Documenti di Didattica
Documenti di Professioni
Documenti di Cultura
FOREWORD
Road Engineering Association of Malaysia (REAM),
through the cooperation and
support of various road authorities and engineering
institution, in Muluysia, publishes
a series of official documents on STANDARDS,
sppcu'tcATloNs, cunnuxgs,
MANUAL and TECHNICAL NOTES which are related to road
engineering. The
aim of such publication is to achieve quality and consistency
in road and highway
construction, operation and maintenance.
I
{-
E
a
i'
TABLE OF CONTENTS i
a.
j
i
VAAP
:
LIST OF FIGURES
Fig.4.1 Typical Road Drainage Layout Cross Section
... .. . .. .4_5
Fig'4'2 Exampleof DrainageLayoutPlanforCutandEmbankment....
_ i .........4-6
Fig. 4.3 Typical Road Drainage Elemenrs ...4_j
Fig. 4.4 Interceptor Drain
.......4_g
Fig. 4.5 Drain
Berm
...4-g
Fig.4.6 Bench Drain
....4_70
Fig. 4.7 Roadside Drain
.......4_1tr
Fig. 4.8 Shoulder Drain
..... "..4_12
Fig.4.9 Toe Drain
Fig. 4.10Median Drain - Urban Road . .......4_I7
Fig. 4.1 1 Median Drain Supereievation Section
- .........4_1g
Fig. 4.12 Outfail Drain . ..4_1g
Fig. 4.13 Concealed Roadside Drain in Rural Roads .......4_20
Fig. 4.14 Concealed Roadside Drain (in Cut) in Major Highways
. "...4_Zl
Fig. 4.15 Concealed Roadside Drain (in Fill) in Major Highways
...4_Zz
Fig. 4.16Swale in Roadside/Median Drain
...4_23
Frg. 4.17 Concealed Drain at Median
...4_24
-i Fig. 4.18 Recommended Type of Kerb Opening Inlet .
I .. ..4_25
I
Fig. 4.19 Typical highway cross Section with Good Drainage
Features . ..4_21
Fig' 4.20 Guide for Locarions of Kerb openings and Inret pits
... .. . .4-30
Fig. 4.2I Typical Drainage Elements in Urban Areas
..,..4_31
Fig. 4.22Types of Storm Drain Inlets
i ..4_32
Fig. 4.23 Depressed Grared Inlet .
.......4_33
Fig. 4.24 Components of the Stormwater System Network considered
for the
Sg. Rokam Catchment Analysis
...4_41
Fig. 4.25 Kerb and Gutter showing Half Road Flow . ......4_4g
Fig. 4.26F1owchart for Calculation of Inlet pit Spacing
..4_53
Fig. 4.27 Calculation of Gutrer Flow and pit Spacing
.....4_54
Fig. 4.28 Standard Inlet pit Types
......4_54
LIST OF TABLES
Table 4.1 Allowable Roadways for Initial Storm Runoff in terms of
.
Pavement Encroachment .. " '4-29
Table 4.2 Allowable Average Velocity "4-4I
Table 4.3 Suggested Values of Manning's Roughness Coefficient, n '''''"'4-4I
Table 4.4 Example of Rational Method Calculation for Small Catchments ...... ....4-46
Table 4.5 Design Acceptance Criteria for Road Gutter Flow ' ..4-49
Table 4.6 Mannins's 'n' andFlow Correction Factor for Gutter Flow... ...." '4-49
APPENDICES
Appendix 4.A GutterFlow Design Charts """"'4-55
Appendix 4.B Inlet Pit Capacity Design Chart " "'4-56
Appendix 4.C Worked Examples
ATTACHMENT 1
Reprint of. Chapter 24 : Stormwater Inlets, Urban Stormwater Management Manual for
Malaysia
F;
111 5...
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i
4.1 INTRODUCTION
i
E
,E 4-1
4.2 Irnportance of Surface Drainage - (Cont'd)
(d) generally softening of the ground and embankments can give rise to
slip failures;
(e) softening the subgrade soil and decreasing its bearing capacity.
(b) o,,L^^:I
JLTUSUrI T\--i.-^ -^
L)r4IIr4tg i-.^,.^^^+i
lnieicepilJn
-- .'^.'j
ano --^-,: ) *^*^"-!
rapid removai oi
-.1' ..
seepage oi
ground water.
Environmentally, the water quality f}om the surface run-off should also be
considered to minimise any adverse impact. Siitation of watercourses, which
in turn affect the quality and drainage capacity of the river system, should be
discouraged. The concept of using swales (shallow grassed lined drains) to
slow down the discharge and trap silt befbre surface run-off discharges into
natural watercourse should be encouraged. Alternatively, the surface water
can be discharged into a wetland area to enable the water to be filtered prior to
the final discharge into the stream.
A'
4.3 Components of Surface Drainage - (Cont'd)
(D interceptor drains most coffrmon in cut/fill areas
(g) bench / berm drains most common in cut/fill areas
(h) outfall / cascadins drains most common in cut/fill areas
(i) median drains most common in high class of road
(t) gutters
most common in urban areas
(k) kerb openings most common in urban areas
(l) sumps
4-3
4.3.3 Toe, Stroulder and trloadside Drains
The function of the toe, shoulder and roadside drains are to coilect
water that has fallen on the carriageway and the batters of cuttings or
embankments to direct to the edge of the formation. Toe drains are
used at the base of embankments wherever the road is in a fiii section
and shoulder drains are used along the shoulders. Roadside drains are
used along the road edge and can also cater for the drainage of the
abutting developed area. Generally, the gradient follows that of road
(see Fig. 4.1 and Ftg. 4.2) and is usually shallow (only for toe and
shoulder drain) since the catchment area is restricted to the roadway
and the cut slope. The most common types of roadside and shoulder
drains are detailed at Fig. 4.1 and Fig. 4.8'
Because toe, shoulder and roadside drains are often built on flat grades
to match the road grade, they must either have a large cross-section
area or have frequeni discharge points. Depending upon the nature of
the material in which they are constructed and their longitudinal grade,
the toe, shoulder and roadside drains may be lined with Stone, concrete,
or a bitumen seal to resist the action of scouring.
