the Industrial Revolution ‘The foundations of the Industrial Revolution were the result of work by Descarte, Newton, Leibniz, Euler, and a host of others. Descartes, was a philosopher/mathematician, was responsible for Cartesian coordinates and developed the theory of virtual work (2). Isaac Newton was born in 1642 and died in 1727 [1] and during his lifetime he invented the Calculus (at approximately the same time that Leibniz made similar discoveries; Fig. 2.3) and formulated his Law of Gravitation Figure 2.3: Newton (on the left, painted by Godfrey Kneller in 1689) was a physicist and mathematician while Gottfried Leibniz (on the right, painted by Berhnard Christoph Franke) was a philosopher and mathematician. Both can take credit for developing the Caleulus although it would have been useful if they had published more of their work and written down more of their ideas, It is likely that many years were spent re-discovering things that these two figured out and never bothered to disseminate In 1687, Newton collected much of his work into a single volume that stands as one of theChapter 2: A Short History of Mechanics greatest contributions to science in recorded history, the Philosophiae Naturalis Principia ‘Mathematica (Mathematical Principles of Natural Philosophy). In the Principia, Newton defined basic quantities like mass, momentum, and force (Definitions I, II, and IV) and stated his Laws of Motion (7] Definition I: The quantity of matter is the measure of the same, arising from its density and bulk conjunctly. Definition II: The quantity of motion is the measure of the same, arising from the velocity and quantity of matter conjunctly. The motion of the whole is the sum of the motions of all the parts; and therefore in a body double in quantity, h equal velocity, the motion is double; with twice the velocity, it is quadruple Definition III: The vis insita, or innate force of matter, is a power of resist- ing, by which every body, as much as in it lies, endeavours to persevere in its present. state, whether it be of rest, or of moving uniformly forward in a right line, Definition IV: An impressed force is an action exerted upon a body, in order to change its state, either of rest, or of moving uniformly forward in a right line. This force consists in the action only; and remains no longer in the body, when the action is over. For a body maintains every new state it acquires, by its vis inertiae only. Impressed forces are of different origins as from percussion, from pressure, from centripetal force. Law : Every body perseveres in its state of rest, or of uniform motion in @ right line, unless it is compelled to change that state by forces impressed thereon. Projectiles persevere in their motions, so far as they are not retarded by the re- sistance of the air, or impelled downwards by the force of gravity. A top, whose parts by their cohesion are perpetually drawn aside from rectilinear motions, does not cease its rotation, otherwise than as it is retarded by the air. ‘The greater bodies of the planets and comets, meeting with less resistance in more free spaces, preserve their motions both progressive and circular for a much longer time Law IL The alteration of motion is ever proportional to the motive force im- pressed; and is made in the direction of the right line in which that force is impressed, If any force generates a motion, a double force will generate double the motion, a triple force triple the motion, whether that force be impressed alto- gether and at once, or gradually and successively. And this motion (being always rected the same way with the generating force), if the body moved before, is added to or subducted from the former motion, according as they directly con- spire with or are directly contrary to each other; or obliquely joined, when they are oblique, so as to produce a new motion compounded from the determinationChapter 2: A Short: History of Mechanies 27 of both, Law IIL: To every action there is always opposed an. equal reaction: or the mutual actions of two bodies upon each other are always equal, and directed to contrary parts. Whatever draws or presses another is as much drawn or pressed by that other. If you press a stone with your finger, the finger is also pressed by the stone. If a horse draws a stone tied to a rope, the horse (if I may so say) will be equally drawn back towards the stone: for the distended rope, by the same endeavour to relax or unbend itself, will draw the horse as much towards the stone, as it does the stone towards the horse, and will obstruet the progress of the one as much as it advances that of the other. If a body impinge upon another, and by its force change the motion of the other, that body also (because of the equality of the mutual pressure) will undergo an equal change, in its own motion, towards the contrary part. The changes made by these actions are equal, not: in the velocities but in the motions of the bodies; that