RMB I

The Building Blocks of Science in Research

The essential tenets of scientific research are: direct observation of phenomena, clearly
defined variables, methods and procedures, empirically testable hypotheses, ability to
rule out rival hypotheses, statistical justification of conclusions and self correcting
process. One of the primary methods of scientific investigation is the hypothetico-
deductive methods. The method of starting with a theoretical framework, formulating
hypotheses and logically deducing from the results of the study is known as hypothetico-
deductive method. The deduction and induction are two important aspects of the
scientific research through which the answers to a research question can be arrived at.
Further details on deduction and induction are dealt below:

Deduction

Deduction is a process by which the researcher arrive at a reasoned conclusion by logical

generalization of a known fact. Deduction leads to conclusions which should be
necessarily based on reasons. The reasons are said to imply the conclusions and represent
a proof. The bond between the reasons and conclusions is much stronger than in the case
of induction. To be correct, a deduction should be both valid and true. True in the sense
that the reasons given for the conclusions must agree with the real world. Valid means the
conclusion must necessarily be arrived from the reasons.

Researchers often use deduction to reason out the implication of various acts and
conditions. For example, in a survey a researcher may reason as follows:

Surveying households in urban area is difficult and expensive (Reason 1)

The study involves interview with households in urban area (Reason 2)

The interview in this survey will be difficult and expensive (Conclusion)

Induction

Induction is a process where certain phenomenon is observed on the basis of which

conclusions are arrived at. The conclusions are drawn from one or more facts or pieces of
evidence. The conclusions in induction results in hypotheses. Induction leads to establish
a general proposition based on observed facts. For example, the researcher understands
that production processes is the prime feature of factories. It is therefore concluded that
factories exist for production purposes.

Research is based on both deduction and induction. It helps us to understand, explain and
predict business phenomena.

The building blocks of scientific inquiry include the following sequences:

 1. Observing a phenomena
2. Identifying a problem
3. Constructing a theory
4. Developing hypotheses
5. Developing research design
6. Collecting data
7. Analyzing data and
8. Interpreting results

Observation a phenomena may be casual or purposeful. A casual scanning of the

environment may lead us to the knowledge of interesting facts. This observation may lead
to identifying the problem in the concerned area. The problem identification needs
gathering of primary data from the customers or from the employees or management
concerned with the particular problem. Further insights may be obtained to refine the
problem in a more specific manner. The next step is to build a conceptual model or
theoretical framework taking into consideration all the factors contributing to the
problem. The framework enables to integrate all the information collected in a
meaningful manner. From this theoretical framework several hypotheses can be generated
and tested to support the concept. A research design provides the blue print of the
mechanism or insight regarding the methods of collecting data, analyzing the same and
interpreting them in order to solve the problem.

The building blocks of science discussed above provide the genesis for the hypothetico-
deductive method of scientific methods. The steps are discussed below:

1. Observation

Observation is the first stage in scientific investigation. In this process, the researcher
takes into account the changes that are occurring in the environment. To proceed further
the changes observed in the environment should have important consequences. The
changes may be in the form of sudden drop in the sales, increase in the employee
turnover, decrease in the number of customer and the like.

2. Preliminary information gathering

This involves seeking in depth information regarding the facts being observed. The
information may be gathered through formal questionnaires, interview schedules or
through informal or causal talk with the concerned people. Desk research may also be
conducted to enrich the information gathered. The next step is to make sense out of the
factors identified in the information gathering stage by assembling them together in a
meaningful manner.

3. Formulation of theory

Theory formulation enables to integrate all the information in a logical manner so as to

conceptualize and test the factors responsible for the problem. The critical variables
contributing to the problem are examined. The association or relationship among the
variables contributing to the problem is studied in order to formulate the theory.

4. Developing Hypotheses

The next logical step leads to framing of testable hypotheses. Hypotheses testing are
called deductive research. Sometimes it may so happen that the hypotheses which are not
originally formulated get generated through the process of induction. After the collection
of data an insight may occur based on which new hypotheses can be formulated. Thus
hypotheses testing through deductive research and hypotheses generation through
induction are both common.