Discharge drains are located along the boundary line between the
embankment and the natural ground to collect the discharge from the
toe of shoulder drains that run down the embankment slopes. It can
also collect flow from berm drains in high fills. The comrnon types
used are generally U-shaped precast or trapezoidal in shape (see Fig.
4.e).
4-4
INTERCIPTOR DRAIN
r
I
BENCH DRAIN.J
r
+ ,t- -\
\./
I
Y \ " '/ suBSorL DRArN
ROADSiDE DRAIN _-J
BtRr/ DRA|N--l
i
Lro, ooo,*
-t !
l
t b) Frrr sEcTroN
i
i
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t
i
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FIG. 4.1 G_
i
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-I +5
INTTRCEPTOR DRAIN
BENCH DRAIN
SUI./P
TOE DRAIN
PIPE CULVIRT
nn stoPE
+6 t
t
t-
.L-
OULDER DRAIN
SUMP
TOE DRAIN
CULVIRT
FII.L STOPE
i
I
4-6
;t
_-.L
--
INTERCIPTOR DRAIN INTIRCIPTOR DRAIN
BENCH DRAIN-J
ROADSIDI DRAIN ROADSIDI DRAIN
SUBSOIL DRAIN
SUBSOIL DRAjN
[/EDIAN DRAiN
FIG. 4.3
+7
^ \ T\LL
GREDWS
CONCRETE LINING
SQUARI MTSH A1 42
DIA. 6 AT 2OO BOTHWAYS
STONE-IIMD DMIN
4-8
SQUART MISH 4142
6 AT 2OO BOTHWAYS
DIA.
<k
zzffi
+9
SQUART MESH A1 42
DIA. 6 AT 2OO BOTHWAYS
a
AVY
iy
c Svry
r\U
rq.z
5vry
100mm THK" CONCRITE
+10 I
_t-
I
250
FORMATION LtVtL
500
EARTH DRAIN
SUB_BA 250
FORMATION LEVIL
500
125mm THICK C0NCRIIE
SUB_BASE 250
FORMATION LEVIL
500
CONCRITE BLINDING
150mm THICK STONE PITCHING
GROUTED WITH 1:SCEMINTMORTAR
STONE-UNED DRAIN
+11
]275 MINIMUM
)LUTL
R.C. U-DRAIN
I
f
-,\J 1/
sEonrJER DRArN (Spl)
+12
- -:Er?ryT":trffg:IlYii,i"-t r.3.. I
--:@
EIIBANKT{Er{T ToE pRAIN 1 (TD 1)
EARTE DRAIN
, 1000
r-*;;1
|
, 1000
7*"
,
fi
I
STOM-UNED DRAIN
+13
4.3.5 Interceptor Drain (Catch Drain)
Interceptor drains are located along the uppermost edge of cut slopes
where the cutting begins, and along the edge of the cut slope
descending towards the lowest point of the natural watercourse. Due
to the position of the interceptor drain, it must be sufficiently large to
account for siltation and debris collection. Water from the cut slope is
collected by bench drains which then discharge into the interceptor
drain which is usually joined to a main cascading or outfall drain (see
Fig. 4.1 to Fig. 4.3). Types of interceptor drains to be used depend
upon the type of soil, geographic features and the design flow volume.
The common types used in Malaysia are trapezoidal in shape (see Fig.
4.4). T\e use of precast block sections for interceptor drains should be
discouraged because of possible seepage problems.
Bench drains are piaced longitudinally along the bench of a cut section
and berm drains are located on the berm of a fill section to intersect
water running down the slope. Each bench or berm drain should catch
rainwater falling on the slope immediately above. Bench or berm
drains are provided on each bench or berm on the inner edge of the cut
and embankment slopes respectively. Benches and berms are usually
provided at 6m height intervals and are generally shallow with their
gradients following the bench and berm gradients (see Fig. 4.5 and Fig.
4.6).
4-14
4.3.7 Outfall (Fill) and Cascading (Cut) Drains
Outfall and cascading drains are between the shoulder drain and bench
/ berm drain and the interceptor drain. Outfail drains are provided at
the iowest point of a sag curve to cater for water flowing along the
roadside and shoulder drains. Cascading / outfall drains also cater for
natural drainage path that is cut off on top of a cut or fill section.
Outfall drains are necessary where culverts under the road are
discharging on to the fill slope.
For a small discharge, the common types of outfall drains are the egg-
shaped precast drains, commonly known as cascade drains (see Fig.
4.12). For a large discharge, it is recommended that the outfall drains
should be reinforced concrete cast in-site U-shaped chutes or steel
pipes.
. Median drains are particularly used both in urban and rural roads of
high geometric design standards (U5, U6 and R6).
4.3.9 Gutter
Gutters are small channels provided at the edge of the roadways or
shouiders for drainage purposes in urban areas, they are not covered,
and can either be V-shaped or egg-shaped. Whep-used with kerbs,
gutters are located in front of the kerbs and tafil5e precast or cast-in-
situ.
4-r5
4.3.9 Gutter - (Cont'd)
Where precast units are used, the precast units should be provided with
a concrete surround from the base to the top of the precast section, to
ensure continuity of the drain, as well as preventing water seepage and
' dislocation of the precast units.
Inlets should be designed and rocated to prevent silt and debris being
carried in and become deposited a10ng the watercourse.
In cities or towns where kerbs and kerb opening inlets are placed in
conjunction with upgrading the sidewalk pavement, the designer needs
to investigate on-site the locations of kerb opening inlets to prevent
ponding and localised hazards to road users. In cases where a kerbed
intersection is upgraded, careful consideration should be given to
locate the kerb opening inlets. Fig. 4.20 can be used as a guide for
Iocations of kerb opening iniets.
4-16
CARRIAGTWAY CARR]AGIWAY
) )
z. a-
-E E*
Au) <t,
CARRIAGEWAY
It100
CONC. BEDDING
BIDDING
CONC. BEDDING
MEDIAN CARRIAGEWAY
225mm BRICKWALL
50mm CONC.