is to say, if the bodies are not hindered by any other impediments. For, because the motions are equally changed, the changes of the velocities made towards the contrary parts are reciprocally proportional to the bodies. This law takes place also in attractions, as will be proved in the next scholium, ‘Thankfully, we can state Newtons Laws much more concisely: Law I: Every particle remains at rest or continues to move in a straight line with uniform motion if there is no unbalanced force acting upon it. Law II: The time rate of change of the linear momentum of a particle is proportional to the unbalanced force acting upon it and occurs in the direction in which the force acts: d “FF qn) Law Ill: To every action there is an equal and opposite reaction. ‘The mutual forces of two bodies acting upon each other are equal in magnitude and opposite in direction. The importance of Newton’s work cannot be understated. ‘The Principia provided the mathematical, mechanical, and in some ways, philosophical underpinnings for the Age of Reason and the Industrial Revolution . Whether he would have agreed with the philosophy of this new age is debatable. One of his most famous statements suggests that he recognized the limits of his theory, Tcan calculate the motions of heavenly bodies, but not the madness of28 Chapter 2: A Short History of Mechanics people. It is also worth noting that, despite the development of the theories of Relativity and Quantum Mechanics, his efforts form the basis for much of modern physics and engineering, Given the importance of his contributions, it is refteshing that Newton was able to put his accomplishments in perspective. Near the end of his life, he stated in a letter to one of his chief rivals, Robert Hooke, “If I have been able to see further, it was only because I stood on the shoulders of giants [4].” The giants he referred to are people like Leonardo da Vinci, Brahe, Kepler, Stevinus, Galileo, and Descartes. It should be noted, however, that Newton was a rather bitter man and had a very sarcastic wit. Consequently, it is clear that when he spoke of intellectual giants, he was pointedly not referring to Robert Hooke who was said to be a lean, bent, and ugly man (4) One of the best: chronicles of Newton’s life was penned by James Gleick [4]. In it he quoted Newton, “I dont know what I may seem to the world but, as to myself, I seem to have been only like a boy playing on the sea-shore, and diverting myself in now and then finding a smoother pebble or prettier shell than ordinary, whilst the great ocean of truth lay all undiscovered before me.” After all his accomplishments, it was clear that there were many more discoveries to make. Newton set the stage for people like Buler (arguably the greatest mathematician of all time), Lagrange, Cauchy, Kolmogorov, and many others you will undoubtedly encounter in subsequent courses. In particular, Buler extended Newtons Laws to rigid bodies and is responsible for the Balance Law for Angular Momentum, 2.2.3 Second Industrial Revolution Mechanical engineering and industrial engineering (initially the distinction was quite blurry) came into being shortly thereafter. They became important because of steel, or, rather, the development of techniques to more efficiently turn iron into steel. ‘These advances made it possible to design structures that could support tensile loads. Consequently, many of the early problems that mechanical engineers worked on included machining processes and designing pulley systems, gears and boilers. Goodyear’s process vuleanizing or euring rub- ber materials to make them more durable was another important step forward. Like civil engineering, mechanical engineering has evolved considerably and now incorporates MEMS (Micro-ElectroMechanical Systems), robotics, composite materials, internal and external fluid flows, thermal sciences, and manufacturing. Electrical engineering followed closely with the development of methods for transmitting electricity over large distances and evolved rapidly with the development of transistors, microchips, and superconducting materials. During the buildup to our involvement in World War II, sometimes referred to as the Second Industrial Revolution, the need for mechanical and electrical engineers increased dramatically and has continued to rise aver the years.Chapter 2: A Short History of Mechanics: 29 2.2.4 Information Revolution After World War II, chemical engineers combined chemistry with physics and mathematies to form a new and separate discipline. Chemical engineering applications cover an astounding range of physical scales from the subatomic level to massive industrial plants. They develop synthesis processes, manufacture textiles, synthesize fibers such as nylon and polyester, and create new compounds for medicines and composites. A particularly important: moment in the history of engineering was the launch of Sputnik Ton October 4, 1957. It demonstrated to