La Consolacion University Philippines

Graduate School

Educ 201 Research and Method ALVIN V NUQUI, Ph.D.,EFRIEdr,LPT,PTRP - Professor

EDILYN R. MIRABUENO
MAE-Educational Management

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

1. THE EFFECTS OF PERSONAL FINANCIAL DEBT ON EMPLOYEE JOB

PERFORMANCE
By Krista M. Martines
Review of Literature
The purpose of this literature review is to examine the effects of personal debt on
employee job performance and also to discover the most effective ways that have been found
to educate employees about financial budgeting. The sections that this review will be covering
are productivity, employee personal life, financial management – personal debt, a financial
stress study, financial education and a financial wellness study. Ultimately, it is very valuable to
managers that their employees are productive. It’s important to know if personal financial debt
has an effect on productivity. It’s also important for employers to know if there is a solution to
improving employee productivity through financial wellness programs. Productivity The
Merriam-Webster dictionary defines productivity as: the rate at which goods are produced or
work is completed. There are many factors that affect productivity in the workplace. Some of
these factors are as follows. The behavior style of leaders is a factor. The attitude and the way
leaders conduct themselves (Hacıtahiroğlu, 2012). An employee’s physical health also affects
productivity in the workplace. Productivity is affected by modifiable health conditions and by
chronic health conditions (Lenneman, Schwartz, Giuseffi, & Wang, 2011). There are many
factors that affect productivity. The factor that this review will focus on is employee personal
financial stress. The following section will review the effects of an employee’s personal life on
their productivity at work. Employee Personal Life An employee’s personal life has an impact on
how they perform at work. There are many factors in an employee’s personal life that affect
how they perform at work. According to Konrad (2000), conflicts between work and home life
can lead to employee withdrawal and turnover. Employee withdrawal can lead to decreased
effort at work, tardiness and absenteeism. Stressful life events, such as divorce or the death of a
spouse also impact employee productivity. These events can be costly, take up a lot of time and
be emotionally taxing (Andrews, 2005). There are many parts of an employee’s personal life that
can affect how they perform at work. This review will focus solely on employee debt and how it
affects their productivity at work. According to Pruter (2001), an employee’s financial wellness is
a determinant of employer productivity. Employees who are financially well off in their personal
lives are your best employees. Financially unwell employees waste at least twenty hours a
month dealing with their personal financial issues, while they are at work. This author likens
employees with poor personal financial situations to sharks that swim around the workplace
and take bites out of the bottom line. Employees who are financially unwell in their personal
finances are costly to employers (Quinn, 2000). Financial Management – Personal Debt Personal
financial management and personal debt have an impact on people’s lives. This affects their
personal lives and their work lives. Personal debt can directly affect whether a person can get a
loan for their home, car or child’s education Dean, Joo, Gudmunson, Fischer, & Lambert, 2013).
Personal debt can even have effects that go as far as causing people to have anxiety and
depression. Some people with a significant amount of debt that they are having trouble
repaying experience thoughts of suicide (Meltzer, Bebbington, Brugha, Jenkins, McManus, &
Dennis, 2011). There are many ways that personal debt affect people’s lives. This following
section will focus on how personal financial management and debt affects people at work, by
affecting their absenteeism and productivity. According to Dean et al. (2013), personal debt is
not determined by race, sex or even income. People with higher levels of income have even
higher debt, especially when it comes to automobile debt. This review is relevant to employees
across all income levels. Personal financial debt is more the result of attitudes and behaviors
than it is the result of not having enough money. The findings show that having debt leads to
acquiring more debt. The number one cause of stress for Americans is worrying about money
(Prawitz & Cohart, 2014). Debt problems cause stress and anxiety that reduces employee
productivity (Zimmerman, 2006). Gurchiek (2008) states that thirty million employees in the
United States are financially distressed. Personal finance causes five times more concern than
health issues. Stress results in lower employee productivity. 6 Financial Stress Study Garman
(1996) conducted a literature review by searching over 12,500 articles. Poor financial behaviors
have a negative effect on people’s lives both at home and at work. Personal financial problems
surface first in the workplace. Some of the costs that employers incur from employee’s poor
financial behaviors: absenteeism, tardiness, fighting with other employees and managers,
reduced employee productivity, lowered employee morale, loss of revenue from sales not
made, accidents and increased risk taking, lack of employee focus on employer’s goals, thefts
from employers and company use of time to deal with personal financial issues. As the number
of poor financial choices increase, the consequences have an increasing negative effect at work.
According to Garman (1996), “Poor personal financial behaviors are often manifested as stress,
which reduces employee productivity.” Absenteeism is one of the primary sources low
employee productivity that is a result of stress. Employee stress from personal finances is a real
issue that affects the workplace. A survey was given to 301 employees of IDS Financial Services.
The findings showed that the job performance of one-third of the workforce is affected by
personal financial stress. Thirty-eight percent of the employees surveyed said that their job
performance was affected by their worries about money. Many employees with financial
problems end up taking time off work to face their struggles. An example of this is when an
employee takes company, when they could be productive, to talk with their co-workers or
supervisors about their financial problems. People with financial stress also take longer breaks
at work to deal with their financial stress. Other employees call in sick to work to deal with their
financial problems. Absenteeism describes when employees don’t show up to work. There is
also absenteeism, where the employee shows up to work, but mentally they are not available to
do their job. Financially unwell employees are passive and not engaged at work (Gurchiek,
2008). When an employee is focused on their financial problems, they are not focused on their
work. They may be able to still perform at some level, but they are not able to give 100%.
“Unscheduled absenteeism” costs companies about $700 a year for each employee. Some
additional costs to unscheduled absenteeism include: lower morale from other employees who
must pick up the extra work, lost revenue because of less sales, losing customers to other
companies with a better reputation and better customer service. While not all absenteeism is
due to financial stress, the cost of absenteeism is between $25 and $35 billion in the United
States. This cost is from lost employee productivity. Other estimations say the cost is over $300
billion per year (Garman & et al., 1996). Financial Education Financial education programs are
being implemented in the workplace to help people manage their personal finances and debt.
According to Shad (2001), an employee who is worried about their future finances will not
perform well today. Personal financial health has an impact on physical health, mental health
and job performance. In 1999, academics did a study for the Association Financial Counseling
and Planning Education (AFCPE). The study included 178 employees. The employees were asked
questions about the financial health, physical health and their most recent job reviews from
their bosses. The results were that employees who received better performance reviews also
had better financial and physical health. There were measureable results from the study. 100
out of the 178 employees participated in a financial education program. There 100 were
measured to be much more confident than the 78 employees who did not participate in a
financial education program. Both groups responded to the question, “I worry about how much
money I owe.” The 100 employees, who participated in the financial education program, were
less likely to be concerned about debt than the 78 who did not attend. Another benefit that the
100 employees showed, is that after attending the financial education program, they were not
only more confident, but also more proactive. This proactive mentality led to increased personal
financial savings. In the following section, a financial wellness study will be explored. This study
explains the value of financial wellness programs. Financial Wellness Study This study, from
Verne (2014), set goals for employers in 2015. In the recent past, companies have incorporated
programs that increase the health of their employees. These programs include resources for
healthy eating, exercise, and mental health. The reason company’s are investing in the health of
their employees is because healthy employees more productive, because they are happier.
Healthy employees also cost their employers less. The last aspect of health that companies are
starting to focus on is the financial wellness of their employees. When financial stress is reduced
in employees, both the company and the employee benefit. Finances are at the root of people’s
greatest stress in America. A large number of Americans make just enough money each month
to pay their bills. Most Americans also have a large amount of debt but don’t possess the skills
needed to make better financial decisions. These factors have a large impact on productivity. In
order for companies to have happy, healthy and productive employees, financial wellness
programs need to be part of the company’s benefits. Financial stress should be every company’s
concern because it’s something that most American employees face. One in three Americans
have been late in paying their debts. It’s hard to get out of debt once you are in it. It becomes a
vicious cycle. People don’t make the best decisions for themselves once they are in debt, and
they usually get into debt worse. People who have more debt are more likely to have health
problems. They also show more irritability, anger and fatigue. Financial stress is also connected
with headaches, stomach pain, ulcers, sleeplessness, muscle tension and heart attacks. People
with financial stress are also more likely to start behaviors that are not healthy for them. These
unhealthy behaviors include: smoking, alcohol and drug abuse and weight gain. These effects of
financial stress have a negative impact on employee job performance. When employees
experience high levels of stress, they are less motivated and less efficient at work. They are also
less creative and they produce a lower quality of 10 work. Fifteen percent of American
employees have a level of financial stress that directly decreases their productivity. There is a
link that researchers have found between financial stress and missing work. People who are
stressed about their finances spend more time at work dealing with their finances. 24% of
employees say that personal financial stress distracts them while they are at work. Of that 24%,
39% spend a minimum of 3 hours each week, either thinking about or facing their financial
issues. Gallup reports that financial distractions cost $300 billion in lost productivity every year.
Financial stress has been found to have an impact on behavior and cognitive function. A book
entitled Scarcity was released in 2013 by authors Sendil Mullainathan and Eldar Shafir,
professors at Harvard and Princeton respectively. What they found is that people getting by with
less than they need has significant effects. They say that scarcity reduces people’s self-control
and prevents them from learning. The books also says that scarcity increases anger, impatience
and also causes people to be impulsive, and make poor decisions which causes them to stay in a
vicious cycle. The bottom line is that people with limited resources tend to make decisions that
will ultimately be worse for them. There was one experiment done, proving that an employee’s
ability to work is affected more negatively by financial stress than by a lack of sleep. Basically,
someone who is financially stressed performs much worse at work than someone who is sleep
deprived. This case makes the conclusion that financial stress is bad for both employees and
their employers. It states that financial education programs are very helpful in helping
employees reduce their level of financial stress and gain valuable tools for stay debt free in the
long term. This study says that the root cause of financial stress is financial illiteracy. Low
financial literacy leads to higher personal debt. This is what financial education programs seek to
address. According to Baliga (1995), companies that implement programs to measure their
employees’ job performance had greater employee productivity. According to The Impact of
Performance Management on Organizational Success, a study was performed that included 437
publicly traded companies. The respondents of the study included 58 different industries that
had incomes ranging from one million to 65 million. They also had a range of employees from 10
to 312,000. Two hundred and five companies implemented programs that rewarded employee
who increased their job performance. This also improved the company’s finances. Two hundred
thirty two of the companies did not implement programs, showed lower company financial
 performance than their counterparts. The study measured the following areas: profitability,
cash flow, value of stock and productivity. Profitability includes the return on assets, the profit
margin and the profits of each employee. The cash flow measures the real return on investment,
along with cash flow. Stock market performance is measured by the shareholder return and the
stock return based on the market index. The value of stock is the price to book value of capital
ratio. Finally, productivity is measured by examining the sales of each employee. Managing
performance involves managers and employees working together. They set goals and measure
their results based on their goals

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

2. A Meta-Analysis for Exploring the Diverse Causes and Effects of Stress in

Teachers
Cameron Montgomery and André A. Rupp

Canadian Journal of Education / Revue canadienne de l'éducation

Vol. 28, No. 3 (2005), pp. 458-486

Published by: Canadian Society for the Study of Education

DOI: 10.2307/4126479

https://www.jstor.org/stable/4126479

Page Count: 29

Abstract

This study provides a correlational meta-analysis of 65 independently written or published studies

on teacher stress between 1998 and 2003. We measured the relationships between teacher stress
and numerous other constructs including coping, burnout, emotional responses, personality
mediators, personal support, environmental structure, and background characteristics. A
theoretical-empirical model of construct relationships investigated across studies was developed
and n = 2,527 correlational effect sizes were used to estimate the empirical relationships between
the operationalized theoretical constructs. Results showed that the strongest association of teacher
Stressors exists with negatively oriented emotional responses confirming the central role of
teachers' coping mechanisms, personality mediators, and burnout potential according to our model
of the stress cycle.
1.
____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

3. Chinese teachers’ work stress and their turnover intention

Author links open overlay panelShujieLiuaAnthony J.Onwuegbuzieb1

Show more

https://doi.org/10.1016/j.ijer.2012.03.006Get rights and content

Abstract

This survey study employed qualitative dominant mixed research to explore the sources of teacher
stress in China and the possible reasons for Chinese teachers’ turnover intention. The data were
collected in Jilin Province of China, and 510 teachers participated in the survey. Quantitatively,
40.4% of the surveyed teachers reported that they probably or certainly would leave the teaching
profession for another occupation if the opportunity arose. Qualitative data showed that the
possible reasons for the Chinese teachers’ turnover intention found from this study included a high
level of stress, low salary, inadequate breaks and holidays, heavy workload, and student behavior.

Highlights

► This study explored the possible reasons for Chinese teachers’ turnover intention and its relations
to job stress. ► 40.4% of the surveyed teachers would leave the teaching profession if the
opportunity arose. ► The major reason for the Chinese teachers’ turnover intention was a high level
of stress.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

4. Emotional intelligence moderates the relationship between stress and

mental health
Author links open overlay panelJosephCiarrochiFrank PDeaneStephenAnderson

Show more

https://doi.org/10.1016/S0191-8869(01)00012-5Get rights and content

Abstract

Despite a great deal of popular interest and the development of numerous training programs in
emotional intelligence (EI), some researchers have argued that there is little evidence that EI is both
useful and different from other, well established constructs. We hypothesized that EI would make a
unique contribution to understanding the relationship between stress and three important mental
health variables, depression, hopelessness, and suicidal ideation. University students (n=302)
participated in a cross-sectional study that involved measuring life stress, objective and self-
reported emotional intelligence, and mental health. Regression analyses revealed that stress was
associated with: (1) greater reported depression, hopelessness, and suicidal ideation among people
high in emotional perception (EP) compared to others; and (2) greater suicidal ideation among those
low in managing others' emotions (MOE). Both EP and MOE were shown to be statistically different
from other relevant measures, suggesting that EI is a distinctive construct as well as being important
in understanding the link between stress and mental health.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

5.
 ____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

6. Daily fluctuations in teachers' well-being: a diary study using the Job

Demands–Resources model
Silvia Simbula

Pages 563-584

Received 12 May 2009

Published online: 30 Mar 2010

 Download citation

 https://doi.org/10.1080/10615801003728273

Abstract

The study tests the dynamic nature of the Job Demands–Resources model with regard to both
motivational and health impairment processes. It does so by examining whether daily fluctuations in co-
workers' support (i.e., a typical job resource) and daily fluctuations in work/family conflict (i.e., a typical
job demand) predict day-levels of job satisfaction and mental health through work engagement and
exhaustion, respectively. A total of 61 schoolteachers completed a general questionnaire and a daily
survey over a period of five consecutive work days. Multilevel analyses provided evidence for both the
above processes. Consistently with the hypotheses, our results showed that day-level work engagement
mediated the impact of day-level co-workers' support on day-level job satisfaction and day-level mental
health, after general levels of work engagement and outcome variables had been controlled for.
Moreover, day-level exhaustion mediated the relationship between day-level work/family conflict and
day-level job satisfaction and day-level mental health after general levels of exhaustion and outcome
variables had been controlled for. These findings provide new insights into the dynamic psychological
processes that determine daily fluctuations in employee well-being. Such insights may be transformed
into job redesign strategies and other interventions designed to enhance work-related psychological
well-being on a daily level.
 ____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

7.
 ____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

8. Teacher Stress in the Low-Trust Society

Geoff Troman

Pages 331-353 | Published online: 28 Jun 2010

 Download citation

 https://doi.org/10.1080/713655357

Abstract

Stress is a widespread feature of work in teaching. Recent accounts of teacher emotions and cultures of
teaching have noted that unsatisfactory social relationships with adults, e.g. colleagues, headteachers,
parents and inspectors, elicit hostile emotions from teachers and appear to be a source of stress in
teaching. This article examines why this should be the case. Some commentators have used labour
process theory to argue that the intensification of work and government policies promoting
managerialism in schools are the roots of the problem. This article uses qualitative data from a study of
primary teacher stress to examine staff relationships in the primary school. It argues that while
intensification of teachers' work is certainly involved in eroding positive staff relationships, it is also the
changing trust relations in high modernity that are shaping the social relations of low-trust schooling,
and impacting negatively on teachers' physical and emotional well-being and their collegial professional
relations.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

9. I am Not a Better Teacher, But Others are Doing Worse: Burnout and
Perceptions of Superiority Among Teachers
 Authors
  Authors and affiliations

 Veerle Brenninkmeijer

 Nico W. Vanyperen

 Bram P. Buunk

 12Citations

Abstract

This study examined differences between teachers high and low in burnout in the perception of being
superior to others. Because burnout implies a decline in well-being and because well-being is related to
perceived superiority, it was hypothesized that perceived superiority would be reduced among
individuals high in burnout. This would be particularly true for superiority with respect to positive
behaviors (feeling better than others). As negative behaviors of others are generally highly salient, it was
expected that even individuals high in burnout would be able to maintain a sense of negative superiority
(feeling less bad than others). One hundred twenty teachers in secondary education were asked to
generate information about inferior and superior others. Perceived superiority was assessed by
response latencies and the quality of the information generated. As expected, only positive superiority
was reduced among teachers high in burnout. Thus, they felt less good, but also less bad than others.
Consequences for classroom performance and suggestions for the treatment of burnout are discussed.