BEDDING
'100
+17
75mm THK. CONC:
CLOSE TURTI
225mm HALF ROUND
ZED TARTHiNWARE
DRAIN ^ SUPERELEVATION e<5%
SU
CONC. SURROUND
LOWIR SUBBAST
SUPERELEVATION SECTION
CLOSI TURFING
150mm STONE PITCHING
GROUTED WITH 1:J
CEMENT MORTAR
SUPIRELEVATION e<5%
raOO*
L- LowEtr )JDtrA5L
SUPERETEVATION SECTION
STONE IJNED
MEDIAN
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|t,{ RGINAI_ VARIES 1800 vaprtrq rr^anr\r^l
SUPERELEVATION SECTION
+18
ry-!.-..:
INTERCTPTOR DRAIN
I-AYIRS OF SQUART
MISH 4142
"l
L-'l b,
INTERCEPTOR DRAIN
^i
f-l I
ol I
tl
,^l
iil-l
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ro<
N' -L ZZJ
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ll li
llti 150
I
ROADSIDE DRAI
LAYERS OF SQUARE TOE DRAIN
MESH A142
-l
I
50mm THK. C0NC.
BLINDING SQUARE MESH
4142
SQUARE MESH
4142 I
1 200 | 1qn
INTERCTPTOR DMIN
P,
=l---i--l
F_=LI
l|".)l.-t
'sl-f
40mm DlA. GALVANISTD
STTTL PIPE HANDRAIL
3Nr I
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3000
.2251
VARIES
ROADSIDE DMIN/
TOE DRAIN
suMP (0R rNL$ SUMP
0F cuLVtRT)
FIG. 4.12 OUTFALL DRAIN
+19
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+22
PAVEMENT
2.52 TA 4%
ROAD IN CUT
CROSS-SECNON OF STATE
100 100
DETAIIS OF STAI,E
+23
LAMP POST
CLOST TURFING
Y/o
____*_____L-
-----------l
DRAINAGE AT UEDHN
(cRoss sEcn0N AT taMP PoST)
LAMP POST
CLOSI TURFJNG
L,J /O
DRAINAGE AT UEDIAIT
(cnoss sncnon lr sulp)
FIG. 4,17 CONCEALED DRAIN AT MEDIAN
+a+
NOTt:
+25
4.3.1I Sumps
(ii) the intersection of the toe / shoulder drains and the outfall /
cascading drain;
(iii) the intersection of the toe / shoulder drains and the roadside
drain.
(i) the intersection point of the median drain and the roadside /
shoulder drain:
(ii) the intersection point of the roadside / shoulder drain and the
discharge drain.
on rural roads, surface water is mainly disposed off by means of drains and
the type of drains provided depend upon whether the road is in embankment,
cutting or at ground level.
when the roadway is built on a low embankment of less than 3.0m and
grassed, it is common practice to allow the surface water to flow across the
shoulder and down the fiIl slopes to the natural ground level. In cases where
surface water from the road is an even sheet of water, erosion is minimal.
Where slopes are unprotected and sheet flow is not achievable due to localised
pavement or shouider irregularities, slopes can be eroded badly. In these
cases, it is necessary to provide protection for the shoulders and side slopes.
One type of protective measure is to intercept the water at the outer edgi of
the shoulder, as shown in Fig. 4.19(a).
4-26
SLOPI ON LOW FILL
(TURFED)
FILL
fIrl,l,u,'o'HIGH
(a)RoAp rN EMBANKT{EI'II
lsz to +z
(b)RoAp rN cuT
-t
i
(e)R0AD 0N GR0UND
FIG. 4.Tg
-T
+27
4.4 Surface Drainage in Rural Area - (Cont'd)
In the case of a long and high embankment, for example bridge approaches,
the surface water can be collected by shoulder drains and then discharge down
the slope by means of paved outfall or cascade drains.
When the road is in cut, water is discharged to the roadside drain, as shown in
Fig. 4.19(b) and (c), which should then slope towards the nearest watercourse.
Drainage is usually more difficult and costly in urban areas because of: -
Ftg. 4.27 shows the typical drainage elements for roads in urban areas.
There is a greater need to intercept off road concentrated storm water and to
remove over-the-curb flow, and surface water, without causing a problem for
road users. In urban areas, water from the road surface is usually taken to a
system of underground pipes known as storm drain or sewers, which can run
ovel a considerable distance and then released again as surface runoff.
l
4-28 I,
4.5.1.1 General - (Cont'd)
Guidelines the design of inlets are provideci in the ,,r]rban
for
Stormwater Management Manuai For Malayriu guasMA),,
published
by Jabatan Pengairan dan Saliran Maraysia, volume part _
1 F Runoff
conveyance, chapter 24 - stormwater Inrets is provided
as
ATTACHMENT 1.
Road Classification
Criteria High Volume Road Collector Road Local Road
(Single or Dual
Carriaqewrv)
Locations other than Sas poini
Design ARI
10 year i0 year
Where the kerbside lane is nor a 5 vear
Not applicable w < 25m
through lane (i.e. used for n:rkino\ W < 23m
yyrcrs ule KefDstoe lane ls a through > 70km/h : no spread W < 15m Not applicable
Iane < 70km/h: I{< 1.0m
Where parking lane becomes an > 70km/h : no spread
acceleration, deceleration or turn lane
W < 1.0m Not applicable
< 70km/h; W< 1.0m
Not applicable W < 045m W < 0.45m
rnrersecuon Kerb refurns > 70km/h : no spread w < 1,0m W < 1.0m
< 70km/h : 14 < 1.0m
Sag Points
Design ARI 50 year 10 vear 5 vear
All locations I/',<1.0m w< 25m w < 25m
Major storm check (100 y"* enf; One lane in each One lane open to (not required)
4gggtion open to traffic traffic
suesrnan salety VD <Olmtl"
(1) V.D. <A.4m'ls V.D. <0.4m'/s
Vehicular safety v.D. <0.6rrt'ls V.D. <0.6m"/s V.D. <0.6m2/s
limit.based on , the product of average flow velociry
;l .lif"y
\'/ W = flow width on roadI.?from and gutrer flow depth
gutter invert, y = fiow depth ut gott", i""*,
Note : on major highways and expressways, these standards may not
be appiicable as it is to limit the
flow on the vehicie carriagervay foi safety reasons. Authorities
resionsiuie for these highways
may specify stricter criteria.