the world the excellence of applied physics and engineering in the Soviet Union and the fear it inspired focused the United States and lead to a dramatic rise in the number of engineering students, spurring tremendous technological developments, Since that time, NASA has developed the science and engineering, skills, necessary to make space travel almost routine. Most recently that work has been pursued in collaboration with Russian engineers (Fig, 2.4). An important aspect of the Information Revolution was the development of the integrated circuit. Once people realized that solid state electronics could be packed into small spaces, a race started to add more computing power into smaller and smaller chips. Incredibly, that race is still going, making possible every smart phone, iPad, and HDTV that we “need” today. Figure 2.4: ‘The International Space Station would not have been possible without the com- petition and collaboration between the United States and Russian space programs. In the early 1970s, biomedical engineering added biology into the mix of fields that en- gincers routinely use. Partly because it is a relatively new field and partly because the sequencing of the human genome has lead to exhaustively fast-paced advances in our un- derstanding of biological processes, biomedical engineering seems to be the most rapidly changing branch of engineering. Whatever your major, Statics will be a useful and helpful210 Chapter 2: A Short History of Mechanics subject to know and we will make every effort to give you a solid foundation for your future studies. Where that path will lead is hard to say. It is difficult to predict the next revolution in engineering, but there is a suspicion that it will involve nano- and microscale devices, mechatronics, composite materials, or systems that integrate the various engineering subdis- ciplines (mechanies, fluids, thermodynamics and heat transfer, controls, and design) at some fundamental level to provide green energy. As time goes on the rate at which technology advances continues to increase. Consequently, the only limit on what future engineers can accomplish is their own imagination. ‘That and resistance from people that don’t share your vision for the future “Don’t worry about people stealing your ideas. If your ideas are any good, you'll have to ram them down people’s throats.” ~ Howard Aiken, the original designer of IBM’s Harvard Mark 1 computer.Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering, 31 Chapter 3 Global Aspects of Engineering “In the present circumstances, no one can afford to assume that someone else will solve their problems. Every individual has a responsibility to help guide our global family in the right directions. Good wishes are not sufficient; we must become actively engaged.” ~ The 14th Dalai Lama. 3.1 Overview Throughout the text, we will examine aspects of engineering that involve global perspectives, In particular, we're going to focus on engineers and the practice of engineering in the United States, India, Europe (especially Germany), China, Mexico, Japan, and the United Arab Emirates (UAE). To begin, it is worthwhile looking at the world in a few different ways. Depicted below are three projections of the Earth's surface. ‘The first is a Winkel“vipel projection (Fig. 3.1). The second is a Mercator projection of the type most students are familiar with (Pig, 3.2). The last is a Cahill Butterfly Map (Fig, 3.3). Each representation provides a unique perspective and enjoins specific biases. ‘The important thing to remember is that successful engineers, and problem-solvers in general, are good at looking at, problems from different points of view.32 Chapter 8: Global Aspects of Engineering Figure 3.1: A Winkel Tripel projection of the Barth’s surface. ‘This type of projection gives very good visual estimates of the relative sizes of land masses and has been adopted by the National Geographic Society for most maps, Figure 3.2: A Mercator projection is the most common type of map, but it distorts the relative sizes of many land masses.Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 33 Figure 3.3: Cahill Butterfly Maps ave not often used, but they possess the most accurate representation of land mass size and provide an interesting perspective, especially for en- gincers who often obtain the best insights by viewing objects and systems from different, perspectives34 Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 3.2 Cultures In crossing cultural boundaries, it is easy to see differences in language and manners. Often travel guides discuss what to expect and may offer suggestions abont how to behave - “when in Rome do as the Romans do!” These “on the surface” adjustments can help us “blend in” and also not to be surprised as what we find. We can adopt some relatively simple adjustments and avoid giving or taking offense, a valuable first step. In developing working relationships, deeper understandings