Keywords

Emotional Exhaustion Positive Behavior Negative Behavior Personal Accomplishment Quality

Superiority

These keywords were added by machine and not by the authors. This process is experimental and the
keywords may be updated as the learning algorithm improves.

This revised version was published online in August 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.

I am not a better teacher, but others are doing worse: burnout and perceptions of superiority among
teachers VEERLE BRENNINKMEIJER , NICO W. VANYPEREN and BRAM P. BUUNK University of Groningen,
the Netherlands Abstract. This study examined differences between teachers high and low in burnout in
the perception of being superior to others. Because burnout implies a decline in well-being and because
well-being is related to perceived superiority, it was hypothesized that perceived superiority would be
reduced among individuals high in burnout. This would be particularly true for superiority with respect
to positive behaviors (feeling better than others). As negative behaviors of others are generally highly
salient, it was expected that even individuals high in burnout would be able to maintain a sense of
negative superiority (feeling less bad than others). One hundred twenty teachers in secondary education
were asked to generate information about inferior and superior others. Perceived superiority was
assessed by response latencies and the quality of the information generated. As expected, only positive
superiority was reduced among teachers high in burnout. Thus, they felt less good, but also less bad
than others. Consequences for classroom performance and suggestions for the treatment of burnout
are discussed. 1. Introduction In European countries as well as in many other countries of the world,
teacher burnout is a well-known phenomenon. In the media, magazines, and on television, teacher
burnout receives a considerable amount of attention. In the Netherlands, mental-health problems
appear in 36% of the cases as the reason for allocating a disability pension to a work-incapacitated
teacher (USZO, 1998). Research in Europe suggests that 60–70% of the teachers are under frequent
stress and that approximately 30% of the teachers show signs of burnout (see Rudow, 1999). Moreover,
also in comparison with various other kinds of ‘people work,’ such as mental and physical health
professions, teachers appear to be at a high risk of burnout. Teachers report more burnout symptoms
than workers in other social professions (de Heus & Diekstra, 1999). Teacher burnout refers, as burnout
in other professions, to a decline in wellbeing that is caused by chronic stress in the work situation and is
generally con- Author for correspondence: Department of Social and Organizational Psychology,
University of Groningen, Grote Kruisstraat 2-I, 9712 TS Groningen, the Netherlands; E-mail:
V.BRENNINKMEIJER@PPSW.RUG.NL. 260 VEERLE BRENNINKMEIJER ET AL. sidered as a multidimensional
syndrome (Maslach & Jackson, 1981). The first, most central dimension is emotional exhaustion (Shirom,
1989). One experiences a depletion of emotional resources and feels ‘empty’ or ‘worn out.’ The second
aspect of burnout is depersonalization. This refers to a negative, cynical attitude toward one’s students.
The third aspect of burnout is reduced personal accomplishment. Individuals in a state of burnout
evaluate their accomplishments at work negatively. Emotional exhaustion is found relatively often
among young teachers (see Byrne, 1999), as well as depersonalization among men, the latter finding
having been ascribed to differing traditional role patterns among men and women (e.g., VanYperen,
Buunk, & Schaufeli, 1992; Van Horn, Schaufeli, Greenglass, & Burke, 1997; Greenglass, Burke, &
Konarski, 1998). In general, burnout is more prevalent among secondary school teachers than among
elementary school teachers (Russell, Altmaier, & Van Velzen, 1987; Van Horn et al., 1997). Problems
associated with teacher burnout include excess time pressure, poor relationships with colleagues, large
classes, lack of resources, isolation, fear of violence, role ambiguity, poor opportunities for promotion,
lack of support, lack of participation in decision-making, and behavioral problems of pupils (Abel &
Sewell, 1999). Boyle, Borg, Falzon, and Baglioni (1995) identified four factors as sources of teacher
stress: pupil misbehavior (e.g., noisy and impolite pupils), time and resource difficulties (e.g., time
pressure and lack of facilities), recognition needs (e.g., limited opportunities for promotion), and poor
relationships (e.g., with colleagues and pupils’ parents). According to Dworkin (1997), organizational and
structural stressors also induce teacher burnout, which he illustrates with Texas school reform programs
in the 1980s that almost doubled the percentage of burned-out teachers in that state. During this school
reform, standardized norms for teachers and students were created, and teachers’ competence was
questioned and tested, thereby diminishing the teachers’ job control. A high level of control over one’s
fate or performance is essential for successful functioning. Especially when accompanied by high
demands, low job control results in distress (Karasek & Theorell, 1990). In the same way, Friedman
(1991) described how burnout is fostered by school cultures in which the school administration enforces
clearly defined, narrow, measurable goals for academic achievement on the teachers. Less organized
schools with ‘softer’ goals seem to give teachers more opportunity for experimenting with new learning
methods, for discussing problems they encounter, and for having supportive contact with the school
administration. Apart from work-related factors, several individual and interpersonal factors influencing
burnout have been proposed. An individual characteristic that may protect an individual against burnout
is, for instance, communal orientation, which refers to a concern for other people (VanYperen et al.,
1992). Nurses who care for their patients out of concern for them tend to experience less burnout.
____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

10. Validating Measures of Teacher Stress

Loyd S. Pettegrew, Glenda E. Wolf, First Published January 1, 1982 Research Article

https://doi.org/10.3102/00028312019003373

Article information

No Access

Abstract

This paper reports the results of a known groups-validation study of several measures of teacher stress.
Role-related stress, task-based stress, and environmental stress comprised the stress measures. Groups
of teachers in high schools and junior-high schools were selected on an a priori basis using
administrative records of reported student discipline as the criterion. These teacher groups were then
given a pencil-and-paper measure containing the three major stress variables and additional stress-
related variables. Four research questions were addressed: the internal consistency of the teacher stress
measures, the structural reliability of the measures, the predictive validity of the measures, and the
construct validity of the measures of teacher stress. Other heuristic findings regarding the teacher stress
phenomenon are discussed, and substantive directions for future research are outlined.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

11. Job Satisfaction and Performance of School Teachers

Dr. S. Chamundeswari AssociateProfessor, N.K.T. National College of Education for Women,
Chennai-600 005
Email: rajchamu2006@yahoo.co.in

Abstract
Teaching is a highly noble profession and teachers are always a boon to the society. The
ultimate process of education could be simplified as a meaningful interaction between the
teacher and the taught. The teacher thus plays a direct and crucial role in moulding a pupil
towards education. Since a teacher is a role model for the students, job satisfaction and
eventually performance of teachers become very vital in the fields of education. Thus the
researcher felt the need to investigate the job satisfaction and performance of teachers in
different categories of schools following different systems of education. From the total
population, a sample of 196 teachers from state board schools, 198 teachers from matriculation
board schools and 194 teachers from central board schools were drawn. The results of the study
indicated that teachers in central board schools were significantly better in their job satisfaction
and performance compared to their counterparts in matriculation and state board schools. This
may be attributed to the fact that central board school teachers enjoy better infrastructure
facilities and congenial working environment than the matriculation and state board teachers. It
is for the school authorities, policy makers and society at large to ensure factors contributing to
job satisfaction of teachers to the maximum possible extent and thereby enhancing their
teaching perforrmance to its optimum. Keywords: Teachers, Job satisfaction, Performance of
teachers. 1. INTRODUCTION Teaching is a highly noble profession and teachers are always a
boon to society. The teaching acts of a teacher are meant to instill confidence in the youth so
that not only while as students but also throughout their lifetime they could acquire relevant
knowledge whenever they need it. The teacher’s job is therefore to show what to study, to
challenge the students by setting high standards and to criticize in order to spur to further
achievement, to help surmount blind spots and to evaluate each student’s progress in terms of
valid objectives. Therefore, teachers have to adopt several strategies in their teaching in order
to be effective in their jobs. 1.1 Performance of Teachers Performance of teachers mainly
depends on the teacher characteristics such as knowledge base, sense of responsibility, and
inquisitiveness; the student characteristics such as opportunity to learn, and academic work; the
teaching factors such as lesson structure, and communication; the learning aspects such as
involvement and success; and the classroom

phenomena such as environment and climate, and organization and management. If the
teachers take care of these factors, their performance can be enhanced to the optimum level
(Rao and Kumar, 2004). Yet proxies implemented by states and districts to determine teacher
quality have been woefully inadequate. Teacher entrance and exit examination scores, years of
experience, advanced degrees, and teaching credentials are either not related to student
achievement and ratings of teacher effectiveness. Leigh and Mead (2005) clearly bring about the
fact that the quality of teaching has come down gradually world over, demonstrate that the
skills of teachers have come down due to outdated preparation on the part of the teacher and
stagnant compensation schemes by the management of the educational institution. This
condition in the recent years for the teacher has led to (1) very few growth opportunities (2)
inadequate compensation structure. The condition is worse with disadvantaged students who
require excellent teachers but have the least. Seigh and Mead in their suggestion for lifting
performance of teachers have emphasized the need for periodical performance appraisal just as
it is in the corporate or business organization. Teachers will have to be periodically evaluated
and the compensation structure will have to be based on performance. A stringent policy will
have to be developed in order to modernize and enrich teacher quality for hiring, evaluating and
compensating. Merit based rewards yielded the best performance. They have indicated how
quality matters by comparing the performance of students of an average teacher with that of
the performance of students of an excellent teacher. Hakanen and others (2006) used the Job
Demands–Resources Model as the basis of the proposal that there are two parallel processes
involved in work related well-being among teachers, namely an energetical process (like job
demands, burnout, ill health) and a motivational process (like job resources, engagement,
organizational commitment). The results confirmed the existence of both processes, although
the energetical process seemed to be more prominent. More specifically, (i) burnout mediated
the effect of high job demands on ill health (ii) work engagement mediated the effects of job
resources on organizational commitment and (iii) burnout mediated the effects of lacking
resources on poor engagement. 1.2 Job Satisfaction Job satisfaction is either a global feeling
about the job or a related constellation of attitudes about various aspects of facets of the job.
The facet approach is used to find out which parts of the job produce satisfaction or
dissatisfaction. The more important factors conducive to job satisfaction include mentally
challenging work, equitable rewards, supportive working conditions and supportive colleagues.
For most employees work also fills the need for social interaction and so, friendly supportive
employees also lead to increased job satisfaction (Drago and others, 1992). Job satisfaction can
also be seen as an indicator of emotional well being or psychological health (Begley and Czaika,
1993; Fox, Dwyer and Ganster, 1993). Similarly, the utilitarian perspective to job satisfaction,
asserts that job satisfaction can lead to behaviours that can have either a positive or negative
affect on organizational functioning. For example, in the way teachers relate to students and
other colleagues could be strongly influenced by their sense of satisfaction within that school
(Spector, 1997). Studies conducted by Aronsson and Goerannson (1999), also concluded that
contract workers have less job satisfaction due to less control over their employment status.
McMurdo (1998) further International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social
Sciences May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5 ISSN: 2222-6990 422 www.hrmars.com/journals supports the
findings that contract teachers are concerned with insecure employment conditions. 1.3 Need
for the Present Study The ultimate process of education could be simplified as a meaningful
interaction between the teacher and the taught. The teacher-pupil relation is in the fore front
and other relevant contributors are in the background. This fact emphasizes the role of the
teacher in learning and educating. The teacher thus plays a direct and a crucial role in moulding
a pupil towards education. Recent research has identified teacher quality as the most important
variable in increasing student achievement. The effect of the teacher on student achievement
has been shown to be greater than effects due to class size, school, and student socio-economic
status (Sanders and Horn, 1998). Since a teacher is a role model for the students, job satisfaction
and eventually the performance of a teacher becomes very vital in the field of education. Thus
the researcher felt the need to investigate the job satisfaction and performance of teachers in
different categories of schools following different systems of education. Thus, the objectives of
the present study are as follows:  To investigate if there is any significant relationship between
the job satisfaction and performance of teachers in state, matriculation and central board
schools at the secondary level.  To investigate if there is any significant difference in job
satisfaction and performance of teachers in state, matriculation and central board schools at the
secondary level 2. REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE Gupta (1988) investigated the correlates of
effectiveness and ineffectiveness in teacher’s teaching. He found job satisfaction and financial
support to be significantly influencing effective teaching. Bruhn (1989) carried out an
investigation relating job stress, job satisfaction and professional growth with a sample
encompassing all major professions and found that job satisfaction is a necessity for controlling
job stress and enhancing career growth. Naseema (1994) studied the relation between job
satisfaction and teaching competence and found job satisfaction to be significantly contributing
to teacher effectiveness. Kulsun (1998) attempted to relate school climate with job satisfaction.
The study of Jyothi and Reddy (1998) requires a special mention as a study of job satisfaction
among teachers working in special schools. Job satisfaction of teachers seems to be a popular
area for researchers in the recent years. Yezzi and Lester (2000) examined job satisfaction
among teachers and found age and need for achievement as predictors of job satisfaction using
a multiple regression-exclusive method. Jabnoun and others (2001) presented a study which
identified the factors affecting job satisfaction among teachers at selected secondary schools in
Malaysia. Evaluation of teacher satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic components of the job
found demographic variables to be significant. Rasku and Kinnunen (2003) compared the work
situation of Finnish upper secondary school teachers to that of average European teachers and
to examine to what extent various job conditions and coping strategies explain their well-being.
Job demands and control had only main effects on well-being: high demands explained low job
satisfaction and burnout and high control explained high job satisfaction and high personal
accomplishment. Van Dick International Journal of Academic Research in Business and Social
Sciences May 2013, Vol. 3, No. 5 ISSN: 2222-6990 423 www.hrmars.com/journals (2004) found
in a study that organizational identification leading to job satisfaction, in turn predicts turnover
intentions. Cetin (2006) carried a research to find out if there is a significant difference between
job satisfaction, occupational and organizational commitment of 132 academics and found a
significant relationship between satisfaction and performance. Zhang Jin, Zheng Wei (2009)
developed new insights into the mechanism through which job satisfaction relates to job
performance. Affective commitment was tested as a potential mediator between job
satisfaction and job performance, and traditionalistic was used as a potential moderator
between job satisfaction and affective commitment. A survey study was conducted on 292
employees from seven companies in China. The study findings suggest that affective
commitment serves as one of the mechanisms through attachment by which job satisfaction
influences job performance. In the study conducted by Indhumathi (2011), investigating the job
satisfaction and performance of 444 teachers at the secondary level were selected randomly, it
was found that there was a significant relationship between job satisfaction and performance
and the teachers in different categories of schools differed significantly in both job satisfaction
and teaching performance.
 ____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