SOURCE : Urban Stormlyafer Nlanagement Vlanual
lbr Malavsia
4,29
INL T POSITION TO SUIT INLTT POSITION TO SUIT
MAX. SPACING FROM TOP MAX. SPACING EITWEIN PITS
OF CATCHMENT
INLET SAG POINT
lrArLl
_\
LfI ON TANGTNT
OF KERB RilURN
INLII- ON TANGENT
OF KIRB RilURN
INLilUPSTREAM OF
PEDTSTRIAN CROSSING
BW SMP
NOAD EOAD
ITIfi0AGE UllE +
(c) A,T DECELERATION LANE
+34
.1.
J-
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HI
al
z.
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=
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4-31
b GRATED INLET A KERB OPENING INLET
ALTERNATIVE:
SINGLE CROSSFALL
rlonurL cnGGrI--]*
t
L
I
+32
Y
SECNON A - A
I
4-33
4.5.1.2 Types of Inlet
A
T-JA
1/1
v
4-3J
Y
Extra inlets must be provided near the low point of sag vertical curve
to cater for flow that might have passed the previous inlets to prevent
ponding at the 1ow points. Inlets should be located just upgrade of
pedestrian crossings andjust before the change in crossfalls.
For high fills, berm drains are necessary to catch surface water at
regular intervals and these berm drains are again connected to the toe
drains, which take the water safely down the slope to a suitable
discharge point.
+-JO
-v-
4.7.1 HydrologicAnalysis
4-37
Y-
This section outlines the Rational method procedure for system design
calculations for catchment areas less than 80 hectares that do not
contain detention or retention storages. This procedure is suitable for
small systems where the establishment of a computer model is not
warranted.
c After the inlet points have been chosen, the designer must specify
the drainage sub-area for each inlet point A and the corresponding
mean runoff coefficient C. If the sub-area for a given inlet has
non-homogeneous land use, a weighted coefficient may be
estimated.
After the preliminary minor system is designed and checked for its
proximity with the major system, reviews are made of alternatives,
hydrological assumptions are verified, new computations are made,
and final data obtained on street grades and elevations. The engineer
can then proceed with the final hydraulic design of the system.
4-38 t-
Y-
This section outlines the Rational method procedure for system design
calculations for catchment areas less than 80 hectares that do not
contain detention or retention storages. This procedure is suitable for
small systems where the establishment of a computer model is not
warranted.
c After the inlet points have been chosen, the designer must specify
the drainage sub-area for each inlet point A and the corresponding
mean runoff coefficient C. If the sub-area for a given inlet has
non-homogeneous land use, a weighted coefficient may be
estimated.
After the preliminary minor system is designed and checked for its
proximity with the major system, reviews are made of alternatives,
hydrological assumptions are verified, new computations are made,
and final data obtained on street grades and elevations. The engineer
can then proceed with the final hydraulic design of the system.
4-38
4.7.2 ltrydraulicAnalysis
when lhe value of design discharge (o is obtained,
the next step is the
hydraulic design of drains. surfice diains are designed
based^on the
open channel flow theory.
a = AV Equation(4.0)
The velocity of flow in any channel should be high
enough to prevent
silting and it should not be too high as to cause erlsion.
The allowable
veiocity of flow depends on the soil type (see Table 4.2).
4-39
Y
(a) the total catchment area (A) is usually in units of 10,000 sq.m.
(c) from topo maps inlet time for the flow of stormwater from the
furthest point in the drainage area to the drain inlet along the
steepest path of flow is estimated from the distance, slope of
the ground and type of the cover.
(d) time of flow along ihe longitudinal cirain is determined fbr the
estimated distance up to the nearest cross drainage or a
watercourse, and for the allowable speed of flow in the drain.
(e) the sum of the time for inlet flow and the time for flow along
the drain is taken as the time of concentration or the desisn
value of rainfall duration.
Note : A11 tables are obtained from Urban Drainage Design Standards
and Procedures for Peninsular Malaysia, 1975.
1-40
-v
o.012 0.018
- Pt"rurt Muro-y
0.0r2 0.015
4-41
-v
(1) Column 7 - Determine the inlet time for the particular design
point. For the first design point of a system, the inlet time wiil
be equal to the time of concentration (t"). Remember that t" is
the wave travel time, and includes both overland flow time and
travel time in a discrete channel. For subsequent design points,
inlet time should also be tabulated to determine if it may be of
greater magnitude than the accumulated time of concentration
from upstream sub-catchments, if the inlet time exceeds the
time of concentration from upstream catchment, and the area
tributary to the inlet is of sufficient magnitude, the inlet time
should be substituted for time of concentration and used for this
and subsequent sub-catchments.
/1 A')
a'1L
Y
(8) column g-- Enter the appropriate flow time (wave travel
time)
between the previous design point and the
design point under
consideration.
4-43
4.7,4 Calculation Worksheet - (Cont'd)
(19) Column 19 -Tabulate the actual velocity of flow in the
proposed channeVpipe for the design Section.
(22) Column 22 -Calculate the discharge for the 100 year ARI to
check capacity of the drainage system for major storms.
GABION
SC = LONGITUDINAL SLOPE
4-44
4.7.5 Kerb and Gutter - (Cont'd)
The location and spacing of inlet pits is governed
provide safe, economical road drainage bi
by the need to
rimiting the amount of
gutter flow. The design criteria are shown
in Tabre 4.5.