may be helpful or even essen- tial. While “manner” addresses what: is “polite,” “morality” addresses what is “right.” It is at this deeper level where the real divisions among individuals from different cultures can im- pede collaborative efforts. Over longer periods of time and across broader issues, differences about what is fair, what is important, and differences in how we believe related problems should be addressed, all become potential roadblocks. ‘To prepare for cultural differences at this deeper level, it may be helpful to consider de- scriptions of how cultures differ, one with another, as a matter of “values.” Values define a hierarchy ~ what is important and what balance should be sought among competing op- tions, While many researchers have developed vocabularies for describing values, there are relatively few that applied that vocabulary across large numbers of different cultures. A par ticularly interesting and on-going study of cultural values is that initiated hy Geert Hofstede, reported most recently in a widely reviewed book, “Software of the Mind.” [5] Because of the usefulness of the Holsteder research, a brief description of the value differ ‘ences he has identified as important is provided below: © Power Distance - Cultures differ in beliefs about how equally power should be dis- tributed, Where equality across individuals, whether within families or within corpo rations, is highly valued, power distance is low. © Individualism - Cultures differ in beliefs about how independent or self-sufficient indi- viduals should be. In cultures where individuals are expected to take care of themselves and the connecting bonds between people are not strong (e.g., the divorce rate is high and people do not have long employment contracts), individualism is high. © Masculinity/Achievement - In cultures where males and females are believed to be quite different in terms of what behavior is appropriate, gender is highly differentiated and Hofsteder measures that value as masculinity. He also links beliefs about control with masculinity, Another aspect of this dimension is the value placed on exercising control over outcomes (one aspect of achievement). © Uncertainty Avoidance - Some cultures place a high value on avoiding une! avoiding tisk, staying safe. inty,Ghapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 36 © Long-Term Orientation - Cultures differ as to the importance of the future. Does it matter what happens 400 years from now or only what happens within the next couple of years? In figuring out how to work together on technical challenges, all of these differences are potential barriers, especially when the participants are not aware of these divergent values. Everyone may be trying their best and even succeeding in being polite, However, it is also critical to be aware of the fundamental differences in perspectives that impact both processes and objectives, 3.3 China China, or more properly, the People’s Republic of China (PRC) has a population of approx- imately 1.3 billion (Fig. 3.4) and the country integrates (to a greater or lesser degree) a staggering amount of history and cultural diversity. For instance, the languages spoken in China span six different linguistic families, making communication a challenge. What: makes it even more challenging is that the most common language consists of more than 10,000 different characters. For these reasons, the literacy rate in China is difficult to quantify, but it is lower than most countries, Since the Communist Revolution, China’s political sys- tem has evolved and now blends (to a greater or lesser degree) communism, socialism, and capitalism, Figure 3.4: The relative population density throughout China, C! over 1.3 billion, ina’s total population is36 Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering ‘The most important aspect of China’s history, at least in terms of their global interactions today, was the establishment of the PRC in 1949 after almost 30 years of political maneu- vering and open warfare between Sun Yat-sen and the Communist Party of China. Much of their infrastructure had to be rebuilt, but it did not happen right away because of the challenges associated with governing such a large, diverse, and poverty-stricken populace, In 2006, China’s purchasing power parity GDP was $10.0 trillion, though its nominal GDP. ‘was smaller $2.68 trillion, Agriculture represented approximately 12.5% of their GDP while industry and services made up 47.3% and 40.3%, respectively. Because of the enormous population, the purchase power parity GDP per capita was only $7,593 and the nominal GDP per capita was $2,034. Currently, China is engaged in massive infrastructure improvements, building highways, bridges, and power plants at an alarming rate. ‘The Three Gorges Dam, completed in 2008, is the world’s largest in terms of installed capacity (26 generators each capable of 700 MW with six more coming). Chinese engineers are pushing the limits of what was previously considered possible, massing tremendons human effort to complete projects quickly. 