12. Incentive Pay Programs Do Not Affect Teacher Motivation or Reported Practices
Results From Three Randomized Studies
Show all authors
Kun Yuan, Vi-Nhuan Le, Daniel F. McCaffrey, ...
https://doi.org/10.3102/0162373712462625

Abstract
This study drew on teacher survey responses from randomized experiments exploring three
different pay-for-performance programs to examine the extent to which these programs
motivated teachers to improve student achievement and the impact of such programs on
teachers' instruction, number of hours worked, job stress, and collegiality. Results showed that
most teachers did not report their program as motivating. Moreover, the survey responses
suggest that none of the three programs changed teachers' instruction, increased their number
of hours worked or job stress, or damaged their collegiality. Future research needs to further
examine the logic model of pay-for-performance programs and test alternative incentive models
such as rewarding teachers based on their practices and job responsibilities rather than on
student outcomes.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

13.Teachers under stress

 Authors

 Authors and affiliations

 Stephen Dinham
Article

 64Downloads

 8Citations

Abstract

This paper explores the issue of teacher stress through examination of the experiences of 57 teachers
and educational administrators who had resigned from the New South Wales Department of School
Education. Data were gathered through open-ended interviews and analysed using grounded theory
techniques. After examining the experiences of 10 of the 57 respondents, overall findings are related to
the literature followed by recommendations for the educational system concerned which may well have
wider significance. While stress was not found to be the only cause of teacher resignation, it was found
to be part of the day to day lives of teachers and a significant contributing factor to resignation.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

14. How Do Financial Incentives Affect Physicians' Clinical Decisions and the Financial
Performance of Health Maintenance Organizations?

 Alan L. Hillman, M.D., M.B.A.,

 Mark V. Pauly, Ph.D.,

 and Joseph J. Kerstein, M.B.A.

Abstract

It has been suggested that the use of financial incentives by health maintenance organizations (HMOs)
may change physicians' behavior toward individual patients. To test this hypothesis, we used a
regression analysis of data from a survey of HMOs to examine the relation between the presence of
financial incentives and two measures of the use of resources (the rate of hospitalization and the rate of
visits for outpatient services) and one measure of the HMOs' financial viability (the achievement of
break-even status). When we controlled for the effect of market-area variables, we found that some
forms of compensation were significantly associated with these indicators of decision making by
physicians.
Among methods of paying physicians, the use of capitation or salaries was associated with a lower rate
of hospitalization than the use of fee-for-service payment; physicians in for-profit HMOs and group-
model HMOs also used the hospital less often. Placing physicians at financial risk as individuals and
imposing penalties for deficits in the HMO's hospital fund beyond the loss of withheld funds were
associated with fewer outpatient visits per enrollee, but a higher percentage of HMO patients in a
physician's caseload was associated with more frequent visits. HMOs were more likely to break even if
they were larger, older, had physicians who treated more HMO patients, and placed physicians at
personal financial risk for the cost of outpatient tests; break-even status was also related to the type of
HMO.

We conclude that the use of some, but not all, financial incentives, as well as the type of HMO, does
influence the behavior of physicians toward patients. It remains to be determined how these factors
affect the quality of care. (N Engl J Med 1989; 321:86–92.)

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

15.DOUBLE FOR NOTHING? EXPERIMENTAL EVIDENCE ON AN

UNCONDITIONAL TEACHER SALARY INCREASE IN INDONESIA.
Authors:

Ree, Joppe de1

Muralidharan, Karthik2
Pradhan, Menno3
Rogers, Halsey1

Source:

Quarterly Journal of Economics. May2018, Vol. 133 Issue 2, p993-1039. 47p.

Document Type:

Article

Subject Terms:

*Teachers' salaries
*Wage increases
*Job satisfaction
*Financial stress
Teachers -- Indonesia

Abstract:

How does a large unconditional increase in salary affect the performance of incumbent employees in
the public sector?We present experimental evidence on this question in the context of a policy change
in Indonesia that led to a permanent doubling of teacher base salaries. Using a large-scale randomized
experiment across a representative sample of Indonesian schools that accelerated this pay increase for
teachers in treated schools, we find that the large pay increase significantly improved teachers'
satisfaction with their income, reduced the incidence of teachers holding outside jobs, and reduced self-
reported financial stress. Nevertheless, after two and three years, the increase in pay led to no
improvement in student learning outcomes. The effects are precisely estimated, and we can rule out
even modest positive impacts on test scores. Our results suggest that unconditional pay increases are
unlikely to be an effective policy option for improving the effort and productivity of incumbent
employees in public-sector settings. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

16.Financial Stress Predictors and the Emotional and Physical Health of

Chronic Pain Patients
Michelle A. Skinner,1,3 Alex J. Zautra,2 and John W. Reich2

This study sought to examine the effects of weekly changes in financial stressors on physical and
mental health of arthritis patients. Weekly telephone interviews provided data on health symptoms,
financial stressors, interpersonal stress, negative affect, and average pain for arthritis patients and
healthy individuals. Multilevel analyses
revealedthatfluctuationsinfinancialstresswereassociatedwithgreaterhealthcomplaints and negative
affect, but not more pain for arthritis patients. An interaction between interpersonal stress and
financial stress was observed such that weeks of increased interpersonal stress, with increased
financial stress, were associated with more health symptoms especially during weeks of increased
pain. These findings suggest that financial stress contributes to both physical and mental health and
appears important for arthritis patients.

KEY WORDS: financial stress; chronic pain; emotional and physical health.

Stress is an unavoidable accompaniment of everyday life. Effective adaptation to stressors is

achieved through physiological and psychological accommodation, such as heightened vigilance and
employment of coping resources (Sapolsky, 1998).
However,successfuladaptationtostressorscanbecompromisedwhenanindividual is under chronic
stress (Wheaton, 1994). Chronic stressors, such as pain resulting from arthritis, can pose a distinct
challenge for adaptation to everyday event stressors by creating a baseline burden of stress, and
depleting essential resources for adaptation (McEwen et al., 1997; Wheaton, 1994). Arthritis (AR)
patients may find themselves in a vicious cycle where chronic pain and disability from illness creates
a vulnerability to stress that, in turn, exacerbates symptoms. Research on adaptation to everyday
stressors in arthritis populations has found that increases in interpersonalstressorsamplifydisease-
relatedpain,diseaseactivity,anddepression(Zautra, Burleson, Matt, Roth, & Burrows, 1994; Zautra,
Hamilton, Potter, & Smith, 1999; Zautra, Reich, & Guarnaccia, 1990). In addition to interpersonal
stressors, financial stress may play a key role in the adaptation and health of AR patients. This study
soughttoexaminetheuniqueeffectsoffinancialstressorsonthephysicalandmental health of AR
patients. Financial difficulties are a common form of stress in the lives of many (Fox & Chancey,
1998). Past research on the prevalence of economic stress indicated that 1 in 5 respondents
reported that it was very difficult to live on his/her present income (Fox & Chancey, 1998). Roughly,
19% were found to be insecure about their current financial situation. Fifty-eight percent did not
have enough money to
meetallmonthlyexpensesand74.5%reportedthattheyhadtocutoutunnecessary
expensesbecauseoffinancialproblems(Fox&Chancey,1998).Inaddition,thisstudy found that reports of
financial stress were significant determinants of psychological distress, poor self-rated physical
health, decreased self-liking and self-satisfaction, conflict within families, and propensity for marital
breakup (Fox & Chancey, 1998). Such data support the theme that financial stress has wide-ranging,
if not pervasive, negative effects on adjustment.
Theconceptoffinancialstressinvolvestwodistinctfeatures,thechronicstressof
lowerSocioeconomicStatus(SES)andtheacutestressoffinancialevents.Wheaton (1994) describes
chronic stressors as continuous strains without resolve that occur within our lives, such as low SES.
Acute daily stressors, or hassles, are defined as the minor events that arise in everyday life, such as
having an unexpected expense (Wheaton, 1994). Wheaton (1994) describes these different types of
stressors as two distinct entities that both require resources for adaptation. For example, the
chronic stress of lower SES may predispose an individual to greater occurrence of smaller acute
stressful financial events as well as greater physical and emotional reactivity to such events
(Catalano & Dooley, 1983; Wheaton, 1994). However, the predominant operationalization of the
financial stress concept in health research has involved the assessment of socioeconomic status
(SES; measured by income level or education level) without regard for the distinction between
chronic and acute stressors. A large body of literature suggests that low SES is a risk factor for
mortality in cardiovascular disease (Goldblatt, 1990; Kaplan & Keil, 1993; Kaplan, Pamuk, Lynch,
Cohen, & Balfour, 1996; Kawachi, Kennedy, & Wilkinson, 1999; Kennedy,Kawachi,&Prothrow-
Stith,1996;Marmot&Wilkenson,1999;Wilkinson, 1996), arthritis (Badley & Ibanez, 1994;
Cunningham & Kelsey, 1984), as well as
psychologicaldistress(Gallo&Matthews,1999).SEShasalsobeenrelatedtoillness severity,suchthatlow-
incomelevelspredictpainseverityinchronicpainpopulations (Eachus, Chan, Pearson, Propper, &
Davey-Smith, 1999; Saunders, 1998). Although the connection between SES and health decrements
is well established, the proposed mechanisms underlying this relation have been less studied.
Wilkinson (1996) proposed that the relation between SES and health is likely due to increased stress
and emotional distress of lower SES individuals, a psychosocial pathway. Wilkinson’s proposal
indicates the necessity of distinguishing between the chronic burden of lower status and the acute
impact of stressors on an individual’s healthandemotionalwell-
being.LowerSESmaycontributetopoorhealththrough increases in the frequency of interpersonal and
financial stress events and/or may render an individual more physically and emotionally vulnerable
when such events occur (Baum, Garofalo, & Yali, 1999; Gallo & Matthews, 1999; Kessler, 1979).

Financial Stress and Chronic Pain 697

Certainly, there is increasing evidence that the unique properties of financial stress do affect
physical health apart from SES. In a large-scale community sample, Catalano and Dooley (1983)
found that undesirable financial events nearly doubled
theoddsofreportedillnessandinjury,aftercontrollingforincomelevels.Krause,Jay,
andLiang(1991)foundthatindividualswithreportsofincreasedsubjectivefinancial stress, financial
dissatisfaction, and relative financial insecurity also reported more
somaticsymptomsaftercontrollingforSES.Takeuchi,Chun,Gong,andShen(2002)
foundthatstressfulfinancialeventspredictedphysicalhealthsymptomsinimmigrant populations after
controlling for the effects of income. Further, research indicates that financial stressors such as
worry about lack of material resources are a stronger predictor of reported poor health than income
itself (Ullah, 1990; Whelan, 1993). In addition to physical health declines, measures of stressful
financial events and perceived financial stress have both been found to contribute to the emotional
health of an individual. Takeuchi et al. (2002) found that in addition to the impact
onphysicalhealth,perceptionsoffinancialstressincreaseddepressioninimmigrant
populations.Moreover,they(2002)alsofoundthatthelowsocialstatusofimmigrants contributed to
depression in this population such that lower income was related to depressive symptoms. Creed,
Muller, and Machin (2001) found that subjective
appraisalsoffinancialdifficultycontributedtohigherlevelsofemotionaldistresssuchas
depressionandanxiety.Similarly,financialworryanddissatisfactionwereassociated withalossofself-
esteemandincreaseddepressedaffect(Jackson,Iezzi,Lafreniere, & Narduzzi, 1998; Keith, 1993).
Krause et al. (1991) found that as perceptions of financial difficulty increase, older adults tended to
experience a diminished sense of self-worth, lower personal control, and an increase in depressed
affect. Although researchers have broadened the scope of measurement of financial stress apart
from SES indicators, they have focused primarily on assessment of retrospective aggregate counts of
financial stress events and/or perceived measures of
financialstresssuchasworryanddissatisfactionwithone’sfinancialsituation.Withoutmeasurementofdis
cretestressfulfinancialeventswhentheyoccur,thedistinction
betweenthechronicstressoflowSESandtheacutestressoffinancialevents,andthe subsequent effects
they may have on health outcomes may not be clarified. The use
ofSESasasingleindicatoroffinancialstressprecludestheabilitytotestwhetherthe occurrence of financial
stressors might account for some of the differences in health between high and low SES individuals.
Additionally, retrospective event measures do not allow us to examine how changes in financial
stress contribute to emotional andphysicalhealthovertime.Further,reported perceived
stress,withoutactualmeasurement of events, could be tainted by an individual’s emotional state at
the time of reporting and/or uncontrolled personality traits, such as depression. Thus far, behavioral
health research on chronically ill populations has largely
ignoredthepotentialcontributionoffinancialstressorsonhealthofindividualswith
chronicarthritispain.Pastresearchhasindicatedthattheoccurrenceofeventstressors in significant
quantities can intensify the severity of symptoms in AR patients (Zautra et al., 1997; Zautra,
Hamilton, Potter, et al., 1999). For example, they found that flares of
paininrheumatoidarthritis(RA)patientsappearedtobepreceededby increases in interpersonal stress
events.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

17.Reducing Classroom Disputes between Faculty and Students

Author(s):

Toppin, Ian N.; Pullens, Laveda M.

Source:

Journal of Instructional Research, v4 p118-125 2015. 8 pp.

Availability:

Full Text from ERIC Available online:

https://eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=EJ1127699
Center for Innovation in Research and Teaching at Grand Canyon University. 3300 West Camelback
Road, Phoenix, AZ 85017. Tel: 602-639-6729; e-mail: cirt@gcu.edu; Web site:
http://www.instructionalresearch.com

Peer Reviewed:

ISSN:

2159-0281

Descriptors:

College Faculty, College Students, Teacher Student Relationship, Conflict Resolution, Student
Behavior, Behavior Problems, Classroom Techniques, Student Motivation, Learner Engagement,
Educational Environment, Online Courses, Financial Problems, Cheating, Sexual Harassment, Grades
 (Scholastic), Academic Achievement, Stress Variables, Family Environment, Employment, Mental
Health, Disabilities, Teacher Expectations of Students, Role Models, Relevance (Education),
Feedback (Response)

Location Identifiers:

Virginia

Abstract:

Prior classroom management training makes a big difference in faculty's ability to handle disputes
with students. This type of training should be included in faculty orientation activities. The research
presented in this article indicates that success in dealing with behaviorally challenging students is
possible if the likely areas of dispute are prepared for in advance. This article will highlight some of
the likely areas of dispute and strategies for addressing them, particularly in the following three key
areas: 1) Academic reasons why disputes occur between faculty and their students; 2) Non-
academic reasons why disputes occur between faculty and their students; and 3) Strategies for
engaging students and reducing volatile incidences.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

18. A Study of Workplace Stress and the Stifling Productivity of Teaching

Faculty of B-schools of National Capital Region of Delhi.
Authors:

Vij, Renu1 renuvij@gmail.com

Source:

Drishtikon: A Management Journal. Mar-Sep2014, Vol. 5 Issue 2, p85-97. 13p.