5. Scientific Data collection

After the hypothesis is developed, the data with respect to each variable in the hypotheses
needs to be obtained in a scientific manner so as to test the hypotheses. The primary and
secondary sources can both be explored in order to collect the data. Data on every
variable in the theoretical framework from which the hypothesis is generated should be
collected.

6. Data Analysis

The data gathered are to be statistically analyzed to validate the hypothesis postulated.
Both qualitative and quantitative data needs to be analyzed. Qualitative data refer to
information gathered through interviews and observations. Through scaling techniques
the qualitative data can be converted into quantifiable form and subjected to analysis.
Appropriate statistical tools should be used to analyze the data.

7. Deduction

Deduction is the process of arriving at conclusions by interpreting the meaning of results

of the data analysis. Based on the deduction, recommendations can be made to solve the
problem encountered.

Research Process : An Overview

Research process involves execution of a series of phases towards accomplishment of the

objectives of research. Each phase in the research process need not be carried out in a
sequential process. Some the phases can be carried out simultaneously. However, the idea
of sequence will be useful for developing and carrying out a research study in a
systematic manner. The research process consists of the following distinctive interrelated
phases: (1) Defining the research problem (2) Establishing Research Objectives (3)
Developing the research design (4) Preparing a research proposal (5) Data Collection (6)
Data Analysis and Interpretation and (7) Research reporting.

Defining the Research Problem:

A problem need not necessarily mean that something is wrong in the current situation
which needs to be rectified immediately. It simply indicates an issue for which finding a
solution could help to improve an existing situation. Problem can be defined as any
situation where a gap exists between the actual and the desired state. Problem statement
or problem definition refers to a clear, precise and succinct statement of question or issue
that is to be investigated with the goal of finding an answer or solution.

Components of research problem

The components of research problem are as suggested by R.L.Ackoff in the Design of

Social Research is elaborated below:

There must be an individual or a group which has some difficulty with problem
There must be some objective(s) to be attained at.
There must be alternative means or course of action for obtaining the objectives
There must be some doubt in the minds of a researcher with regard to the selection of
alternatives.
There must be some environment to which the difficulty pertains.

Criteria for selecting the research problem

The following criteria can be kept in the minds of researcher in selecting the research
problem.

Subjects on which the research is carried on amply should not be normally chosen as
there will not be new dimension to reveal
Too narrow or too vague problems should be avoided
The researcher should be familiar with the subject chosen for research. The researcher
should have enough knowledge, qualification and training in the selected problem area.
The resources needed to solve the problem in terms of time, money, efforts, manpower
requirement should be taken into account before embarking on a problem.
The subject of research should be familiar and feasible so that related research material
or sources of research can be obtained easily.
The selection of a problem must be preceded by a preliminary study.

Research problems trigger the research process. Defining the research problem is a
critical activity. A thorough understanding of research problem is a must for achieving
success in the research endeavor. Defining the research problem begins with identifying
the basic dilemma that prompts the research. It can be further developed by progressively
breaking down the original dilemma into more specific and focus oriented objectives.
Five steps could be envisaged (1) Identifying the broad problem area(2) Literature review
(3) Identifying the research question (4) Refining the research question (5) Developing
investigative questions. They are discussed below:

Identifying the broad problem area

The process begins with specifying the problem at the most general level eg., declining
sales, increased cost, increased employee turnover etc. From this general specification of
problem the next step is to move towards the question. The question reinstates the general
problem. For eg., What is the reason for declining sales?. The questions that can be raised
can be grouped into three categories;(1) Choice of purposes or objectives where the
question focuses on what objectives the researcher wishes to achieve by conducting the
research (2) Generation and evaluation of solutions where the question focuses on the
alternatives available to solve a problem in hand (3) Trouble shooting or control situation
where the query focuses on monitoring and diagnosing, why an organization is not
achieving the established goals.

The researcher can identify the problem through the following sources:

Own experience as well as observation of others experience and situations may give
raise to researchable problem
Detailed discussion with various authorities concerned with the problem
Focus group interviews
Scrutinizing published data
Review of literature enables to identify problems which are researched and questioned
in other studies. The same can be simulated by the researcher.