3.4 Germany Compared to China, Germany's population is extremely small. It has only 82.3 million peo- ple, but it is one of the world’s largest. exporters of goods including automobiles, machinery, metals, and chemicals. After World War II, the rebuilding of Germany began in earnest, but West Germany and East Germany took very different paths. After the fall of the Berlin Wall in 1989 ultimately led to German reunification in 1990, Germany accomplished its political, economic, and social reunification quickly and ended up with an interesting perspective on the interaction between government, engineers, and industry. Germany is at the top, if not the best, at recycling, utilizing alternative energy, and conserving natural resources, In particular, German citizens pay a recycling fee when they purchase a new automobile and they have made great efforts to diminish the need for external sources of energy through wind power and hydroelectric energy generation, though much work remains to be done. In 2006, Germany's purchasing power parity-based GDP was $2.59 trillion, and per capita it was $31,400, By sector their GDP is primarily based on Services (71%), with 1% supplied. by Agriculture and 28% by Industry.Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 37 Figure 3.5: Population density of Germany. 3.5 India India is the 2nd most populous country in the world with 1.12 billion people, approximately 70% of whom live in rural areas. It is one of the most diverse regions of the word ethnically and linguistically. In fact, only the continent of Africa exhibits greater diversity. For our purposes, an extraordinarily brief history of India is useful. In the 1600s, most of India was governed by Muslim and Persian rulers who supplied 100 or more years of relative peace and prosperity, India expanded intellectually, culturally, artistically, and commercially. As the Mughal empire fractured in the 1700s, European trading companies began to make contact and establish outposts at various points along the coast of India. Largely because the trading companies had greater military resources, and control of the seas, their influence spread, especially that of the East India Company (sponsored by the English government). As the East India Company consolidated its power base, India went from a country with many trading partners and a thriving economy to largely supplying the British empire. ‘This continued from the 1820s until it gained its independence in 1947. In between, a number of rebellions, famines, and draconian responses from the British government made Indian socioeconomics one of the most complicated in history. Eventually, leaders such as; Jawaharlal Nehru (the first Prime Minister) and Mahatma Gandhi (Fig. 3.6) galvanized the Indian people and provided a template for the democratic governance of an enormous and extraordinarily diverse population while maintaining civil liberties and an independent press. Currently it is one of the most rapidly expanding economies in the history of the38 Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering Fignre 3.6: Jawaharlal Nel ru (left) and Mahatma Gandhi in 1937. world, Such expansion clearly presents potential problems and one of the most important is the extreme disparity between India’s wealthy population and the rural poor. Tn 2006, their purchasing power parity-based GDP was $4.04 trillion, but per capita it was only $3,700. By sector their GDP is primarily based on Services (61%), with a relatively equal amount supplied by Agriculture (20%) and Industry (19%). 3.6 Japan Japan (Fig. 3.7) has rich traditions and some of the oldest companies in the world (Honda and Mitsubishi have been in existence for hundreds of years). Since World War IT, it has become an economic powerhouse, an impressive feat, especially when you consider its small size and the fact that it imports many of its economic necessities. Japan has approximately 128 million people (about. 40% of the population of the United States) all living in an area of 378,000 km?, much of which is mountainous. Its total pur- chasing power parity-based CDP is approximately $4.6 trillion and per capita it is $36,179. ‘A short study of the Japanese language gives some interesting insights into the role of engineers in Japan and their valne to society. We should note first that, while the Chinese language is made up of only pictographic representations (roughly 10,000 of them), Japanese merges a subset of these characters (only about 2,000 in common use) with syllables. Con- sequently it is slightly easier to learn than Chinese and enables you to read faster than you can in English, The word for “engineering” is mace up of two characters Fig. (3.8). The ‘one on the right means, “to study” and is meant to represent a child under a roof, The one on the