Document Type:

Article

Subject Terms:
*Job stress
Teachers' workload
Educational productivity
Educational accountability
School administration -- India

Author-Supplied Keywords:

Stress
Stress Management
Stress Relief Techniques

Abstract:

This study examined the impact of the factors which create work stress, determine the level of stress
among of teaching faculties of Private Management Education Institutions of Greater Noida, NCR Region
and their affect on their performance. This is an empirical study based on survey method among
hundred teachers of Private Management Education Institutions of Greater Noida, NCR Region. We each
perceive and respond to the demands and pressures differently. Therefore, the experience and
exposure has attitudinal difference on the teaching performance. The understanding of the attitude
level of teachers helps the policy makers to formulate such policies for the improvement in their
performance and reduction of stress intensity. To assess the stress level of the respondents towards the
organization factors, Factor Analysis and SPSS has been applied. This survey finds and suggests the
measures of reducing work stress and pressure. No significant relationship is found in the attitude and
stress level of respondents from different age groups, educational status, designation, and income level
among the selected Management schools of Greater Noida, NCR Region. The ratio of interpersonal
relationships can cause considerable degree of stress. 17.33 per cent of the professionals with higher
experience had higher percentage of stress level due to job related factors. Furthermore, the trained
employees demonstrated significant increases in the work-related scales of workplace satisfaction and
value of contribution. Results suggest that encouragement to teachers to attain new skills and provision
of monetary-aid to attend faculty development programs, workshops, Symposia, Conferences at
National and International level motivate them to focus on their career advancement and encourage to
be stable in the Institute. Stress Relief Techniques will improve the service quality and reduce the stress.
Stress buster techniques should be focused in the Private Management Institutes in form of Yoga,
Games, Meditation, and Get together with the Top Management and Workplace stretches. [ABSTRACT
FROM AUTHOR]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot
 19.Personal and Job Related Predictors of Teacher Stress and Job
Performance among School Teachers.
Authors:

Hanif, Rubina1 rubinahanif@hotmail.com

Tariq, Sadaf1 tassn83@gmail.com
Masood Nadeem2 masood.nadeem@jub.edu.pk

Source:

Pakistan Journal of Commerce & Social Sciences. Jul2011, Vol. 5 Issue 2, p319-329. 11p. 4 Charts.

Document Type:

Article

Subject Terms:

*Teachers -- Job stress

*Job performance
*Regression analysis
Student evaluation of teachers
School districts
Teaching experience

Geographic Terms:

Islamabad (Pakistan)
Pakistan

Author-Supplied Keywords:

Predictors of stress and performance

Sources of stress
Teacher stress

NAICS/Industry Codes:

611110 Elementary and Secondary Schools

Abstract:

The present study was conducted to find out role of personal and job related variables in teacher stress
and job performance of school teachers. Furthermore, levels and sources of stress and their
relationship with job performance among teachers were also explored. The measures used in this study
were indigenously developed i.e., Teacher Stress inventory (TSI-Urdu), Teachers Job Performance Scale
and personal and job related information sheet. Two independent samples were selected from
Government and Private Schools of Islamabad (Pakistan). Sample I was comprised of 400 teachers (men
and women) from Primary and secondary schools. For the evaluation of teachers' job performance
another sample of 1200 students from the classes of teachers of sample I was selected. Three students
were randomly selected from each teacher's class. The students were requested to evaluate their
respective teachers' job performance. The findings revealed that negative significant relationship exists
between teachers stress and job performance. The step-wise regression analysis revealed school
system, gender, job experience, number of family members, and number of students as significant
predictors of teacher stress and gender, school system, family members, job experience and age as
significant predictors of teachers' job performance. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

20.Sources of Occupational Stress among University Professors - A Case

Study for the Romanian Universities.
Authors:

PADURARU, Monica Elisabeta1 monicapaduraru@yahoo.com

Source:

Review of International Comparative Management / Revista de Management Comparat International.

Mar2014, Vol. 15 Issue 1, p49-56. 8p.

Document Type:

Case Study

Subject Terms:

*Job stress
*Universities & colleges
*Job satisfaction of college teachers
*Job performance
Effective teaching
Health status indicators

Geographic Terms:

Romania

Author-Supplied Keywords:

occupational stress
sources of occupational stress in university
stress
university professors
work-related stress

NAICS/Industry Codes:

611310 Colleges, Universities, and Professional Schools

Abstract:

Occupational stress is a variable that affects the organizational climate and the quality of activities in
any organization. In universities there are sources of stress that are specific to this professional
environment which may affect the job satisfaction of professors, the quality of teaching and, last but not
least, the state of their health. Identifying the sources of occupational stress is the first step that the
manager of any educational institution needs to take in order to improve the quality of the
organizational climate, to increase its employee performance and hence the quality of the services
provided. Based on the analysis of 140 filled in questionnaires (by professors from 23 universities), this
article presents the sources of occupational stress that highly affect the activity of professors from
Romanian universities. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

21.Optimizing Special Educator Wellness and Job Performance through Stress

Management
Author(s):

Ansley, Brandis M.; Houchins, David; Varjas, Kris

Source:

TEACHING Exceptional Children, v48 n4 p176-185 Mar-Apr 2016. 10 pp.

Availability:

SAGE Publications. 2455 Teller Road, Thousand Oaks, CA 91320. Tel: 800-818-7243; Tel: 805-499-9774;
Fax: 800-583-2665; e-mail: journals@sagepub.com; Web site: http://sagepub.com

URL:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1177/0040059915626128
Peer Reviewed:

ISSN:

0040-0599

Descriptors:

Special Education Teachers, Wellness, Job Performance, Stress Management, Teaching (Occupation),
Teaching Conditions, Coping, Elementary Secondary Education, Symptoms (Individual Disorders),
Exercise, Relaxation Training

Abstract:

In addition to the stressors common to many K-12 teachers, such as high-stakes testing, a lack of
autonomy, and high mental and emotional demands, special educators also address the unique needs of
their students, team-teach, and maintain caseload responsibilities (Emery & Vandenberg, 2010). Many
who enter the profession are fulfilled by the nature of their work, which involves helping students
overcome obstacles. Yet, to effectively do so, special education teachers must balance multiple roles
that require them to sustain high levels of physical and mental energy over extended periods. Such high
demands in the job design of special educators could lead to chronic and persistent stress and adversely
affect their wellness, job performance, and ultimately, student outcomes (Emery & Vandenberg, 2010;
Jennings & Greenberg, 2009; Shen et al., 2015). Fortunately, effective coping strategies can be self-
taught by using quality informational resources or by hiring professionals who specialize in wellness or
stress management (e.g., counselors, personal trainers, life coaches). Coping skills can be practiced
individually, with a group of people, informally, or even under the supervision of a trained professional.
As this article points out, special educator instructors have been using stress management skills
concepts due to their knowledge of using different strategies and finding what works best for individuals
as they routinely draft and execute personalized plans specific for their students. Similarly, special
educators can apply their differentiation skills to create their own personalized plans for coping
effectively with stress. The goal of stress reduction plans should be to reduce thoughts and behaviors
that exacerbate stress and replace these with thoughts and behaviors that improve wellness.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

22.Coping in Hard Times: Fact Sheet for School Staff--Teachers, Counselors,

Administration, Support Staff
Author(s):

National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN)

Source:

National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 10 pp.

Availability:

National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 11150 West Olympic Boulevard Suite 650, Los Angeles, CA
90064. Tel: 310-235-2633; Fax: 310-235-2612; e-mail: info@nctsn.org; Web site:
http://www.nctsnet.org

URL:

http://www.nctsnet.org/sites/default/files/assets/pdfs/copingschoolpersonnel_final.pdf

Peer Reviewed:

N/A

Publication Date:

2011

Descriptors:

School Personnel, Adolescents, Job Layoff, Insurance, Coping, Family (Sociological Unit),
Unemployment, Economic Climate, Stress Variables, Psychological Patterns, Financial Problems,
Classroom Techniques, Self Efficacy

Abstract:

What happens when school personnel, or family members of one's students are laid off, are out of
work for months, and their unemployment insurance ends? What happens when students complain
that they can't find after-school or summer jobs? When these things occur, people worry about what
will happen to them and to those they care about. Students may worry about having to drop out of
school, or having enough money for lunch or for the bus. Teachers may worry about supplies for their
classroom, or the number of students they have. During hard times, worries like these can cause
frustration, stress, and anger. This fact sheet will help teachers, administrators, counselors, and school
staff understand how economic difficulties may affect one's self, other school staff, students, and
their families.
 ____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

23.Stress, Strain, and Coping Resources among Faculty at a Research

University during Financial Decline. AIR 1996 Annual Forum Paper.
Author(s):

Marcy, Tom

Source:

26 pp.

Availability:

Full Text from ERIC Available online:

https://eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED397724

Peer Reviewed:

N/A

Publication Date:

1996

Descriptors:

Age Differences, Anxiety, College Faculty, Coping, Financial Problems, Higher Education, Institutional
Research, Job Satisfaction, Nontenured Faculty, Research Universities, Retrenchment, Sex Differences,
Stress Variables, Teacher Attitudes, Teacher Characteristics, Tenured Faculty, Work Attitudes

Keyword:

AIR Forum, Occupational Stress Inventory, University of Missouri Columbia

Abstract:

A study at the University of Missouri-Columbia investigated the stress factors and coping mechanisms
among 196 faculty members in 16 departments. The study was undertaken during a period of low
faculty salaries in comparison with similar institutions, characterized as moderate to severe financial
decline. During the middle of the fall semester of 1991, participants completed an Occupational Stress
Inventory (OSI) and general affect rating sheet. It was found that individual faculty feelings about life
in general (general affect) strongly affected perceptions of occupational stress, and all coping
mechanisms were enhanced strongly by increased general affect. Results indicated the faculty
differed by discipline type (hard vs. soft, pure vs. applied, life vs. non-life) on half of the 14 OSI
subscales. Faculty age and tenure status predicted three related subscales, and gender predicted only
one subscale. General affect predicted 11 subscales. Faculty moderated occupational stress
differently, by discipline type, using a variety of coping resources. (MSE)

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

24.Links Between Stress, Positive and Negative Affect, and Life Satisfaction
Among Teachers in Special Education Schools
Liat Hamama • Tammie Ronen • Keren Shachar • Michael Rosenbaum

Published online: 18 May 2012 Springer Science+Business Media B.V. 2012

Abstract This study focused on links between stress, positive and negative affect, and life satisfaction
among teachers in special education schools. Teaching is a highly stressful profession, characterized by
high rate of stress, burnout, and dropout. The study investigated: (a) whether teachers can maintain
their positive affect and life satisfaction despite the stress they experience, and (b) the resources that
may elicit positive affect and life satisfaction, including self-control as a personal skill and perceived
organizational support (by peers, therapeutic staff, and manager) as an environmental resource.
Participants were 125 teachers from 12 different special education schools. As expected, a positive link
emerged between high stress levels and negative affect. Both self-control and organizational social
support contributed to the explanation of positive affect and life satisfaction. Organizational support
was found to moderate the link between stress and negative affect as well as the link between stress
and positive affect and life satisfaction among teachers. The outcomes contributed both to the
theoretical explanation about the role of resources in eliciting subjective well-being, happiness, and life
satisfaction and also to the way teachers can be helped in daily coping with their difficulties.

Keywords Teachers Stress Self-control Social support at work Positive affect Negative affect Life
satisfaction
Emotional affect has always been at the center of attention in psychological studies. For decades,
researchers have investigated negative emotions such as fear, stress, anxiety, and trauma with the aim
of reducing pathological responses and promoting human coping

L. Hamama T. Ronen K. Shachar M. Rosenbaum The Renata Adler Memorial Research Center for Child
Welfare and Protection, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel L. Hamama (&) T. Ronen K. Shachar Bob
Shapell School of Social Work, Tel-Aviv University, 69978 Ramat Aviv, Israel e-mail:
hamama@post.tau.ac.il

M. Rosenbaum Department of Psychology, Tel-Aviv University, Ramat Aviv, Israel

123

J Happiness Stud (2013) 14:731–751 DOI 10.1007/s10902-012-9352-4

(Calhoun and Teseschi 2006; Foa et al. 2000; Fonagy et al. 2002; Lazarus and Folkman 1984). During
recent years, the observation that positive emotions co-occur with negative ones caused a major shift
from research focusing on distress symptoms to research focusing on the ability to maintain subjective
well-being by attaining satisfaction from life and by expressing positive affect (Folkman 2008). This
accentuation of positive emotion coincides with the general human wish to lead more productive and
fulfilling lives, and to identify and nurture talents (Joseph and Linley 2006). Increasing positivity not only
bolsters coping and happiness (Ben-Shahar 2007) and aims to achieve the subjective well-being
necessary for positive functioning (Keyes et al. 2008) but also reduces negativity and pathology (Joseph
and Linley 2006), lowers people’s focus on negative emotions and can put people’s minds at ease
(Fredrikson et al. 2003), and decreases distress such as depression (Seligman 2002; Seligman et al.
2005). Keyes (2002, 2005, 2006) underscored that research on positive mental well-being should
combine three aspects: emotional well-being (positive affect, happiness, life satisfaction, and so forth),
psychological well-being (self-acceptance, mastery, self-control, and so on), and social well-being (social
skills, social interactions, social status, social acceptance, and more). All three aspects will be part of the
present study. Positive affect has been studied both as a cause and as an outcome of human
functioning. Both Folkman (2008) and Fredrikson et al. (2003) emphasized that positive affect plays an
important role in coping with stressful situations. Although it is not yet clear how it happens,
researchers agree that positive emotions serve as active ingredients in superior coping and thriving
despite adversity. The present study relates to positive affect as part of subjective well-being (along with
satisfaction from life), while linking subjective wellbeing to low degree of stress. We were interested in
learning whether the stress responses of teachers in special education schools, who experience high
levels of stress at work, result in decreases in their positive affect and satisfaction from life. Or, in other
words, we sought to examine whether teachers could maintain their subjective well-being despite the
stress they experience.