Gutter flow may be calcuiated by rzzard'sequation
(Equation 4.2):
66i
4-45
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4-46
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FLOW SPREAD w
LONGITUDINAL SLOPI
448
4.7.5 Kerb and Gutter - (Cont,d)
l5r 10 year
YY utrrc Lle Kerosloe lane rs not a
l0 year 5 vear
Not applicable W < 2.5m
through lane (i.e. rrsed fnr nerrrina\ W < 25m
ry usrtr LrlE KerDsloe lane ls a through
> 70km/tr: no spread W < l"5m Not applicable
lane <T0kmlh'Wz1A'-
Where parking lane becomes an > /uKfivn : no spread
acceleration, deceleration or tum lane
I/ < 1.0m Not applicable
< 70km/h: I7< 1.0m
At pedestrian crossings or bus stous Not applicable W < 0.45m w< 0.45m
eIurns > 70km/h : no spread I7 < 1.0m W < 1.0m
< 70im/h: iV< l.0m
Sag Points
BIl At(l 50 year 10 year 5
W < 2.5m W < 2.5m
Major storm ctr"ct ltObJea. ezu; une lane m each One lane open to (not required)
direction open to traffic traffic
reoestnan salety'.,
V.D. <0.4m"/s V.D. <0.4m"/s
!q D49Ly
V.D. <0.4m'ls
V.D. <0.6m2/s V.D. <0.6m"/s V.D. <0.6m'ls
limit.based on v-D', the producr of average flow
)i]::tr'lflow width
\'/W verocity and guuer flow depth
= on road from gutt", inu"rt, y iio* depth at gutter
= invert
Note: on major highways and expressways, these standards may
not be applicable as it is to limit the
flow on the vehicle carriageway for safety reasons. Authorities
responsiule for these highways
may specify stricter criteria.
Surface Type n
Concrete
0.013
Hot mix asphaltic concrete
0.015
Sprayed seal
0.018
4-49
Y
The average inlet pit spacing is calculated so that allowable gutter flow
is not exceeded, as shown in Figure 4.26 andFtgute 4.27 "
grate only
o side inlet only
o combination grates and side inlet
The Combination Grate and Side Inlet pit (Figure 4.28) is the
most efficient, and it should be used wherever possible.
4-50
4.7.7.1Types of Inlet Fits - (Conr,d)
4-51
Y
Side entry inlet capacity curves for Type BKLE3O pits are
shown in Appendix 4.B. These empirical curves show the
combined capacity of the side entry inlet and grate. Allowance
must be made for biockase as described in Section 4.1 .7 .2.
/1 <a
Y
CALCULATI ALTOWABLE
LIMIT OF GUTTER FLOW
LAST LOCATION?
FIG. 4,26
OF INTET PIT SPACING
+53
xr
SUBCATCHMINT 1
SUBCATCHMENT 2
NOTT:
4-54
Gutter Flow as a function of road slope S
200
180
160 VxD>0.4
Flow exceeds crown
1+O
120
E
-c Generol width limit
100
c)
o
80
60
limit of intersection
40
20
0.01 0.10 1 .00
+55
-qr
O
z.
U
a
n
E
1so
-J
U
E.
1nn
=
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t--a
z. cu
O
z.
o 200
U
n
E.
150
=
u
E.
1nn
=
l--
J
z. JU
4-56
3.C.1 SPACING OF INIJT PITS
V = 1.15m/sec.
4-57
T
ATTACHMENT 1
CHAPTER 24
Stormwater Inlets
Acknowledgement
REAM
E
24 STGR.E?WAT€R. SNLETE
24.1 GENEML.....
................24-1
24.L.t pavement Inlets
.......... .......24_t
Z4.LZ inlets
Other
....24_t
24.2 PAVEMENT DRAINAGE
.....................24_3
24.2.t Hydroptaning
...24_3
24.2.2 Longitudinal S1ope..........
....24_4
24.2.3 Cross (Transverse) Slope...
.....................244
24.2.4 Kerb and Gutter..........
........244
24.2.5 Design Frequency and Spread...
..............24_5
24.3 LOCATING INLETS........ ...................24-7
24.3.t General Requirements
.........24-7
24.3.2 Gutter Flow..
...24_7
24.3.3 Setection of Inlet Type ...........
."..............24_7
24.3.4 Inlet Spacing C-alculation
.....24_B
24.3.5 Location of Inlets.......
.........24_8
24.4 INLET CApACrry CALCUTATTON ................
..........24-12
24.4.L Allowance for Blockage
.......24_t2
24.4.2 Combination Kerb Inlet
.......24_12
24.4.3 Fietd Intet
.......24-L3
24.4.4 Surcharge In1ets..........
.......24_13
24.5 HYDMUUC CONSIDEMTIONS ............
...............24_14
24.6 CONSTRUC[ON.............. ................:..
................24_t4
24.6.7 Structural Adequacy.....
.......24_L4
24.6.2 Materiats......
...24_74
24.6.3 Access Covers
.24_t4
24.6.4. Cover Levels
...24_14
24.7 MAINTENANCE................. ...............24_15
APPENDIX 24.A DESIGN CHARTS.......
..:................ ..24-17
APPENDIX 24.8 WORKED ESMPLE..... ...,....,24-23
24.8.L Spacing of Intets (Hatf Road Width).........
...................24_23
24.8.2 Spacing of Inlets (Combined Catchment and Road)
.....24_23
24.8.3 Inlet Gpacity Calculation
....24_25
t
Stormwater Inlets
24.I GFNTRAL
from water-logging and damages. A typical arrangement
Stormwater runoff presents numerous safety
of road drainage and stormwater inleG is shown in
hazards in Figure 24.1.
urban areas. On-road ponding, reduced visibility
and
hydroplaning of vehicles are some of the hazards.