left is derived from the pictograph for a carpenter's ruler, but the mnemonic usedChapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 39 Figure 8.7: Japan consists of four main islands, Hokkaido in the North, Honshu, Kyushu, and Shikoku to remember it is “to connect heaven and earth.” Or perhaps a better way to think of it is “connecting dreams to reality.” At least that is how non-Japanese remember it. L# Figure 3.8: The word for “engineering” is made up of two characters. ‘The one on the right means, “to study” and is meant to represent a child under a roof. ‘The one on the left literally means “to connect heaven and earth.” Or perhaps a better way to think of it is “connecting dreams to reality.” Perhaps an even more interesting aspect of Japanese culture is that the word for “under- stand” is derived from the word for ‘sword” (Fig. 3.9), pronounced “katana.” In fendal Japan, katana was an engineering marvel. Made from a functionally graded steel produced over centuries by trial and error, it held a sharper edge than any Western sword and was flexible enough to bend side to side. ‘The word “to understand” uses the symbol for katana as its base (Fig. 3.10). When you3410 Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 7] Figure 3.9: The word for “sword” is pronounced “katana” and only requires two strokes. look at it, you should see what looks like a line that-has been cut by the katana, Consequently, understanding is meant to come from dividing an idea up into very small parts and tackling them one at a time, More generally, we know that there are people who prefer to go step-by- step and those that prefer more wholistic understanding of concepts and have trouble with details until they get the big picture. ‘Think about the literal meaning of the English word X 4} by Z Figure 3.10: The word “to understand” consists of a pictograph followed by two syllables, It uses the symbol for katana as its base. When you look at it, you should see what looks like a line that has been cut by the katana, Understanding, in the Japanese sense comes when you divide an idea up into very small parts. 3.7 Mexico Like China, Mexico’s cultural heritage integrates a remarkable amount of history including some of the oldest civilizations in the world, In the 20th century Mexico has experienced ‘ number of large shifts in government. From about 1900 until 1940 governmental insta- bility was the norm, But, between 1940 and 1980, the government stabilized and Mexico experienced enormous economic growth, More recently, the country has gone through an economic downfall (1994) and struggled to restabilize its economy. Since that time, industry and manufacturing have helped the country grow at an impressive rate, Interestingly, there has not been a single particular event that led to massive industrialization or infrastructure improvements. Recall that in the United States, we had the New Deal, Germany rebuilt. after World War II, and China started slowly after their Communist Revolution, As a result, most of the infrastructure in those countries dates to about the same decade. The same cannot be said in Mexico where large building projects occurred across a broad range of time; something that may be very beneficial in the long run. In 2006, Mexico’s purchasing power parity-based GDP was $1.15 trillion, and per capitaChapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering Bl Figure 3.11: This map depicts the historical changes in territory oecupied by the country of Mexico. it was $11,250, By sector their GDP is primarily based on Services (70%), with 4% supplied by Agriculture and 26% by Industry. 3.8 The United States ‘When discussing the United States, it is useful to note that the population is approximately 302 million and represents the largest economy in the world (but not the highest per capita). In 2006, the gross domestic produet (GDP) was $13.0 tuillion (purchasing power parity) and the GDP per capita was $43,444, With regard to the current infrastructure and economic profile, the most important his- torical events were World War I (1914 - 1918), the Stock Market Crash of 1929, World War II (1939 - 1945) and the subsequent New Deal during which much of the country’s transportation and power infrastructure was developed. By sector, Agriculture accounts for about 1% of the GDP, Industry is 20%, and Services account for approximately 78%. For312 Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering Figure 3.12: This map illustrates the topographical features of the “Lower 48.” engineers, the three most important developments were the invention of the transistor in 1947, the Moon Landing (especially important to Purdue engineers) on July 20, 1969 (Fig. 3.13) and the development of the integrated circuit in 1959, Figure 3.13: While the picture is a little grainy, it depicts Neil Armstrong’s first steps on the surface of the moon on July 20, 1969.Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 313 3.9 The United Arab Emirates ‘The United Avab Emirates (UAB) has existed as an independent country only since 1971 ‘The capital is Abu Dhabi (also the name of one of the seven emirates that make up the UAB). It has the sixth largest oil reserve in the world and, since its independence, has pumped billions of dollars into its infrastructure. It has the seventh busiest sea port in ihe world (Jebel Ali Port), its aixport is has the second most floor space of any building in the world (Dubai International Airport), and it boasts the world’s tallest skyscraper. In 2011 it’s purchasing power parity-based GDP $2588 billion and per capita it was $48,158. Its population is estimated to be 5,753,000 and its land area is approximately 77,700 km? although it is difficult to determine for certain because its boundaries are un-demarcated in many locations (an unusual, but apparently innocuous issue). By sector, Agriculture accounts for a little less than 1% of the GDP, Industry is 85.5% and Services is 36.5%. wf Cc Figure 3.14: The United Arab Em reserve. rates is a tiny country with the world’s sixth largest oil ‘These snapshots were meant; to provide background for some of the problems and class discussions. They are not meant to describe every important event in each country. But, hopefully they have given you things to consider and a new perspective that you can make use of as we move through the course. 3.10 Important Data From an engineering perspective, there are a number of pieces of information that we need to be able to access. The first is the population distribution of the world 3.1. ‘The second is3d Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering the amount of territory available to each country. In point of fact, we will focus on the top 20 in each category. These numbers are important because there is a theory on the decline of civilizations that may be pertinent, to us as engineers, Jared Diamond hypothesized that one of the major factors that determines when a civilization will decline is their land usage [3]. When the amount of land per capita decreases beyond a certain point all kinds of bad things happen. Interestingly, population density is a good way to quantify land usage. These data will help us determine which countries should have the greatest motivation to develop alternative energy, telecommunications, and transportation infrastructure. Another important measure is the Human Development Index (HDI) which provides a measure of a country’s standard of living, It is used to quantify life expectancy, educational level, health (especially of children), and economics. For more information, please see the United Nations Development Programme (Iittp://www.undp.org/content/ndp/en/home.html)Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 315 Table 3.1: Population by Country (Total population of the world is approximately 6,083,600,000) Rank Country China India United States of America Indonesia Brazil Pakistan Nigeria Russia Bangladesh, Japan Mexico Philippines Vietnam Bthiopia Germany Egypt Tran Turkey ‘Thailand Democratie Republic of the Congo Population 1,339, 724,852 1,210,193,422 312,839,000 237,641,326 192,376,496 178,188,000 162,471,000 142,914,136 142,319,000 127,760,000 112,336,538 94,013,200 85,846,997 82,101,998 81,768,000 81,295,000 75,947,000 73,722,988 69,519,000 67,758,000316 Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering ‘Table 3.2: Rank of Countries by Land Area (Total land area of the world is approximately 148,940,000 km) 16,377,742 China 9,569,901 United States of America, 9,161,966 Canada 9,093,507 Brazil 8,456,510 Australia 7,617,930 India 2,973,193 Argentina 2,736,690 9 Kazakhstan 2,669,800 0 Algeria 2,381,741 11 Democratic Republic of the Congo 2,267,600 2 Greenland 2,166,086 13 Saudi Arabia 2,149,690 u Mexico 1,923,040 15 Indonesia 1,919,440 16 Sudan 1,885,000 7 Libya 1,759,540 18 Mongolia 41,558,556 19 Tran 1,531,595 20 Peru 1,280,000Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering, ‘Table 3.3: Human Development Index (HDI) Across the Globe - Maximum Possible Value is 1.0 (2011) Rank T 30 57 101 134 County Norway Australia. Netherlands United States New Zealand Canada, Treland. Liechtenstein Germany Japan United Arab Emirates Mexico: People’s Republic of China India HDI 0.913 0.929 0.910 0.910 0.908 0.908 0.908 0.905 0.905 0.901 0.846 0.770 0.687 0.547318 Chapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 3.11 The Grand Challenges ‘The last thing we will consider here is the list of Grand Challenges provided by the National Academy of Engineering!. One of the key features of this list is that the problems are hard and we are way beyond the time of Newton when a single person could hold all the discovered mathematics and physics in his or her own head. They require, not: only technical expertise, but consideration of global cultures, international economics, and a willingness to work together. Consequently, it is crucial for engineers with different cultural backgrounds and those with differing technical backgrounds to work together. Without such collaboration, it will be impossible to address these wide-ranging issues. Here is the list as it stands in (2013) © Make solar energy economical. © Provide energy from fusion © Develop carbon sequestration methods ‘© Manage the nitrogen cycle. © Provide access to clean water © Restore and improve urban infrastructure. © Advance health informatics © Engineer better medicines. © Reverse-engineer the brain, © Prevent muclear terror. © Secure cyberspac © Enhance virtual reality. © Advance personalized learning. © Engineer the tools of scientific discovery. 