1 The Stress of Teaching for Special Education Teachers

A major aspect of positive well-being involves individuals’ work lives, inasmuch as work encompasses a
major life role in adulthood, and a way to predict adult adjustment to life. Organizational theories
emphasize the importance of helping employees increase their satisfaction and subjective well-being in
order to reduce burnout and dropout in the face of work stress. Employees’ positive affect and
subjective well-being were found to predict stronger dedication and loyalty to their jobs, and lower
burnout and quitting rates (Rhoades and Eisenberger 2002). Teaching in general is viewed as a very
high-stress profession (Greenglass et al. 1997; Pascual et al. 2003; Travers and Cooper 1993; Van der
Doef and Maes 2002), and special education settings in particular may carry noxious stressors leading to
high levels of distress and burnout (Greenglass et al. 1997; Travers and Cooper 1993). The main stress
factor in teaching is students’ problematic disciplinary behavior, and teachers’ direct encounter with it,
especially during activities in the classroom (Greenglass et al. 1997; Humphrey and Humphrey 1981;
Milstein et al. 1984; Pascual et al. 2003; Travers and Cooper 1993; Van der Doef and Maes 2002). The
present study examined teachers in special education schools for children aged 13–18 years who
dropped out of or were expelled from other educational day or residential frameworks in the
community. These youngsters exhibit many behavioral, emotional, and scholastic problems including
disobedience, disregard of rules and limits, verbal and physical violence, vandalism, crime, scholastic
gaps, lack of academic motivation, longneglected learning difficulties, and attention deficit disorders.
The goal of these special schools is to retain these teenagers within the education system, and to
channel them toward normal functioning where possible by imparting them with vocational, scholastic,
and social skills, in order to prevent them from turning to crime, vagrancy, and alcohol and drug
addiction (Cohen-Navot and Givon 1998). Special education settings like the ones studied here are rich
in student–teacher encounters that subject the teaching staff to ongoing stress and emotional overload
as part of their intensive daily routine. Such intensive work may thus impair teachers’ sense of well-
being, emotionally, behaviorally, and physically (Travers and Cooper 1993). Stress in the present study
was examined using the Teachers’ Stress Questionnaire (Oshrat 1989), which assessed not the
emotional aspect of stress but rather the extent to which teachers felt burdened by too much work,
student behavioral problems, parental demands, and suffering due to the workplace’s physical
conditions.

2 The Links Between Stress and Subjective Well-Being

Our first research question investigated the links between special education teachers’ stress and the
three components of their subjective well-being. Teachers’ high subjective wellbeing in the present
study was defined as high positive affect, low negative affect, and high life satisfaction. Keyes (2002)
viewed affect and life satisfaction as belonging to the same category of emotional well-being, whereas
other researchers (Diener 1984; Diener et al. 1999; Kahneman 1999) differentiated the emotional
component of positive affect from the cognitive component of life satisfaction. Based on empirical
outcomes showing that stress and pain increase negative affect (e.g., Watson and Clark 1994), we
assumed that teachers who experienced stress or overburden at work would present not only higher
levels of negative emotion but also lower levels of positive emotion and satisfaction from life (see
illustration in Fig. 1). Positive emotions encompass an important part of human functioning (Watson et
al. 1988) and a fundamental facet of human life quality that includes happiness, satisfaction, and morale
(Diener 1984; Keyes 2006; Wilson and Gullone 1999). Positive affects include happiness, satisfaction,
joy, energy, relaxation, and so on (Keyes 2006). People with high levels of positive affect lead a healthy
lifestyle, both physically and mentally (Keyes 2006; Keyes et al. 2008). They think more actively and
openly, have a greater sense of control over their lives, cope better with stressful situations, and set
themselves goals in life (Bender 1997; Keyes and Ryff 2000; Veenhoven 1991). According to
Frederickson (1998, 2009), positive emotions broaden momentary thought-action repertoires, resulting
in a higher likelihood of pursuing a wider range of thoughts and actions. In other words, when people
feel positive emotions, they are able to see more possibilities. This broadening effect is essentially the
opposite of what happens when people experience negative emotions (Magyar-Moe 2009). When
people experience negative affect, they see less possibility and narrow their attention (Magyar-Moe
2009). Negative affects include sorrow, fear, worry, anger, disgust, hate, and guilt (Bradburn 1969;
Fredrickson 2009; Seligman et al. 2005). According to Frederickson (1998), negative emotions narrow
momentary thought-action repertoires.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

25.An Effective School Autonomy Model: Examining Headteachers' Job

Satisfaction and Work-Related Stress
Author(s):

Nicolaidou Solomou, Galatia; Pashiardis, Petros

Source:

International Journal of Educational Management, v30 n5 p718-734 2016. 17 pp.

Availability:

Emerald Group Publishing Limited. Howard House, Wagon Lane, Bingley, West Yorkshire, BD16 1WA,
UK. Tel: +44-1274-777700; Fax: +44-1274-785201; e-mail: emerald@emeraldinsight.com; Web site:
http://www.emeraldinsight.com

URL:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1108/IJEM-05-2015-0054

Peer Reviewed:

ISSN:

0951-354X

Descriptors:
Institutional Autonomy, School Effectiveness, Job Satisfaction, Stress Variables, Foreign Countries,
Human Resources, Correlation, Decision Making, Administrator Attitudes, Professional Autonomy,
Questionnaires, Vignettes, Elementary School Teachers

Location Identifiers:

Cyprus

Keyword:

Cyprus

Abstract:

Purpose: Although school autonomy has been a matter of great interest during the last decades and
several relevant measures have been implemented toward this end, the relation between school
autonomy and school effectiveness has not been examined thoroughly. The purpose of this paper is to
explore this relation and to propose an effective school autonomy model for Cyprus, a small European
country with a highly centralized educational system. The suggested model indicates which decisions
(related to various administrative, financial, academic, pedagogical and human resources matters) must
be made at school level, which decisions can be made partly from the school with a higher level of
control from the ministry and which decisions have to be made exclusively by a central authority, in
order to enhance school effectiveness. Design/Methodology/ Approach: An unusual methodological
design is followed, using scenarios to examine hypothetical situations. Cypriot headteachers' job
satisfaction and work-related stress is examined in the case of full autonomy and in the opposite
scenario of very limited autonomy. The results from this phase of the study lead to the design of the
suggested school autonomy model, which is then tested in terms of effectiveness through a third
scenario. The scenarios are given in questionnaires and the sample includes 300 out of a population of
350 primary school headteachers of Cyprus. Findings: The findings of the study suggest that
headteachers' job satisfaction and work-related stress is affected by the level of school autonomy that
characterizes an educational system. The most effective scenario for the case of Cyprus does not refer to
the existing situation of very limited autonomy, neither to the opposite scenario of full autonomy. The
most effective scenario refers to the suggested model of school autonomy where all decisions related to
various academic, managerial, financial and human resource matters are taken at school level, except
for the decisions related to teaching materials and textbooks, teacher placements, promotions, payroll
and dismissals. For these decisions the guidance, support and/or control from the educational
authorities have to be enhanced. Research Limitations/Implications: In this study school effectiveness is
examined through the headteachers' job satisfaction and stress as the dependent variable, and not
through the conventional student achievement variable. A part of the existing literature suggests that
these variables affect school effectiveness in an indirect way. Taking into consideration student
achievement was not possible for the case of Cyprus, since the only scenario currently existing refers to
very limited or no school autonomy. Therefore, it is not possible to compare the academic results of
students coming from schools with different levels of autonomy. Practical Implications: The
methodological approach of the study can be followed in other contexts as well, in order to design an
effective school autonomy model for a different educational system, district or school. Scenarios can
also be used to test and make corrections for a suggested educational reform, before this is
implemented, in order to avoid waste of time and/or financial resources. Originality/Value: The value of
this study first lies in its attempt to design a school autonomy model, based on all the educational
decisions and matters that can be affected from a school autonomy reform; this became possible
through an extensive literature review. Second the study, does not only support some suggestions based
on the results, but also tests the effectiveness of the suggestions before these are implemented,
following the unusual methodological approach of scenarios. Moreover, the relation between school
autonomy and school effectiveness has not been examined thoroughly in the existing literature and
some conflicting opinions exist. The findings of the study can help us gain a better understanding of the
above relation.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

26.Fear, victimization, and stress among urban public school teachers.

Authors:

Dworkin, Anthony Gary1

Haney, C. Allen1
Telschow, Ruth L.2

Source:

Journal of Organizational Behavior. Apr88, Vol. 9 Issue 2, p159-171. 13p.

Document Type:

Article

Subject Terms:

*Teachers
*Burnout (Psychology)
Stress (Psychology)
Schools -- United States
Role ambiguity
Role conflict
Teachers' workload
Public schools

NAICS/Industry Codes:

611110 Elementary and Secondary Schools

Abstract:

Data from the National Institute of Education's Safe School Study Report suggested that teachers in
American urban public schools are emotionally and physically victimized and that the result is
heightened level of stress associated with teaching. This study, which is part of larger, longitudinal
project, explores the linkages between reported experiences of victimization by 291 urban public school
teachers and task-specific stressors in the performance of the teaching role. The level of reported stress
and nature and degree of victimization differ by the grade level taught and the race of the teacher.
Generally, minority teachers (black and brown) are less likely to report being stressed or victimized than
are white teachers, while elementary school teachers report their work to be most stressful. There is no
evidence of a specific causal ordering between fear of victimization and teacher stress. Rather, each may
feed upon and facilitate the other. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

Copyright of Journal of Organizational Behavior is the property of John Wiley & Sons, Inc. and its content
may not be copied or emailed to multiple sites or posted to a listserv without the copyright holder's
express written permission. However, users may print, download, or email articles for individual use. This
abstract may be abridged. No warranty is given about the accuracy of the copy. Users should refer to the
original published version of the material for the full abstract. (Copyright applies to all Abstracts.)

Author Affiliations:
1
University of Houston, University Park.
2
Baylor College of Medicine.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

27.Elementary Preservice Teachers' and Teacher Educators' Perceptions of

Financial Literacy Education.
Authors:

Henning, Mary Beth

Lucey, Thomas A.

Source:

Social Studies. Jul/Aug2017, Vol. 108 Issue 4, p163-173. 11p. 1 Black and White Photograph, 5 Charts.

Document Type:

Article
Subjects:

ELEMENTARY school teachers -- Training of

FINANCIAL literacy -- Study & teaching
DECISION making
TEACHER education -- Charts, diagrams, etc.
PERFORMANCE

Abstract:

The authors conducted an online survey of elementary teacher education programs within a large
midwestern state to assess preservice teachers' and teacher educators' beliefs about and preparedness
to teach financial literacy. Very few preservice teachers had meaningful experiences with personal
finance in high school, college, or personal decision making. No teacher educators reported ever
teaching financial literacy in their higher education roles. Only 13% of teacher educators and 25% of
preservice teachers thought that it was very important to teach financial literacy in elementary
education. Most teacher education faculty and preservice teachers reported that they were not well
qualified to use state economics standards or the JumpStart standards for financial literacy. Preservice
teachers were more confident in meeting financial literacy standards than teacher educators. Both
preservice teachers and teacher educators expressed openness to collaborating with other faculty
members, members of the financial service industry, and parents to teach financial literacy. Follow-up
phone interviews affirmed that elementary preservice teachers and teacher educators value social
studies education (and financial literacy) less than reading and mathematics education. Qualitative
results also suggest that elementary preservice teachers and teacher educators would like more easily
accessible resources for teaching financial literacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

28. Teachers use stress as excuse, says Ofsted chief.

Source:

Safety & Health Practitioner. Jun2012, Vol. 30 Issue 6, p8-8. 1/4p.

Document Type:

Article

Subject Terms:

*TEACHERS -- Job stress

*JOB performance
People:

WILSHAW, Michael

Abstract:

The article reports on the statement from Sir Michael Wilshaw, school inspections head of Ofsted that
stress is being used by teachers as an excuse for poor performance.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

29.Financial Stress, Pay Satisfaction and Workplace Performance.

Authors:

Kim, Jinhee1
Garman, E. Thomas2

Source:

Compensation & Benefits Review. Jan/Feb2004, Vol. 36 Issue 1, p69-76. 8p. 6 Charts.

Document Type:

Article

Subject Terms:

*Wages
*Labor productivity
*Employee fringe benefits
*Financial crises
*Financial management

Author-Supplied Keywords:

absenteeism
financial education and advice
financial stress
pay satisfaction
productivity
 NAICS/Industry Codes:

525120 Health and Welfare Funds

525190 Other Insurance Funds
523920 Portfolio Management

Abstract:

Employees' personal lives affect their attitudes and behaviors at workplace. Financially stressed
employees often bring their concerns to the workplace. This study focuses on the relationships between
financial stress and work outcomes such as pay satisfaction, work time use, and absenteeism. The data
in this research were collected from an insurance company in three mid-western states. A total of 262
questionnaires were used in the data analysis. Significant relationships were found between financial
stress and work outcomes including pay satisfaction, work time use and absenteeism. People who had
higher levels of financial stress had lower levels of pay satisfaction, were more likely to waste their work
time, and more frequently absent from work. Employers might reduce absenteeism and productivity if
they can help employees reduce their financial stress by offering effective workplace financial
education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

30.Emotional Exhaustion and Cognitive Performance in Apparently Healthy

Teachers: A Longitudinal Multi-source Study
Nicolas Feuerhahn1*†, Christian Stamov-Roßnagel1, Maren Wolfram1, Silja Bellingrath2 &
Brigitte M. Kudielka3 1Jacobs Center on Lifelong Learning and Institutional Development, Jacobs
University Bremen, Bremen, Germany 2Department of Psychology, University Duisburg-Essen,
Essen, Germany 3Department of Medical Psychology and Psychological Diagnostics, University of
Regensburg, Regensburg, Germany

Abstract We investigate how emotional exhaustion (EE), the core component of burnout, relates
to cognitive performance, job performance and health. Cognitive performance was assessed by self-
rated cognitive stress symptoms, self-rated and peer-rated cognitive impairments in everyday tasks and
a neuropsychological test of learning and memory (LGT-3); job performance and physical health were
gaugedby self-reports. Cross-sectional linear regressionanalysesina sample of 100 teachers confirm that
EEis negatively related tocognitive performance as assessed by self-rating and peer-rating as well as
neuropsychological testing (all p<.05). Longitudinal linear regression analyses confirm similar trends
(p<.10) for self-rated and peer-rated cognitive performance. Executive control deficits might explain
impaired cognitive performance in EE. In longitudinal analyses, EE also significantly predicts physical
health. Contrary to our expectations, EE does not affect job performance. When reversed causation is
tested, none of the outcome variables at Time 1 predict EE at Time 2. This speaks against cognitive
dysfunctioning serving as a vulnerability factor for exhaustion. In sum, results underpin the negative
consequences of EE for cognitive performance and health, which are relevant for individuals and
organizations alike. In this way, findings might contribute to the understanding of the burnout
syndrome. Copyright © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

Received 13 March 2012; Revised 17 September 2012; Accepted 18 September 2012

Keywords emotional exhaustion; cognitive performance; cognitive impairment; job

performance; executive control

*Correspondence Nicolas Feuerhahn, Jacobs Center on Lifelong Learning and Institutional

Development, Jacobs University Bremen, Campus Ring 1, 28759 Bremen, Germany. †Email:
n.feuerhahn@jacobs-university.de

Published online 22 October 2012 in Wiley Online Library (wileyonlinelibrary.com) DOI:

10.1002/smi.2467

Introduction

Burnout is a response to work-related stress and denotes a state of exhaustion. We focus on

emotional exhaustion (EE), which is the core component of burnout (cf. Lee & Ashforth, 1996; Maslach,
Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001; Shirom, 1989). Burnout impacts not only on individual health and performance
but also on the performance of organizations(Maslachetal.,2001;Paine,1982;Schaufeli,
2003).Clinicalobservationssuggestthatcognitiveimpairments are associated with EE (Maslach et al., 2001;
Schaufeli & Enzmann, 1998). For instance, individuals with burnout often report reduced problem-
solving and learning abilities and difficulties in ‘keeping their mind’
ondailytasks(Maslachetal.,2001;Schaufeli&Enzmann, 1998) as well as cognitive impairments in everyday
tasks

(e.g. forgetting names and appointments; Broadbent, Cooper, FitzGerald, & Parkes, 1982).
Furthermore, empirical research has shown that psychological
wellbeingiscorrelatedwithindicatorsofcognitivefunctioning (e.g. number of everyday errors; Broadbent
et al., 1982), self-reports about one’s ability to concentrate and decision-making skills (e.g. Goldberg,
1972; Wissing & Van Eeden, 2002). Beyond these subjective reports, the consequences of work-related
exhaustion for cognitive performance remained largely underexplored (cf. Marin et al., 2011). The goal
of our study is to elucidate relationships between EE and multiple indicators of individual performance
in teachers. We examine how work-related exhaustion relates to concurrent and lagged cognitive
performance (assessed by self-rating and peer-rating

297Stress and Health 29: 297–306 (2013) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

and a neuropsychological test) and job performance.