In an The location of inlets on roads is governed by the
safe flow
urban setting these hazards are substantially
magnified limits in gutters. When selecting and locating inlets,
due to the increased traffic and pedestrian
density. consideration shall be given to hydraulic efficienry, vehicle,
birycle and pedestrian safety, debris collection potential,
Stormwater inlets, also known as gully inlets,
are mainly and maintenance problems. Care is needed to ensure
provided to collect this stormwater from the paved property access is not impeded. These principles
that
surfaces, parks, landscaped and open space are
areas, and explained in greater detail in subsequent sections.
transfer it to underground pipe drains. Even
where an
open drain system is used, the inlets connect
to the open Three types of inlets may be utilised for pavement
drains by means of pipes. The provisions apply
to both drainage:
types of drainage system.
. grate intet (Figure 24.2a)
inlets will not function properly if the downstream pipe
or . kerb inlet (Figure Z4.Zb)
open drain system has insufficient capacrty, causing . combined inlet, grate and kerb (Figure 24.2c)
backwater. The designer of these systems should refer
to
Chapters 25 and 26 respectively. As a guideline it is Kerb inlets are less affected by blockage. Extended kerb
desirable to have at least 1.0 m height diffeience between inlets, using lintel supports, can be used
the road level and the drain invert in order for the inlets to increase
operate correctly.
to capacity. The combined grate and kerb inlet
(Figure 24.2c) is the most efficient, and it should
be used
on urban roads wherever possible. Details of the
Installing of inlets is encouraged in more highly
a recommended standard kerb inlets are shcurn in
urbanised areas, for draining more runoff from StandarC
streets, Drawing No. SD F-1.
parking lots and airport facilities although
more developed
countries are now beginning to shift from hard
engineering Grates are effective in intercepting gutter flows, and
to soft engineering using roadside swale. This Chaptei also provide an access opening for maintenance. In some
they
does not apply to roads where the runoff should
discharge situaUons they are prone to blockage. All grates on road
directly to a roadside swale (Chapter 2G and 31).
should be an approved, birycle-friendly design. FHWA
(1978) have investigated several grates for inlets and
The materials used in this Chapter were adapted mainly
developed bicycle-safe grate configurations. Typical
from FHWA (1996) and eUDM (1992).
schematic of bicycle-friendly grates are shown in
Figure 24.3.
24.1.L Pavement Inlets
24.t.2 Other Inlets
The most common type of inlet is that from a road
pavement. Inlets also provide access to pipes for
Inlets are not normally required for drainage from private
maintenance. Standard sizes and shapes should be property, because in Malaysian practice this drainage
used
to achieve economy in construction and maintenance. usually discharged into an open drain along the property
is
Adequate road drainage helps to protect the road
subgrade boundary.
Access Correr
Kerb Inlet
Walkway Altemative: Single Cross-fall
Grating
SECNON
(a) Grate Inlet (b) Kerb Inlet (c) CombinaUon Inlet (Kerb and Grate)
Other stormwater inlets are required to collect surface (Figure 24.5). A surcharge inlet is similar to a field inlet
stormwater runoff in open space, reserves or swales where except that it is intentionally designed to permit surcharge
the flow is to be introduced to an underground pipe for pressure relief in a pipe system.
system. These grate inlets are known as 'field inlets'. A
field inlet (Figure 24.4) is used in open space reserves, Details of standard field inlets and surcharge inlets are
depressed medians and other locations away from shown in Standard Drawings SD F-2 and 5D F-3,
pavement kerbs. Grated inlets can also be used in middle respectively.
of the parking lots where kerbs are not required
24.2.t Ftydroptanimg
reduce the thickness of the film of water and reduce Additional guidelines related to cross slope are:
the hydroplaning potential of the roadway surface.
l. Although not widely encouraged, inside lanes can be
sloped toward the median if conditions warrant.
The Design Acceptance Criteria for surface flow on roads
(see Table 4.3 of Chapter 4) have been set to limit the 2. Median areas should not be drained across travel
potential for hydroplaning at high speeds, as well as the lanes.
potential for vehicles to float or be washed off roads at 3. The number and length of flat pavement sections in
lower speeds. cross slope transition areas should be minimised.
Consideration should be given 1o increasing cross
24.2.2 Longitudinal Slope slope in sag vertical curvesr crest vertical curves, and
in sections of flat longitudinal grades.
Experience has shown that the recommended minimum 4. Shoulders should be sloped to drain away from the
values of roadway longitudinal slope given in the MSHTO pavement, except with raised, narrow medians and
(1990) Policy on Geometric Design will provide safe, superelevations
acceptable pavement drainage. In addition, the following
general guidelines are presented.
. A minimum longitudinal gradient is more impoftant for Table 24.1 Normal Pavement Cross Slopes (FHWA, 1996)
a kerbed pavement than for an unkerbed pavement
since the water is constrained by the kerb. However,
flat gradients on unkerbed pavements can lead to a Sudace Type Range in Rate of
spread problem if vegetation is allowed to build up Suface Slooe
along the pavement edge.
High-Type Surface
. Desirable gutter grades should not be less than 0.5 2 lanes 0.015 - 0.020
percent forkerbed pavements with an absolute 3 or more lanes, eaeh 0.015 minimum; increase
minimum of 0.3 percent. Minimum grades can be direction 0.005 to 0.010 per lane;
maintained in very flat terrain by use of a rolling 0.040 maximum
profile, or by warping the cross slope to achieve rolling
lntermediate Surface 0.015 - 0.030
gutter profiles.
. To provide adequate drainage in sag veftical curves, a Low-Type Surface 0.020 - 0.060
minimum slope of 0.3 percent should be maintained Shoulders
within 15 metres of the low point of the curve.
Bituminous or Concrete 0.020 - 0.060
Table 24.1 indicates an acceptable range of cross slopes as 24.2.4 Kerb and Gutter
in MSHTO's poliry on geometric design of
specified
highways and streets. These cross slopes are a All roads in urban areas shall generally be provided with an
compromise between the need for reasonabiy steep cross integral kerb and gutter. The current practice of providing
slopes for drainage and relatively flat cross slope for driver a kerb orily on roads is generally not acceptable as there is
comfort and safety. These cross slopes represent standard no defined gutter to carry stormwater flows, and the road
practice. MSHTO (1990) should be consulted before pavement will suffer damage from frequent inundation.
deviating from these values.