The above techniques would enable the researcher to understand the problem in a better
manner and also to outline the possible variables that might exert an influence. The nature
of information needed by the researcher could be broadly classified under three headings:

1. Background information of the organization for which research is conducted viz,

the origin and history of the company, its assets, number of employees, location
etc., The information can be obtained from company records, published data,
Census of Business and Industry and the web.
2. Information regarding managerial philosophy, company policies and other
structural aspects can be collected by asking direct question from the management
3. Information regarding the perception, attitudes and behavioural aspect of
employees could be obtained by way of observations, interviews and
questionnaires.

Literature survey

Literature survey is the review of published and unpublished work from secondary source
in the area of interest to the researcher. The purpose of conducting literature survey at this
stage is:

To document the studies relevant to the problem identified for research

To ensure that no variable that has been taken up in the past related studies is ignored.
To avoid conducting similar type of study and thereby stop the researcher from
investing his resources in terms of time and effort in an research venture which is
already solved.
 To provide a good frame work and a solid foundation to proceed further in the
investigation.
To have a comprehensive theoretical framework from which hypothesis can be
developed for testing.
To enable to develop the problem statement in a precise and clear manner
To enhance the testability and replicability of the findings of the current research.
To understand the research gap
To stimulate researcher to carry out the work
To confirm the appropriateness of procedure by referring to similar studies conducted
in the past
To trace inconsistencies, contradictions and consistencies
To clear conceptualization
To familiarize with methodology, research tools and statistical analysis

The literature review needs to be performed on the variables identified through the
interview process. It comprises of three steps viz., (i) Identifying the sources (ii)
Gathering relevant information (iii) Writing up the Literature review.

i. Identifying the sources

The data can be obtained from library by going through books, journals, newspapers,
magazines, conference proceedings, doctoral dissertation, thesis, government publication
and other reports. The development of information technology has led to many online
databases like Prowess, EBSCO etc and the interlinking of libraries has led to a myriad of
information in the hands of the researcher with the click of the mouse. Computerized
databases include bibliographies, abstract and full text of articles. Bibliographic databases
display only the bibliographic citations i.e., the name of the author, the title of the article /
journal, source of publication, year, volume and page numbers. The abstract databases in
addition to the above said information provides an abstract or summary of the article. The
full-text databases as the name suggest enables to download the full text of the article.

ii. Gathering relevant information.

The articles gathered either from books, journal or on line sources could as such act as a
reservoir of information. These sources could lead to further information through the
citation and references used. The list of journal and references referred in the articles
could lead us further to the source of information. Also, during the course of reading the
articles, the researcher can get insight into new variables or new avenues hitherto
unexplored.

iii. Presenting the Literature review

The literature should be presented in a clear and logical manner citing the author, year of
study, objectives of the research, major findings and implications. The researcher should
present the literature in a chronological order and in a coherent manner. There are several
methods of citing references in the literature. The publication Manual of American
Psychological Association (2001) offers detailed information regarding citations,
quotations, references and so on. The Chicago Manual of Style also prescribes the format.

Identifying the research problem/question

The next step is converting the broad problem into a research question. The research
question is fact-oriented and requires gathering information. A research question states
the objective of the research study. It is a more specific question that must be answered. It
can be more than one question or just only one.

Refining the research question

The refined research question will have better focus and will enable to conduct research
with more clarity than the initially formulated questions. In addition to fine-tuning the
original question, other research question related activities should be addressed in this
phase to enhance the quality of research work viz.,

1. Examine the concepts and constructs used in the study.

2. Review the research question and break them down to second and third level
questions.
3. Whether hypotheses are postulated in a proper and standard manner?
4. What is not included in the scope of the research questions?

If the research questions are well defined, the subquestions can be easily arrived at.
However, if the research question is poorly defined the researcher will need further
exploration and question revision to refine the original question and generate the material
for constructing the investigative questions.