Moreover,werelateEEtophysicalhealthaftera6-month time lag. Teachers make an interesting study
population given their relatively high burnout rates (Rudow, 1999; Schmitz, 2004).
 Emotional exhaustion and cognitive functioning The cognitive problems reported by chronic
stress syndrome patients (e.g. burnout) are predominantly memory and attention deficits (Sandström,
Rhodin, Lundberg, Olsson, & Nyberg, 2005). Prolonged periods of stress have adverse effects on brain
circuitry, notably the hippocampus and prefrontal cortex (Arnsten, 2009;
Lupien&Lepage,2001;McEwen,1998;Radleyetal.,2004). Accordingly, cognitive deficits were found in
burnt-out and chronically stressed people in episodic, working and prospective memory (Öhman,
Nordin, Bergdahl, Birgander, & Neely, 2007), cognitive speed (Österberg, Karlson,&Hansen,2009),non-
verbalmemory,auditory and visual attention (Sandström et al., 2005), sustained attention and response
inhibition (van der Linden, Keijsers, Eling, & van Schaijk, 2005). This evidence suggests that the pattern
of cognitive deficits associated with exhaustion indicates executive control deficits. Executive control
refers to a set of cognitive processes underlying the regulation and control of thought and behaviour
(Braver & Barch, 2002; Miyake et al., 2000) and has been ascribed to the function of the prefrontal
cortex(Miller&Cohen,2001).Forexample,peoplewith impairedexecutive control may
showdeficitsinworking memory (Miyake et al., 2000), mental set switching or maintenance (De Jong,
Berendsen, & Cools, 1999), dualtask performance (Monsell & Driver, 2000) or response inhibition
(Barkley, 1997). Accordingly, compromised executive control can lead to several behavioural
expressions,suchaslossofthought,problem-solvingdifficulties and forgetfulness. To capture these
behavioural effects, we examine potential cognitive performance deficits on different levels of
specificity.

Outcome variables and hypotheses Previousstudiesconsistentlyreportedimpairedcognitive

performance in patients with burnout (Österberg et al., 2009; van der Linden et al., 2005) and high
work-related stress (Mahoney, Dalby, & King, 1998). Van der Linden et al. (2005) suggested that
impaired cognitive performance is due to deficits in attention as one specific information-processing
aspect of burnout. They state that burnout is particularly accompanied by difficulties in the executive
control over attention. Since attentional problems often emerge in everyday tasks, we expect EE to be
related to cognitive performance as reflected in cognitive stress symptoms (e.g. problems with
concentration, thinking clearly and remembering) and cognitive impairments in everyday tasks.
Cognitive stress symptoms capture

general problems in concentration and memory across life domains. Cognitive impairments in
everyday tasks represent more specific indications of limited everyday memory. More specifically, they
reflect a reduced ability to focus on, encode and retrieve concrete memory contents (Schmidtke,
Pohlmann, & Metternich, 2008). Inlinewiththistheoreticalreasoningandtheempirical evidence, we
assume that compromised executive control becomes overt in the cognitive performance of emotionally
exhausted teachers. We investigate whether lapses in everyday tasks are not only subjectively
experienced by exhausted teachers but can also be observed by peers (i.e. spouses). Therefore, we
hypothesize that EE is negatively related to cognitive performance as reflected in cognitive stress
symptoms andself-ratedandpeer-ratedcognitiveimpairmentsin everyday tasks (Hypothesis 1).
Moreover,EEisassumedtobeassociatedwithperformancedecrementsinneuropsychologicaltests.However,
evidence is still scarce, and results are inconclusive. To gain further insights that cognitive functions
might be affected, we examine the relationship between EE and performance in a neuropsychological
learning and intermediate memory task. Executive control deficits likely compromise learning and
memory performance becausetheyrequireattention,informationprocessing and encoding and retrieval
of information. Thus, we assume that EE is negatively related to learning and memory performance in a
neuropsychological test (Learning and Memory Test, LGT-3; Bäumler, 1974; Hypothesis 2). As executive
control deficits encompass problems in attention, memory and response inhibition, they might as well
affect job performance. In our study, job performance is reflected in self-reports of work-related task
performance, also called in-role behaviour. Task performance reflects behaviours that are recognized by
formal reward systems and are part of one’s job description. Thus, it represents an employee’s formally
required contribution to organizational performance (Williams & Anderson, 1991). Previous empirical
research indeed suggests EE to be negatively related to job performance (e.g. Cropanzano, Rupp, &
Byrne, 2003; Halbesleben & Bowler, 2007; Wright & Bonett, 1997; Wright & Cropanzano, 1998).
Theoretically, the exhaustion– performance link can also be explained by drawing on a resource
perspective, in which EE represents a significantdepletionofresources(Hobfoll,2001).TheConservation of
Resources theory (Hobfoll, 2001) suggests that exhaustedindividualsarelesslikelytoinvesttheirlimited
resources and their job performance might decrease. Against this backdrop, we propose that EE is
negatively related to job performance (Hypothesis 3). Finally, EE, as an indicator of chronic stress and
depleted resources, likely has physical health consequences. Previous research has demonstrated that
burnout, especially EE, is negatively related to health. For

Emotional Exhaustion and Cognitive Performance N. Feuerhahn et al.

298 Stress and Health 29: 297–306 (2013) © 2012 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.

example, burnout was found to increase the risk for cardiovascular and mental disorders,
musculoskeletal pain, diabetes, common cold, diseases of the respiratory system and even mortality
(Ahola, Väänänen, Koskinen, Kouvonen, & Shirom, 2010; Melamed, 2009; Melamed, Shirom, Toker,
Berliner, & Shapira, 2006). Therefore, we will examine if EE is negatively related to subjective physical
health (Hypothesis 4). The present work contributes to the burnout and performance literature by
investigating how EE relates to facets of individual (cognitive) performance. Research on associations
between work-related exhaustion and cognitive performance is still very scarce. Therefore, inclusion of
these outcomes extends the burnout literature. The few previous studies on this relationship focused on
clinicalburnout.However, EEevolves gradually and should be studied at all stages along the continuum.
The present study focuses on working, apparently healthy teachers reporting various levels of
exhaustion. This taps the question of whether cognitive performance
deficitsevolvecontinuouslyandemergealreadyatanonclinical level or if there is a cut-off effect. With this,
this study makes an important conceptual contribution to the understanding of the burnout syndrome
and its consequences. We also test, by means of reversed causation, whether cognitive dysfunctioning
serves as a vulnerability factor for exhaustion. This question so far remained unanswered in previous
cross-sectional studies. Unlike most previous studies, we apply a longitudinal design that offers more
insight into the direction of effects. To the best of our knowledge, so far, no study has simultaneously
investigated crosssectional and longitudinal relationships between EE and self-rated as well as peer-
rated cognitive performance,cognitiveperformanceinaneuropsychological test and self-rated job
performance. This offers the possibility to directly compare relationships of EE and the different
outcomes. The combination of longitudinal data and multiple-source data and the assessment of
different individual performance facets collected in a non-clinical sample makes a novel study that
conceptually and methodologically contributes to the literature of burnout and cognitive performance.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

31.An Exploration of the Impact of Employee Job Satisfaction, Affect, Job

Performance, and Organizational Financial Performance: A Review of the
Literature
Author(s):

Reio, Thomas G., Jr.; Kidd, Cathy A.

Source:

Online Submission. 8 pp.

Availability:

Full Text from ERIC Available online:

https://eric.ed.gov/contentdelivery/servlet/ERICServlet?accno=ED492690

Peer Reviewed:

N/A

Publication Date:

2006

Descriptors:

Job Performance, Job Satisfaction, Correlation, Case Studies, Literature Reviews, Affective Behavior,
Human Capital

Abstract:

Extensive research has explored job satisfaction, job performance, and the financial performance of
organizations. Job satisfaction and job performance have been explored separately and collectively.
However, scholars only have begun to explore the relationship between employee job satisfaction and
financial performance of organization. This paper reviews the literature on these topics and discusses
the gaps associated with the study of these variables collectively. (Contains 1 table.)

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

32.Elementary Preservice Teachers' and Teacher Educators' Perceptions of

Financial Literacy Education.
Authors:

Henning, Mary Beth

Lucey, Thomas A.

Source:

Social Studies. Jul/Aug2017, Vol. 108 Issue 4, p163-173. 11p. 1 Black and White Photograph, 5 Charts.

Document Type:

Article

Subjects:

ELEMENTARY school teachers -- Training of

FINANCIAL literacy -- Study & teaching
DECISION making
TEACHER education -- Charts, diagrams, etc.
PERFORMANCE

Abstract:

The authors conducted an online survey of elementary teacher education programs within a large
midwestern state to assess preservice teachers' and teacher educators' beliefs about and preparedness
to teach financial literacy. Very few preservice teachers had meaningful experiences with personal
finance in high school, college, or personal decision making. No teacher educators reported ever
teaching financial literacy in their higher education roles. Only 13% of teacher educators and 25% of
preservice teachers thought that it was very important to teach financial literacy in elementary
education. Most teacher education faculty and preservice teachers reported that they were not well
qualified to use state economics standards or the JumpStart standards for financial literacy. Preservice
teachers were more confident in meeting financial literacy standards than teacher educators. Both
preservice teachers and teacher educators expressed openness to collaborating with other faculty
members, members of the financial service industry, and parents to teach financial literacy. Follow-up
phone interviews affirmed that elementary preservice teachers and teacher educators value social
studies education (and financial literacy) less than reading and mathematics education. Qualitative
results also suggest that elementary preservice teachers and teacher educators would like more easily
accessible resources for teaching financial literacy. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

33.The Effects of Financial Solvency on the Academic Achievement of

Students in Public Illinois Elementary Schools
Author(s):

Terrell-Smith, Nicole B.

Source:

ProQuest LLC, D.Ed. Dissertation, University of St. Francis. 75 pp.

Availability:

ProQuest LLC. 789 East Eisenhower Parkway, P.O. Box 1346, Ann Arbor, MI 48106. Tel: 800-521-0600;
Web site: http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml

URL:

http://gateway.proquest.com/openurl?url_ver=Z39.88-
2004&rft_val_fmt=info:ofi/fmt:kev:mtx:dissertation&res_dat=xri:pqm&rft_dat=xri:pqdiss:10745743

Peer Reviewed:

N/A

Publication Date:

2018

ISBN:

978-0-355-67273-2

Descriptors:

Public Schools, Elementary Schools, Educational Finance, School District Wealth, Academic
Achievement, Elementary School Students, Statistical Analysis, Community Characteristics, Correlation
Location Identifiers:

Illinois

Abstract:

This study examined the correlation between student achievement, the financial health of a diverse
sample of public Illinois elementary school districts, and their local wealth. Research suggested that the
wealth of the district within itself does not affect student performance. Specific possible associated
factors included instructional methods, effectiveness and experience of teachers, parental involvement,
and external social factors. This study, through quantitative data analysis, reviewed data collected
related to district finances, local wealth, and student achievement in math and reading as measured by
ISAT between 2005 and 2012. To measure the financial solvency of the school district, the study
examined the school district Illinois Financial Profile Scores, their annual school budget, and the
district's annual audited financial reports. Review of the local wealth consisted of examining local
property values, reported unemployment rates, as well as student enrollment and mobility rates. Data
collected were utilized to measure the correlation of student achievement by grade level to the district's
financial health and changes to local wealth. [The dissertation citations contained here are published
with the permission of ProQuest LLC. Further reproduction is prohibited without permission. Copies of
dissertations may be obtained by Telephone (800) 1-800-521-0600. Web page:
http://www.proquest.com/en-US/products/dissertations/individuals.shtml.]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

34.Contemporary College Student Anxiety: The Role of Academic Distress,

Financial Stress, and Support
Author(s):

Jones, Payton J.; Park, So Yeon; Lefevor, G. Tyler

Source:

Journal of College Counseling, v21 n3 p252-264 Oct 2018. 13 pp.

Availability:

Wiley-Blackwell. 350 Main Street, Malden, MA 02148. Tel: 800-835-6770; Tel: 781-388-8598; Fax: 781-
388-8232; e-mail: cs-journals@wiley.com; Web site: http://www.wiley.com/WileyCDA

URL:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1002/jocc.12107

Peer Reviewed:
Y

ISSN:

1099-0399

Descriptors:

Mental Health, Anxiety, Incidence, College Students, Student Attitudes, Counselor Attitudes, Student
Characteristics, Mental Disorders, Academic Achievement, Financial Problems, Family Relationship, Peer
Relationship, Social Support Groups, Role

Abstract:

Mental health concerns, especially anxiety, are increasingly prevalent among college students. The
authors analyzed data from the Center for Collegiate Mental Health 2013-2014 database to provide
insight about student anxiety as reported by students and their counselors. Analyses showed that
academic distress accounted for the largest amount of variance in anxiety, followed by financial stress,
family support, and peer support. Sociodemographic variables had small effects, indicating a universality
of anxiety across various types of students.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

35.Teachers in Need of Space: The Content and Changing Context of Work

Author(s):

Mulholland, Rosie; McKinlay, Andy; Sproule, John

Source:

Educational Review, v69 n2 p181-200 2017. 20 pp.

Availability:

Routledge. Available from: Taylor & Francis, Ltd. 325 Chestnut Street Suite 800, Philadelphia, PA 19106.
Tel: 800-354-1420; Fax: 215-625-2940; Web site: http://www.tandf.co.uk/journals

URL:

http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00131911.2016.1184131

Peer Reviewed:

ISSN:
0013-1911

Descriptors:

Foreign Countries, Secondary School Teachers, Teacher Attitudes, Administrator Attitudes, Surveys,
Teaching Conditions, Work Environment, Well Being, Stress Variables, Gender Differences, Teaching
Load, Teacher Morale, Educational Change, Time Management, Teacher Persistence, School Schedules,
Faculty Development, Occupational Safety and Health, Tenure, Teaching Experience

Location Identifiers:

United Kingdom (Scotland)

Abstract:

To further understand differential perceptions of work and wellbeing this paper considers the influence
of gender and years in current role (YCR). We surveyed 399 secondary school teachers (class teachers n
= 185; middle managers n = 175 and senior managers n = 38) from the central belt of Scotland. Sixty-six
per cent of middle managers reported work as very stressful and 63% of this group reported a significant
change in their wellbeing. No gender differences were observed within this study however aspects of
the content (e.g. "workload") and context (e.g. "changing demands") of work presented as significant
occupational hazards for class teachers and middle managers with > 10 YCR. Middle managers were the
only group concerned with "low staff morale" and we would suggest the consequences of change and a
lack of time. On the basis of our findings and, in light of debates centring on teacher wellbeing, quality
retention and high quality educational provision, we would argue that these teachers with > 10 YCR, are
in need of the physical and emotional space to reflect on and make sense of the changing context of
work before they reach a point where their wellbeing is compromised. This space could be created by
increasing weekly non-teaching time, restructuring the school day and/or providing sabbaticals that
enable teachers to focus exclusively on their professional learning. This would of course incur a financial
cost but we would argue that this would be but a small price to pay.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

36.Coping in Hard Times: Fact Sheet for School Staff--Teachers, Counselors,

Administration, Support Staff
Author(s):

National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN)

Source:
National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 10 pp.