However, where the volume of gutter flow is negligible as
Cross slopes of 2 percent have little effect on driver effott in car parks and on the high side of single-crossfall roads,
in steering or on friction demand for vehicle stability, Use a kerb only is acceptable.
of a cross slope steeper than 2 percent on pavement with
a central crown line is not desirable. In areas of intense Kerbs are normally used at the outside edge of pavement
rainfall, a somewhat steeper cross slope (2.5 percent) may for low-speed, and in some instances adjacent to shoulders
be used to facilitate drainage (Gallaway et al, 1979). on moderate to high-speed roads. They serve the
following purposes:
Where three (3) lanes or more are sloped in the same
direction, it is desirable to counter the resulting increase in . contain the surface runoff within the roadway and
flow depth by increasing the cross slope of the outermost away from adjacent properties,
lanes. The Wvo (2) lanes adjacent to the crown line should o pr€v€ot erosion on fill slopes,
be pitched at the normal slope, and successive lane pairs'
or portions thereof outward, should be increased by about
. provide pavement delineation, and
0.5 to 1 percent. The maximum pavement cross slope . enable the orderly development of propefi adjacent
should be limited to 4 percent (refer to Table 24.1). to the roadway.
2. Design speed is impoftant to the selection of design various design spreads may be helpful in selectino
criteria. At speeds greater than 70 km/hr, it has been appropriate design criteria. Table 24.2 provides suggeste;
shown that water on the pavement can cause minimum design frequencies and spread based on the
hydroplaning. types of road and traffic speed. Similar design criteria are
3. The intensity of rainfall events may significantly affect also given in Chapter 4, Table 4.3.
the selection of design frequency and spread. Risks
associated with the spread of water on pavement is The recommended design frequency for depressed
high in Malaysian conditions. sections and underpasses where ponded water can be
removed only through the storm drainage system is a 50
Other considerations include inconvenience, hazards and year ARL A 100 year ARI storm is used to assess hazards
nuisances to pedestrian traffic. These considerations at critical locations where water can pond to appreciable
should not be minimised and in some locations such as in depths.
commercial areas/ may assume major importance.
(b) Seledion of Major storm and Spread
The relative elevation of the road and surrounding terrain
is an additional consideration where water can be drained A major storm should be used any time runoff could cause
only through a storm drainage system, as in underpasses unacceptable flooding during less frequent events. Also,
and depressed sections. The potential for ponding to inlets should always be evaiuated for a major storm when
hazardous depths should be considered in selecting the a series of inlets terminates at a sag vertical curve where
frequency and spread ci'iieria and in checking the design ponding to hazardous depths could oeeur"
against storm events of lesser frequency than the design
event. The frequency selected for the major storm should be
based on the same considerations used to select the
Spread on traffic lanes can be tolerated to greater widths design storm, i.e., the consequences of spread exceeding
where traffic volumes and speeds are low. Spreads of that chosen for design and the potential for ponding.
one-half of a traffic lane or more are usually considered a Where no significant ponding can occur, major storm are
minimum type design for low-volume local roads. normally unnecessary.
The selection of design criteria for intermediate types of Criteria for spread during the check event are :
facilities may be the most difficult. For example, some 1. one lane open to traffic during the major storm event
arterials with relatively high traffic volumes and speeds
may not have shoulders which will convey the design
2. one lane free of water during the major storm event
Table24.2 Suggested Minimum Design Frequency and Spread (Adapted from FHWA, 1996)
. in tight radius kerb returns where the length of a type o on grades, with average spacing calculated in
M or L iniet is inappropriate accordance with Section 24.3;
I as a field inlet o Bt the tangent point of intersection kerb returns such
that the width of gutter flow around the kerb return in
24.3.4 lnlet Spacing Calculation the Minor Design Storm Coes not exceed 1.0m;
Fall
\
Subcatchment
LEGEND
Pipe, Inlet -....o-
Gutter Flow ----->
Flow \-v
CALCUTATT ALL*WAEIE
ut4IT *F 6rlTTr* rL&W
ii,*
:;::.qi
:):::':i,i
]fi
Inlet posfion to
suit maximum
spacing from top
of catchment
,I
r/
*"/
"paOng Inlet on
tangent of
kerb return
Inlet on tang€nt
I/ /
;to*r*'^ I I
Inlet upstream of
pedestrian crossing
Max. 450 mm in
Max. 1000 mm
in Minor Storm
ROAD
Max.1000 mm
in Minor Storm
Kerb Inlet
Prefuned
l-ocaUon Kerb Inlet
Locauon
Not Recommended
Stormwater lnlets
24,4.1 Allowance for Blockage Combination kerb inlets can have 2.4 m, 3.6 m or 4.g m
long lintels (refer Standard Drawing SD F-1 types .S,, 'M,
Inlet interception capacity has been investigated by several and'L', respectively).
agencies and manufacturer of grates. Hydraulic tests on
grate inlets and slotted inlets were conducted by Bureau of The inlet capacity of combination kerb inlets can be taken
Reclamation for the U.S. Federal Highway Administration. to be approximately equal to the sum of the kerb openino
Normally the longitudinal bars are veftical and the and grate capacities.
transverse bars (vanes) are fixed in different angle and
orientation to get
maximum hydraulic efficiency with fhe kerb apening capacity depends on the inlet throat
minimum blockage from litters. Few typical arrangement
geometry (see Figure 24.13). The inlet throat acts as an
of vanes in the grates are shown in Figure 24.12. orifice and the orifice flow equation applies (FHWA, 1gg4).
The design blockage allowance shall normally be 30yo for Qt =o.67hLtl2gd, (24.2)
an inlet on grade and 500/o for a sag inlet or field inlet,
unless otherwise directed. where,
Or = flow through the inlet throat,
to be handled by the inleG shall
The gutter flow required
be determined from network design calculations as l. = length of kerb opening,
described in Chaoter 16. do = effective head at centre of the orifice throat, and
11 = orifice throat width
r =Q, (24.3)
(a) Parallel Bar a
where,
O = total incoming flow through the gutter side
O = flow captured by the inlet
Tranwerse Bar (Vane)
Flow Drcction The efficiency of an inlet on grade depends on the length
of the opening, longitudinal slope, cross-fall, and whether
there are any deflector bars to divert flow into the grate.