Developing investigative questions

Investigative questions are questions that the researcher must answer satisfactorily to
arrive at a conclusion about the research question. To formulate them, the researcher
should break down the research question into more specific questions for which the data
is to be gathered. This fractioning process can be continued down to several levels with
increasing specificity. The investigative questions guides to develop a suitable research
design. They are the foundations for creating the research data collection instrument. In
developing the investigative questions performance considerations, attitudinal issues and
behavioral issues can be included, depending on the research problem.

The problems in defining research questions

There might be some problems in defining the research questions which are discussed
below:

The researcher may recast the management question so that it is amenable to favorite
methodology.
 The existence of a pool of information or a database may distract the researcher to
reduce the need for other research.
All management questions are not researchable. To be researchable, a question must be
one for which observation or other data collection can provide the answer.
Some problems are complex, value-laden and bound by constraints. These ill- defined
questions have characteristics that are virtually the opposite of those of well-defined
problems. These problems require a thorough exploratory study before proceeding.

Establishing Research Objectives

The research objectives should be set once the research problem is finalized. Research
objectives provide the guidelines for determining the other steps to be undertaken in the
research process. If the objectives are achieved the decision maker will have the
information needed to solve the problem. Research objectives justify the need for
undertaking the research work. It provides a purpose and direction for the research.

Developing the research design

A research design is the specification of methods and procedures for acquiring the
information needed to structure or to solve problems. It is an overall operational pattern
or framework of the project that stipulates the information to be collected, the sources
from which information can be collected and the procedures for collection of
information. In other words the researcher should consider (1)the design technique, (2)the
type of data, (3)the sampling methodology and procedures, (4)the schedule and the
budget. A good research design ensures that the information obtained is relevant to the
research problem in an objective and economical manner. The research design can be
described as a master plan or model or blueprint for the conduct of investigation.

The type of research design

Most of the research objectives could be met by using any one of the three types of
research designs; exploratory, descriptive and casual research designs. Exploratory
research focuses on collecting data using an unstructured format or informal procedure to
capture data and to interpret them. It is often used to classify the problems or
opportunities and it is not intended to provide conclusive information from which a
particular course of action can be determined.

Descriptive research uses a set of scientific methods and procedures to collect raw data
and create data structures that describe the existing characteristics of a defined target
population. For eg., the profile of the consumers, pattern of purchase behaviour etc. In
descriptive research design the researcher looks for answers to the how, who, what, when
and where questions concerning the different components of a market structure. The data
and information generated through the descriptive designs can provide the decision
makers with evidence that can lead to a course of action.
Casual research design deals with collecting raw data, creating data structures and
information that will allow the decision maker or researcher to model cause-effect
relationships between two or more market variables. The casual research design enables
to identify, determine and explain the critical factors that affect the decision making.
However, the research process is more complex, expensive and time-consuming.

The type of data

The data can be grouped into two broad categories viz., primary and secondary. Primary
data represents the first hand raw data that have been specifically collected for the current
research problem. Primary data are raw, unprocessed and yet to receive any type of
meaningful interpretation. Sources of primary data tend to be the output of conducting
some type of exploratory, descriptive or casual research.

The secondary data is the historical data previously collected and assembled for some
other research problem. Secondary data can be usually gathered at faster and economical
manner than the primary data. However, the data may not fit in the researcher’s
information need. The secondary data can be obtained from the libraries, website,
published as well as unpublished documents etc.,

Sampling methodology and procedure

Sampling refers to randomly selected subgroup of people or objects from the overall
membership pool of defined target population. Sampling plans can be broadly classified
into probability and non probability sampling. In a probability sampling plan, each
member of the defined target population is a known and has an equal chance of being
drawn into the sample group. Probability sampling gives the researcher the opportunity to
assess the sampling error. In the case of non probability sampling the research finding
cannot be generalized and the sampling error cannot be assessed. The findings are limited
to the sample which provided the original raw data. However non probability sampling
may be the only choice in case where the population cannot be ascertained. (A more
detailed discussion on sampling is dealt in Unit 3 )

The time schedule and the budget

The time schedule for completing the research along with the break up of time required
for each task has to be ascertained. Scheduling will enable the completion of the project
in time. A budget displays the sources and application of funds for the research. The
budget may require less attention in case of a in-house project or one which is sourced by
the researcher . However, a budget which is prepared for financial grants needs to be
prepared very systematically supported with proper documentation. The budget may be
prepared on various basis for eg., the rule-of- thumb budgeting where a fixed percentage
is arrived on some criterion like a percentage of sales or previous years research budget.