Availability:

National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 11150 West Olympic Boulevard Suite 650, Los Angeles, CA
90064. Tel: 310-235-2633; Fax: 310-235-2612; e-mail: info@nctsn.org; Web site:
http://www.nctsnet.org

URL:

http://www.nctsnet.org/sites/default/files/assets/pdfs/copingschoolpersonnel_final.pdf

Peer Reviewed:

N/A

Publication Date:

2011

Descriptors:

School Personnel, Adolescents, Job Layoff, Insurance, Coping, Family (Sociological Unit), Unemployment,
Economic Climate, Stress Variables, Psychological Patterns, Financial Problems, Classroom Techniques,
Self Efficacy

Abstract:

What happens when school personnel, or family members of one's students are laid off, are out of work
for months, and their unemployment insurance ends? What happens when students complain that they
can't find after-school or summer jobs? When these things occur, people worry about what will happen
to them and to those they care about. Students may worry about having to drop out of school, or having
enough money for lunch or for the bus. Teachers may worry about supplies for their classroom, or the
number of students they have. During hard times, worries like these can cause frustration, stress, and
anger. This fact sheet will help teachers, administrators, counselors, and school staff understand how
economic difficulties may affect one's self, other school staff, students, and their families.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

37.Coping in Hard Times: Fact Sheet for School Staff--Teachers, Counselors,

Administration, Support Staff
Author(s):

National Child Traumatic Stress Network (NCTSN)

Source:

National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 10 pp.

Availability:

National Child Traumatic Stress Network. 11150 West Olympic Boulevard Suite 650, Los Angeles, CA
90064. Tel: 310-235-2633; Fax: 310-235-2612; e-mail: info@nctsn.org; Web site:
http://www.nctsnet.org

URL:

http://www.nctsnet.org/sites/default/files/assets/pdfs/copingschoolpersonnel_final.pdf

Peer Reviewed:

N/A

Publication Date:

2011

Descriptors:

School Personnel, Adolescents, Job Layoff, Insurance, Coping, Family (Sociological Unit), Unemployment,
Economic Climate, Stress Variables, Psychological Patterns, Financial Problems, Classroom Techniques,
Self Efficacy

Abstract:

What happens when school personnel, or family members of one's students are laid off, are out of work
for months, and their unemployment insurance ends? What happens when students complain that they
can't find after-school or summer jobs? When these things occur, people worry about what will happen
to them and to those they care about. Students may worry about having to drop out of school, or having
enough money for lunch or for the bus. Teachers may worry about supplies for their classroom, or the
number of students they have. During hard times, worries like these can cause frustration, stress, and
anger. This fact sheet will help teachers, administrators, counselors, and school staff understand how
economic difficulties may affect one's self, other school staff, students, and their families.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

38. Retirement savers, non-savers say financial stress affects job

performance.
Authors:

Satter, Marlene Y.

Source:

BenefitsPRO. 8/18/2017, p1-1. 1p.

Document Type:

Article

Subject Terms:

*Retirement planning
*Financial stress
*Job performance
*Investments
Quality of life

NAICS/Industry Codes:

523930 Investment Advice

523999 Miscellaneous Financial Investment Activities

Abstract:

Financial stress is taking a toll on American workers, not just on the job but on their efforts to save for
retirement. That's according to a … [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

39. Financial Stress, Pay Satisfaction and Workplace Performance.

Authors:

Kim, Jinhee1
Garman, E. Thomas2

Source:

Compensation & Benefits Review. Jan/Feb2004, Vol. 36 Issue 1, p69-76. 8p. 6 Charts.

Document Type:

Article
Subject Terms:

*Wages
*Labor productivity
*Employee fringe benefits
*Financial crises
*Financial management

Author-Supplied Keywords:

absenteeism
financial education and advice
financial stress
pay satisfaction
productivity

NAICS/Industry Codes:

525120 Health and Welfare Funds

525190 Other Insurance Funds
523920 Portfolio Management

Abstract:

Employees' personal lives affect their attitudes and behaviors at workplace. Financially stressed
employees often bring their concerns to the workplace. This study focuses on the relationships between
financial stress and work outcomes such as pay satisfaction, work time use, and absenteeism. The data
in this research were collected from an insurance company in three mid-western states. A total of 262
questionnaires were used in the data analysis. Significant relationships were found between financial
stress and work outcomes including pay satisfaction, work time use and absenteeism. People who had
higher levels of financial stress had lower levels of pay satisfaction, were more likely to waste their work
time, and more frequently absent from work. Employers might reduce absenteeism and productivity if
they can help employees reduce their financial stress by offering effective workplace financial
education. [ABSTRACT FROM AUTHOR]

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

40.THE NATURE OF STRESS: WHAT IS IT?

Stress is ordinary and commonplace, but its clearly definable properties are elusive. (Goldberg 1983)

This strange disease of modern life.

(Matthew Arnold)

In order to study stress in teachers we need to be clear that we understand what we mean by the term
'stress'. The major problem for anyone attempting to read and understand about stress is that it has
taken on many different meanings, which are sometimes contradictory and confusing. The word 'stress'
has become largely a buzz word that is used in a variety of settings, and most people do not define what
they mean by the word. Many of the criticisms of its usage have come down on the fact that we do not
have a clear picture of current thinking about what stress actually is. Selye (1983) also makes the point
that stress as a concept suffers 'from the mixed blessing of being too well known and too little
understood'. This feature of stress as having an 'elusive' nature is enhanced by the fact that a single
definition fails to be agreed upon, as Cox (1978) remarks:

It is a concept which is familiar to both layman and professional alike; it is understood by all when used
in a general context but by very few when a more precise account is required, and this seems to be a
central problem.

We would like to present here a clear conceptualisation, and thus understanding, of the definition
ofstress, at a fundamental level, used throughout this book, both in the way our study was carried out
and the interpretation of its findings.

Definitions of stress

One area in which, it appears, people are in agreement is with regard to the definitions of the terms
'stressor' and 'strain' (Beehr and Franz 1986). A 'stressor' is something in the environment that acts as a
stimulus, and is either physical, psychological or behavioural in nature. A 'strain' response is used as an
indicator of ill health and/or well-being of the individual. Of interest in this particular study are those
stressors resulting from the job of the teacher, occurring in the teaching environment, that may cause
strain to be subsequently experienced by the individual teacher. When looking at the stress
phenomenon, it can be seen that stress can have both positive and negative consequences for the
individual. It can, up to a certain point, be a stimulant, and can have positive consequences (e.g. a new
coping skill or resource may be developed) (Hoover-Dempsey and Kendall 1982), but it is important that
individuals can find their optimal stress levels. The important point to note is that an event will not have
the same stressful implications for all individuals. It may be a case of 'one man's meat is another man's
poison'. Certain characteristics of the individual (e.g. age, sex, education, personality characteristics,
social situations and past experiences) can all lead to variations as to what constitutes a stressful
experience. This study therefore will aim to incorporate aspects of individuals which may exacerbate
their responses and experience of stress. Further confusion in conceptualising stress is derived from the
multiplicity of methods employed to investigate its existence and nature. As Payne et ale (1982) have
expressed:

There have been problems in definitional and conceptual clarity, questionable causal inferences from
self-report data correlating stress and strain, and often untested action recommended.
This means that an understanding of the stress phenomenon is still limited. Pearlin et ale (1981) claim
that the methodology employed will dictate the particular manifestation of stress that may be observed
(e.g. what is the focus), in the functioning of the individual, where the stress response is most clearly
reflected (e.g. physiological, behavioural or psychological). Additional criticisms of stress research result
from its heavy reliance upon correlational data, which limits inferences about causality and does not
consider the role of intervening variables, the lack of adequate control groups and the use of
retrospective studies. Therefore, as Kasl (1983) concludes, four main approaches to stress have
emerged:

• as present in the environment; • as an appraisal of that environment; • as a response to conditions in

the environment; • as some form of interaction between the environmental demands and the
individual's ability to meet those demands.

The methodology which was employed in this particular study of stress aims to gather data along the
lines of the views expressed by Kasl outlined above.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

41.Financial Stress: What Is It, How Can It Be Measured, and Why Does It
Matter?
By Craig S. Hakkio and William R. Keeton

In most general terms, financial stress can be thought of as an interruption to the normal
functioning of financial markets. Agreeing on a more specific definition is not easy, because no two
episodes of financial stress are exactly the same. Still, economists tend to associate certain key
phenomena with financial stress. The relative importance of these phenomena may differ from one
episode of financial stress to another. However, every episode seems to involve at least one of the
phenomena, and often all of them. Increased uncertainty about fundamental value of assets. One
common sign of financial stress is increased uncertainty among lenders and investors about the
fundamental values of financial assets. The fundamental value of an asset is the present discounted
value of the future cash flows, such as dividends and interest payments. Increased uncertainty about
these fundamental values typically translates into greater volatility in the market prices of the assets. In
some cases, increased uncertainty about the fundamental values of assets reflects greater uncertainty
about the outlook for the economy as a whole and for specific sectors. The prospective cash flows from
stocks, bonds, and loans all depend on future economic conditions. As a result, heightened uncertainty
about economic conditions can cause lenders and investors to become less sure of the present
discounted values of these cash flows. Uncertainty about the fundamental values of financial assets can
also increase when financial innovations make it difficult for lenders and investors to even assign
probabilities to different outcomes. This kind of uncertainty, in which risk is viewed as unknown and
unmeasurable, is often referred to as Knightian uncertainty. According to some economists, such
uncertainty tends to arise when losses are incurred for the first time on a new financial instrument or
practice—for example, complex structured products such as collateralized debt obligations (CDOs) in the
recent subprime crisis, or program trading in the Long-Term Capital Management (LTCM) crisis of 1998.
Lacking any historical experience on which to draw, investors may conclude in such situations that they
cannot even form a judgment about the probabilities of returns to the new products.1 Increased
uncertainty about the fundamental values of assets leads to greater volatility in asset prices by causing
investors to react more strongly to new information (Pastor and Veronesi; Hautsch and Hess). Suppose,
for example, that the maximum price an investor is willing to pay for a firm’s stock depends on his
estimate of the firm’s long-run profitability. Suppose also that the investor revises this estimate
whenever he receives new information about the firm’s profit outlook. Then the greater the investor’s
initial uncertainty about the firm’s long-run profitability, the more the investor will revise his estimate of
the firm’s profitability in response to new information, and thus the more he will change his offer price
in response to that information.2 Thus, increased uncertainty about the fundamental value of stocks will
generally lead to increased volatility of the prices of those stocks. Increased uncertainty about behavior
of other investors. Another form of uncertainty that often increases during financial crises and
contributes to asset price volatility is uncertainty about the behavior of other investors. For an asset that
may need to be sold before maturity, the expected return to an investor can depend as much on the
actions of other investors as on the long-run or hold-to-maturity value of the asset. Keynes made this
point by comparing the stock market to a beauty contest in which a prize was rewarded for picking the
face that the largest number of other people picked. In such situations, Keynes noted, the incentive of
the individual is to anticipate “what average opinion expects average opinion to be.” This kind of
recursive behavior becomes more prevalent when lenders and investors become more uncertain about
the fundamental values of assets. Thus, it tends to arise in the same situations as Knightian
uncertainty—when investors discover that their assumptions about a new financial product or practice
were incorrect and have little historical experience on which to base their new opinions.3 Like
uncertainty about fundamentals, uncertainty about the behavior of other investors tends to show up in
increased volatility of asset prices. When investors base their decisions on guesses about other
investors’ decisions, prices of financial assets become less tied to fundamental values. Therefore, prices
also become more volatile. Increased asymmetry of information. A third common sign of financial stress
is an increased asymmetry of information between lenders and borrowers or buyers and sellers of
financial assets. Asymmetry of information is said to exist when borrowers know more about their true
financial condition than lenders, or when sellers know more about the true quality of the assets they
hold than buyers. Information gaps of this kind can lead to problems of adverse selection or moral
hazard, boosting the average cost of borrowing for firms and households and reducing the average price
of assets on secondary markets. Suppose, for example, that investors know the average risk of a group
of firms issuing bonds but cannot distinguish the high-quality firms in the group from the low-quality
firms. Investors will then require a rate of interest on the bonds appropriate for a firm of average risk.
But at such a rate, the higher-quality firms may prefer not to borrow and instead rely on internal funds.
If so, an adverse selection problem will arise: The mix of firms selling bonds will worsen, leading
investors to demand a still higher rate of return.4 Such asymmetries of information might worsen during
a period of financial stress for two reasons. First, the variation in the true quality of borrowers or
financial assets might increase (Mishkin; Gorton). Suppose, for example, that everyone expects the
collateral on a particular type of loan to increase in value. Then lenders will view all loans of that type as
safe, regardless of the borrower’s future income or profits. But now suppose everyone expects the value
of the collateral to decline— for example, because a real estate bubble has burst. Then loans to
lowincome borrowers will have greater risk than loans to high-income borrowers, because low-income
borrowers will be less able to repay their loans if the value of the collateral falls below the amount due
on the loan. Thus, if lenders have difficulty determining borrowers’ income, an asymmetry of
information will arise—borrowers will differ in their true risk, and each borrower will have a better idea
of that risk than lenders.5 The second way information asymmetries can worsen in a financial crisis is
through lenders losing confidence in the accuracy of their information about borrowers (Gorton).
Suppose, for example, that the issuer of a bond knows its true risk of default, but that investors must
rely on credit ratings by a third party to determine that risk. If investors suddenly come to doubt the
objectivity of those ratings, they will become more uncertain as to which bonds are likely to repay and
which are likely to default. Once again, an asymmetry of information will arise, with issuers of the bonds
knowing more about their true risk than investors.6 Decreased willingness to hold risky assets (flight to
quality). One common sign of financial stress is a sharply decreased willingness to hold risky financial
assets. Such a change in preferences will cause lenders and investors to demand higher expected
returns on risky assets and lower returns on safe assets. These shifts in preferences away from risky
assets and toward safe assets are often referred to as “flights to quality.” The result is to widen the
spread between the rates of return on the two types of assets and increase the cost of borrowing for
relatively risky borrowers (Caballero and Kurlat). What could cause lenders and investors to become
much less willing to hold risky assets? Some theories of financial crises emphasize the tendency for
lenders and investors to underestimate risk during booms and overestimate risk during subsequent
busts (Kindleberger; Minsky; Berger and Udell; Guttentag and Herring). According to this view, lenders
and investors tend to become complacent during periods of prolonged economic stability and forget
their previous losses. During such periods, investors are especially prone to ignore “fat-tail” risks—the
non-negligible probability of extreme losses. However, because such euphoria leads to some bad loans
and investments, losses are eventually incurred. When lenders and investors realize that such losses are
possible, their euphoria turns to gloom, causing them to swing in the opposite direction and
overestimate the risk of loss. Another, quite different reason why lenders and investors may become
less willing to hold risky assets is that their appetite for risk falls. Suppose, for example, that people
become more uncertain about the future state of the economy and thus more uncertain about their
future wage income. They will then have more reason to worry about suffering losses on risky
investments when they can least afford them— that is, when their income and consumption are already
low due to a downturn in the economy. In such cases, lenders and investors will require greater
compensation for holding risky assets, boosting returns on those assets relative to safe assets.7
Decreased willingness to hold illiquid assets (flight to liquidity). A final sign of financial stress is a sharply
decreased willingness to hold illiquid assets. An illiquid asset is one that the owner cannot be confident
of selling at a price close to its fundamental value if faced with a sudden and unexpected need for cash.
In some cases, an asset is illiquid because the secondary market for the asset is thin, so that selling a
substantial amount of the asset has a large effect on the price. In other cases, an asset may be illiquid
because it is of above-average quality and an asymmetry of information between buyers and sellers
prevents the owner from selling the asset at a price close to its fundamental value (for example, the
value if the owner could hold it to maturity).8 During financial crises, investors typically become less
willing to hold illiquid assets and more willing to hold liquid assets. The effect of these “flights to
liquidity” is to widen the spread between the rates of return on the two types of assets and increase the
cost of borrowing for those firms that issue illiquid securities. A flight to liquidity can occur for two
reasons–an increase in the demand for liquidity to protect against unexpected cash needs or a decrease
in the perceived liquidity of some assets. To see how the demand for liquidity could increase, recall that
one feature of financial stress is an increase in the volatility of asset prices. Such an increase in volatility
raises the chances that a leveraged investor will have to liquidate some of his assets to meet margin
calls (Brunnermeier and Pederson). An increase in asset price volatility also increases the chances that
financial intermediaries such as hedge funds and mutual funds will have to liquidate assets to meet
redemptions.9 To guard against such events, investors and financial institutions will seek to build up
their holdings of liquid assets. The other possible cause of a flight to liquidity is a reduction in the
perceived liquidity of assets. As noted earlier, financial stress is often associated with greater asymmetry
of information between buyers and sellers of financial assets. In such circumstances, adverse selection
may cause the market values of some assets to fall well below their fundamental, hold-to-maturity
values. Investors will view such assets as illiquid because they cannot be sold to raise cash without
taking a substantial loss.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