(b) Curved Bar The grate capacity depends on pavement geometry, the
direction and depth of flow and the grate configuration
including the spacing and size of bars. For shallow depths,
up to approximately 200 mm, the weir equation can be
Flow Direction
applied.
2
Qe -- F, x !.66 x luh3t (24.4)
where,
(c) 45'Tilt Bar
Le = effective length of grate opening in the direction of
flow,
Fa = blockage factor,
Figure24.L2 Typical Arrangement of Vanes for Grates pn = grate capacity
At dipths greater than 200 mm, grate inlets in To minimisethe risk that the surcharge opening will
sags can
function under orifice flow concJitions as discussed becorne partially or fr:lly blocked by debris and
in the titter in the
following section. surcharged flow, the surcharge capacity of the inlet
structure should be twice the total design inflow from
all
pipes connected to the structure. Details of the
. if there is insufficient lnlet capacity the pipes wil! not The minimum size opening for access is 600x600 mm.
flow full, and
. backwater effects from the pipe drainage system rnay (b) MetalGrates
reduce the effectiveness of the inlets, or cause them
to surcharge instead of acting as inlets. An inlet grate which will be subjected to vehicle loadings
shall be designed to support those loads in accordance
The complexity of these interactions is such that in all but with the relevant Malaysian or British Standard.
the simplest situations, the design task is best handled by
computer models. Some suitable computer models are Ductile iron covers shall be :GATIC:, or other proprietary
described in Chapter 17. design as approved in writing by the Local Authority.
24.6 CONSTRUCTION
24.6.4 Cover Levels
The lintels for type S, M and L Bits shall be preeast, to Ncte: Stormwater inlet tops shall be protected bY
comply with appropriate Malaysian or British standards. placing fill against the top. The fill shall be
graded down ta natural suface at a maximum
slope of 1 in 10.
Stormwater Inlets
Design
Description
Chart Page
200
0.5 t 2 461015 )./5
ti
180
4.73
160
140 3.73
xQ
OJ 120
ly it: E
\
ff
= T ''-i'1- 7.73
oo)
//4 tr
7l i'." ,,i:
ts :
80 t.73
d= i' ,i'
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n7?
40 *"i-,*---*--l*,* i:..i.-
20
ri. i"tl
i ,' ,r, -u.l/
0.01 0.10 1.00 10.00
Design Chart 24.1 Gutter Flow using lzzard's Equation (QUDM, 1992)
Note:
A number of similar set of curves can be prepared using different combination of variables in lzzard's Equation.
E
c
vt
s-'
o
h
'-1
I
CL
(u
E
E
c
8
E
E
E
:t
I
CL
o,
E
E
c
o
(J
E
6
g
J
E
:t
CL
I
n
Design Chaft 24.4 Combination Kerb Inlet Capacity - Type L (QUDM, 1992)
E
E
150
o
cc
|E
6
o
J
100
iE
s
E
zo
tg
g
CL
dl
50
{f = 5 rninutes
Rainfall intensity, 5/5 = 300 mm/hr
Half road widih = 9m
Longitudinal slope
= 0.5 7o
Cross slope
= ?o/^
Solution:
Qnna = (Cx5lrxe;7360
= 0.91 x 300 x (9 x /7x 10-4)/360
= 0.000693 /.1
where {, is the length of gutter flow in the upstream
subcatchmeni.
2) Calculate the allowable limit of gutter flow.
Subcatchment I
Subcatdlment 2
Subcatchment 3
J
LEGEND
Gutter Flow ----|
Eypass Flow \-t
Pipe, Inlet
--r-
1\ Adapt /= 175 mm/hr from Ipoh IDF data for 5 year ARI, 15 minute duration storm,
Qconb,nd= C.I.A. I 360
= 0.001859 l; where l1 is the length of gutter flow in the first upstream subcatchment
For a minor road the allowable flow width is 2.5 m (Table 4.3). Note that the cross-fall is 3olo and the runoff depth at
gutter, dn is given by 0.03 x 2.5 0.075 m. So, the flow will not overtop the kerb. Using Design Chart24.l in
=
Appendix 24.Afor S = 2o/o, n, = 0.015 (hot-mix asphalt pavement), spread of 2.5 m width, and ,c = 0'013 (concrete
kerb and gutter). The limiting gutter (half-road) flow based on flow not exceeding the road crown is:
=91 m
As in the previous example, adapt type'S'inlet. Determine the capture efficiency on a 2olo slope.
Use the Design Chart 24.2. With a gutter approach flow of 170 Lls, the inlet capture is 125 Us giving a capture
efficiency of about 73%.
=4\l/c
- n n4q m3/s_
=67m
5) For design purposes, adapt a maximum inlet spacing
of 70 m. The adapted design is shown in figure below.
Note: This example ignores the fact that roof drainage would
normally be connected directly to the piped drainage
therefore the result is likely to be conseryative. system,
I
E
tc}
r)
LEGEND
GutterFlow ----->
BypassFlow \_t
inlet E
Open Drain
Solution:
:igure 24.83 Example for Road and Catchrnent Drainage to an Open Drain
2) The preliminary design shown above was preoared based on calculations sirnilar to Appendix 24.8.2, taking care to
account for the catchment areas draining to each section ci drain. The analysis is perforrned with Ipoh rainfall IDF
data.
3) Hydrology input data and results for the network in the 5 year and 100 year ARi storms are shown in Table 24.81.
4\ Hydraulic input data and hydraulic grade line resulis for the network in the 5 year and 100 year ARI storms are shown
in Table 24.82.
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ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
Volume 4 now provides guidelines to the practical design of surface drainage, with
worked examples provided in Appendix 4-C, which is reproduced from Jabatan
Pengairan dan Saliran publication - Urban Stormwater Management Manual for
Malaysia (MASMA 2000).