3.12. Homework Problems for Chapter 3 “Our progress as a nation can be no swifter than our progress in education, The human mind is our fundamental resource.” ~ President. John F. Kennedy YOfien referred to simply as the NABChapter 3: Global Aspects of Engineering 319 3.1 For each country that appears in both the population and the land area tables at the end of chapter 3, plot the land per capita, According to Jared Diamond(3} a major factor in the collapse of civilizations is the land area per capita. When it decreases beyond a certain point, things fall apart because there are not enough resources. Based on your plot, can you identify the problem(s) with Diamond’s hypothesis? 3.2 Plot the percentage of the world population for the first 10 countries cumulatively. That is, percentage of the population for the first country, then for countries 1 and 2, then countries 1, 2, and 3, and so on, What percentage of the world’s population do the top six countries contribute? 3.3 Plot the percentage of world land use for the first. 10 countries cumulatively. That is, percentage of land use for the first country, then for countries 1 and 2, then countries 1, 2, and 3, and so on, What percentage of the world’s land use is taken up by the first 6 countries? 34 Plot the GDP and GDP per capita for each of the countries discussed in this text. What is the ranking for each country? 3.5 Which country would you expect to have the oldest infrastructure on average? Make a list from oldest to newest 3.6 Choose another country and determine the GDP, GDP per capita, percentage of economy resulting from agriculture, industry, and service, and a list of recent events that may influence the status of their infrastructure. Wikipedia is a great resource. 3.7 Plot the Human Development Index (HDI) vs. the available land per capita for each of the countries we ave focusing on in this chapter. Do you think Jared Diamond’s hypothesis is correct? Probably not, but it’s useful to ask the question. 3.8 If you had to rank the countries discussed here according to how they value engineers, how would you rank them and why? 3.9 Given the list of Grand Challenges, rank them in order of most important to least important. 3.10 Given the list of Grand Challenges, which three do you think will be solved first? Which, country clo you think will take the lead on these solutions? 3.11 The Grand Challenges defined by the National Academy of Engineering require engi- ners from different cultural backgrounds and different. technical backgrounds to work together. Pick one of the Grand Challenges and explain why it is important for engineers from different backgrounds (cultural and technical) to be able to work together 3.12 Are there any Challenges you would add to the NAE’s list?3-20 Chapter 3: Global Aspects of EngineeringChapter 4: Fundamentals and Basie Concepts 47 4.6 Trigonometric Identities ‘Trigonometric identities are very useful and, like significant: figures, need to be internalized by the student, Being able to manipulate these identities will make life much easier. Here are a few good ones to keep in mind (Fig. 4.1), a Figure 4.1: A basic triangle to elucidate the trigonometric identities. sin®(a) + cos*(a) = 1 (4.2) se(a) = 1+ tan*(a) (4.3) esc*(a) = 1+ cot?(a) (4.4) sin(2a) = 2sin(a)eos(a) (4.5) c0s(2a) = cos?(a) ~ sin*(a) (46) g = +B —2ab)cos(y) (4.7) Geen 9 (48) sin(a) sin(8) —_sin(y)’ where the last two equations are known as the law of cosines and law of sines, respectively. 4.7 Important Equations You may be asked at some point during the semester to name your favorite equation®. There are a few potential answers and the equations you see below will probably not be in the group. ‘They will, however, prove to be very useful. "Pease make sure that you get the equation correct. Undergraduates and Graduate Students have fallen into the trap of incorrectly writing their favorite equation, That is pretty much the only way to get that question wrong,48 Chapter 4: Fundamentals and Basic Concepts ‘The first is the equation that. provides the roots of the quadratic equation, az +-be-+c = 0, y+ PTE ayy = eve 49) 2a ‘The second is the Taylor Series expansion of a function, f(a) about a point a, sla) = fla) + LO ~a)+ LO ~ a)? + Oe