Task budgeting selects specific research projects to support on an adhoc basis.

Preparing a research proposal

The research proposal is an oral or written activity that incorporates decisions made
regarding the research work. It includes the choices the researcher made in the
preliminary steps. A written proposal is often made when the study is suggested. It
ensures the project purpose, methodology, time and budget. The length and complexity of
the proposal varies according to the needs and desires of the researcher. Irrespective of
the length of the proposal it should have two basic sections; statement of the research
problem and the research methodology.

Data collection

The data gathering phase begins with the pilot testing. It is done to detect the weakness in
the research design, questionnaire/interview schedule and provides proxy data for
selection of probability sample. The pilot testing should stimulate the procedure and
protocols designed for data collection. If the study is to be conducted by email then the
pilot questionnaire should be emailed. The size of the pilot group may range normally
from 25 to 100 respondents who need not be statistically selected. There are a number of
variations of pilot testing. Some of them may be restricted to data collection only. One
form is ‘pretesting’ where the responses are collected from colleagues, respondents
surrogates or actual respondents for the main purpose of refining the questionnaire. Based
on the pilot testing the questionnaire may be redesigned, rephrased and improved.
Pretesting may be repeated many times to refine questions or procedures.

Data is the facts presented to the researcher from the study environment. Data can be
gathered from a singe location or from all over the world based on the research objectives
and the resource allocation. The data collection method ranges from observation,
questionnaires, laboratory notes and other modern instruments and devices. Data can be
characterized by their abstractness, verifiability, elusiveness and closeness to the
phenomenon. As abstractions, data are more metaphorical than real. When sensory
experiences consistently produce the same result then the data is said to be trustworthy as
they are verified. Data capturing is elusive, complicated by the speed at which events
occur and the time-bound nature of observation. Data reflect their truthfulness measured
by the degree of closeness to the phenomena. Secondary data has at least one level of
interpretation inserted between the event and its recording. Primary data are close to the
truth.

Data collected need to be edited for ensuring consistency and to locate omissions. In case
of survey method editing reduces errors in the recording, improves legibility and clarifies
unclear and inappropriate responses. Edited data are then converted into analyzable form.
Computers can be used to find missing data, validate data, edit and code so that further
analysis can be carried out in a valid manner.

Data Analysis and Interpretation

Research is conducted for the purpose of acquiring information. Raw data as such does
not provide information. Further analyzes needs to be done to crunch information out of
data. Data analysis involves application of statistical techniques for reducing accumulated
data to a manageable size leading to summaries. Responses acquired by way of
administering questionnaires should be subjected to analysis so as to ascertain the
behaviour of variable, the relationship between variables etc. Analysis should be focused
to find answers to the research questions / hypothesis.

Various statistical softwares are available to make the job of data analysis easier and
scientifical. However, the interpretation needs to be made with expertise as the
recommendations are made on the basis on them.

Research Report

It is only through reports the researcher communicates about the research work, findings
and recommendations to the outside world. The report has to be prepared in the style that
will be understood by the target audience. The reports may be communicated by way of
written documents or in an oral manner, through letters or through telephone calls or a
combination of all. The type of report varies depending on the type of research, length of
report and the purpose.

The researcher should take care to see that the report addresses all the objectives of
research in a lucid manner. The report should be adapted to the needs of the target
audience and care must be taken to use appropriate words in projecting the interpretation,
recommendations and conclusion.

A report should contain an executive summary consisting of synopsis of problem,

findings and recommendations. It should speak about the background of the study, the
statement of problem, literature summary, methods and procedures, findings,
recommendations and conclusion.