42. Job Satisfaction and Performance of School Teachers

Dr. S. Chamundeswari AssociateProfessor, N.K.T. National College of Education for Women,
Chennai-600 005 Email: rajchamu2006@yahoo.co.in

Abstract

Teaching is a highly noble profession and teachers are always a boon to the society. The
ultimate process of education could be simplified as a meaningful interaction between the teacher and
the taught. The teacher thus plays a direct and crucial role in moulding a pupil towards education. Since
a teacher is a role model for the students, job satisfaction and eventually performance of teachers
become very vital in the fields of education. Thus the researcher felt the need to investigate the job
satisfaction and performance of teachers in different categories of schools following different systems of
education. From the total population, a sample of 196 teachers from state board schools, 198 teachers
from matriculation board schools and 194 teachers from central board schools were drawn. The results
of the study indicated that teachers in central board schools were significantly better in their job
satisfaction and performance compared to their counterparts in matriculation and state board schools.
This may be attributed to the fact that central board school teachers enjoy better infrastructure facilities
and congenial working environment than the matriculation and state board teachers. It is for the school
authorities, policy makers and society at large to ensure factors contributing to job satisfaction of
teachers to the maximum possible extent and thereby enhancing their teaching perforrmance to its
optimum.

REVIEW OF RELATED LITERATURE

Gupta (1988) investigated the correlates of effectiveness and ineffectiveness in teacher’s teaching. He
found job satisfaction and financial support to be significantly influencing effective teaching. Bruhn
(1989) carried out an investigation relating job stress, job satisfaction and professional growth with a
sample encompassing all major professions and found that job satisfaction is a necessity for controlling
job stress and enhancing career growth. Naseema (1994) studied the relation between job satisfaction
and teaching competence and found job satisfaction to be significantly contributing to teacher
effectiveness. Kulsun (1998) attempted to relate school climate with job satisfaction. The study of Jyothi
and Reddy (1998) requires a special mention as a study of job satisfaction among teachers working in
special schools. Job satisfaction of teachers seems to be a popular area for researchers in the recent
years. Yezzi and Lester (2000) examined job satisfaction among teachers and found age and need for
achievement as predictors of job satisfaction using a multiple regression-exclusive method. Jabnoun and
others (2001) presented a study which identified the factors affecting job satisfaction among teachers at
selected secondary schools in Malaysia. Evaluation of teacher satisfaction with intrinsic and extrinsic
components of the job found demographic variables to be significant. Rasku and Kinnunen (2003)
compared the work situation of Finnish upper secondary school teachers to that of average European
teachers and to examine to what extent various job conditions and coping strategies explain their well-
being. Job demands and control had only main effects on well-being: high demands explained low job
satisfaction and burnout and high control explained high job satisfaction and high personal
accomplishment. Van Dick (2004) found in a study that organizational identification leading to job
satisfaction, in turn predicts turnover intentions. Cetin (2006) carried a research to find out if there is a
significant difference between job satisfaction, occupational and organizational commitment of 132
academics and found a significant relationship between satisfaction and performance. Zhang Jin, Zheng
Wei (2009) developed new insights into the mechanism through which job satisfaction relates to job
performance. Affective commitment was tested as a potential mediator between job satisfaction and
job performance, and traditionalistic was used as a potential moderator between job satisfaction and
affective commitment. A survey study was conducted on 292 employees from seven companies in
China. The study findings suggest that affective commitment serves as one of the mechanisms through
attachment by which job satisfaction influences job performance. In the study conducted by
Indhumathi (2011), investigating the job satisfaction and performance of 444 teachers at the secondary
level were selected randomly, it was found that there was a significant relationship between job
satisfaction and performance and the teachers in different categories of schools differed significantly in
both job satisfaction and teaching performance.
 ____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

43.TEACHERS UNDER STRESS

Stephen Dinham

Abstract - This paper explores the issue of teacher stress through examination of the
experiences of 57 teachers and educational administrators who had resigned from the New South Wales
Department of School Education. Data were gathered through open-ended interviews and analysed
using grounded theory techniques. After examining the experiences of 10 of the 57 respondents, overall
findings are related to the literature followed by recommendations for the educational system
concerned which may well have wider significance. While stress was not found to be the only cause of
teacher resignation, it was found to be part of the day to day lives of teachers and a significant,
contributing factor to resignation.

The Study: Teacher Resignation

This paper is drawn from a study (Dinham, 1992) undertaken to explore the human and personal
side to teacher resignation, an aspect of this phenomenon which research has tended to neglect. In the
study, 57 teachers and educational administrators who had resigned from the New South Wales (NSW)
Department of School Education (DSE), were interviewed and asked to reflect over their teaching career
in its totality, including why they entered teaching, the effectiveness of their pre-service training, early
teaching experiences and the circumstances leading to their eventual resignation. Those interviewed
were also asked to reflect on how their teaching career had affected them. Data were analysed using
grounded theory techniques (Glaser and Strauss, 1967; Strauss and Corbin, 1990) and a model of
teacher persistence was derived which highlighted the complexity of the 'resignation decision' and
hence, the difficulty in formulating 'quick fix' solutions to the problem of teacher resignation, a problem
resulting in personal, economic and educational cost. It was found that in the educational system under
study, little was being done to prevent teacher resignation or alleviate teacher stress, a significant
contributing factor to resignation, and that change in that system since the late 1980s had put increased
pressure on those within it. This situation had been exacerbated by societal criticism of teachers and
education coupled with increased expectations and responsibilities for schools.
 ____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

44.Stress Among Prospective Teachers: a Review of the Literature

Sallie Gardner Griffith University

Abstract: Student-teacher distress has the potential to impact on the individuals who are to
become teachers, the profession and the education system. This review examines what is
known of psychological distress among university students, teachers and student-teachers, the
demands associated with their practical experiences and the known impact of psychological
distress. A brief overview of contemporary stress management approaches is also presented.
The reviewer contends that the potential problem for prospective teachers requires a holistic
approach, beginning through understanding contemporary strategies available to individual
university students, and preventative stress management programs provided within tertiary
education, which may be made available to future student-teachers.

Much is known anecdotally about the stressors on teachers, especially following the ever-
increasing demands of change associated with developments in technology, and curriculum.
There is a considerable body of literature reviewing psychological distress in the general
population (Australian Bureau of Statistics. National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing:
Summary of Results. ABS Cat No. 4326.0. Canberra: ABS, 2007), and among university students,
but these are mostly in health-related faculties (Dyrbye, Thomas, & Shanafelt, 2006; Humphris,
Blinkhorn, Freeman, Gorter, Hoad-Reddick, Murtomaa, O'Sullivan, & Splieth, 2002) rather than
education. Similarly, strategies for stress management have been focussed in health faculties
(Pritchard, Wilson, & Yamnitz, 2007). Whereas well-being studies identify teacher stresses
(Montgomery & Rupp, 2005; Pillay, Goddard, & Wilss, 2005), less attention has been paid to the
demands of the practicum and the mental health and well-being of student-teachers. This paper
examines 21st century psychological distress, demands associated with the student-teachers’
practicum, the impact of distress, and strategies presented for coping and well-being. The
review highlights the ramifications for student-teachers who may be distressed, and an
overview of stress management practices offers potential directions for teacher education.
Psychological distress research appears to occur primarily in health care. It is seldom defined as
a distinct concept. Physician Hans Selye articulated the term distress to explain the impact on
the body of arousal through stress (Selye, 1982). The term psychological distress has since been
embedded within the context of strain, stress, and distress (Ridner, 2004), and incorporates
anxiety and depression, as these two disorders commonly co-occur (Bultmann, Huibers, Van
Amelsvoort, Kant, Kasl, & Swaen, 2005; Hirschfeld, 2001). In Australia, the approved Medicare
“Initial Formulation to GP by MBS Allied Health Practitioner” is based on depression, anxiety and
stress scores obtained using either the Depression, Anxiety and Stress Score (DASS 21)
(http://www.medicareaustralia.gov.au/public/forms.jsp), or the K10. Thus , in this paper,
psychological distress refers to a mental state that incorporates depressed mood and anxiety
(Dammeyer & Nunez, 1999; Humphris et al., 2002; Sherina, Rampal, & Kaneson, 2004; Wong,
Cheung, Chan, Ma, & Tang, 2006), and may be experienced as anxiety (Dyrbye et al., 2006)
and/or depression (Jorm, Christensen, & Griffiths, 2006). In the Global Burden of Disease study
(Murray & Lopez, 1997), it was predicted that by the year 2020 depression would be second
only to heart disease. That report also indicated that mental disorders, and alcohol-use
disorders, were linked to disability, and death by suicide. The prevalence of psychological
distress, as defined above, referring to a mental state characterised by anxiety and mood states
(including depression), and also alcohol use in tandem, was also reported in the 2004-05
Australian National Health Survey, conducted by the Australian Bureau of Statistics (ABS, 2006).
In that survey, 13% of the Australian adult population had high or very high levels of
psychological distress. Of these, 45% included both anxiety and depressed mood. The findings
indicated that the greatest increases in the prevalence of psychological distress were among
people aged 18-24, and females aged 35 years and over, particularly women who were
separated. This was significant, as the primary teaching profession in Australia is predominantly
female, (Source: ABS 1986 and 2001 Censuses of Population and Housing 4102.0 - Australian
Social Trends, 2003). Levels of psychological distress have been reported to be greater among
the university students than among the general population, and were reported in various
university faculties world-wide (Wong et al., 2006). In that study, the prevalence of
psychological distress was of moderate severity (depression: 21%, anxiety: 41% and stress:
27%). It was expected to impact on the students’ educational attainment and quality of life, and
these students were likely to suffer impairment, and require attention from health-care
professionals. The high levels of psychological distress among students constitute a serious
health concern for those affected. At the Karolinska Institute of Medical University, Stockholm,
Sweden, 12% of students were anxious, or had depressed mood (Dahlin, Joneborg, & Runeson,
2005). Among those students, there was an association between stress factors, including
financial concerns, worry about the future and workload, gender and depression. In a larger US
study of approximately 2,500 undergraduate students who were sent a web-based survey
(Eisenberg, Gollust, Golberstein, & Hefner, 2007), the estimated prevalence of depressive
and/or anxiety disorders was 15.5%. Of these, 2% had suicidal thoughts. Although the rate of
responses was less than 50%, despite a non-response bias, 44.3% reported that emotional or
emotional difficulties had affected their performance in the previous 4-weeks, and there were
strong associations between anxiety disorder and major depression (13.8% had major
depression). There was less psychological distress in the group who were older than 25 years of
 age, and among those who lived on campus (not with parents) or with a partner (were not
single). Academic pressures, social issues and financial problems may cause stress for university
students (Vitaliano, Maiuro, Russo, & Mitchell, 1989). An Australian survey of university
students found high levels of psychological distress among students attending a university
health service (Stallman, 2008). However, those students over the age of 24 had higher levels of
psychological distress. In that study, 53% of students had significant (moderate, high and very
high) levels of psychological distress. There was a higher level of psychological distress in all age
groups, when compared to the general population results from the 2001 National Health Survey
(Australian Bureau of Statistics), but there were no significant gender differences. Stress levels
among practising teachers are high. Kyriacou (2001) reported that 37% of teachers were
stressed. Teacher distress has been reportedly greater than for the general population
(Tuettemann & Punch, 1992). Their investigation, conducted with a large sampleof teachers in
Western Australia, revealed that 45% of Australian secondary-school teachers were
psychologically distressed. Distress was related to whether or not the teachers perceived
themselves to be effective, supported by their colleagues, and if they received recognition for
their work. This proportion of psychological distress was “twice that for the general population,
and perhaps four times as high as that for the professional population” (Tuettemann and Punch,
1992, p. 44). , Little literature on the measurement of psychological distress among student-
teachers has been found. The student-teacher and/or teacher may not recognise the symptoms,
therefore their distress, which includes anxiety, may be untreated. This is significant as the
presence of an anxiety disorder is described as the single biggest clinical risk factor in the
development of depression (Hirschfeld, 2001). Therefore, the scope and impact of depression
and anxiety among student-teachers and teachers is highly significant. Of the few international
and Australian studies specifically devoted to student-teachers (Chan, 2002; Chaplain, 2008;
Zimmermann, Wangler, Unterbrink, Pfeifer, Wirsching, & Bauer, 2008), what there is tends to
focus more on student-teachers' reflections about their experiences during their Teaching
Practice, usually called the Practicum (Sumsion & Thomas, 1995).

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

45.Causes of Financial Stress and Intervention Strategies used by Teachers in

Public Secondary Schools in Nakuru Sub-County, Kenya
Francisca A. Asino Laikipia Univesity, Kenya
Abstract
Financial stress is experienced in many households in Kenya due to high inflation rates and the
current state of the economy. Financial stress is usually associated with psychological problems
like moodiness, trouble sleeping, frustration, depressive disorders among others. This study
examined the causes of financial stress and intervention strategies used by teachers in public
secondary schools in Nakuru Sub- County to manage it. Financial worries are a leading source of
stress and can affect mental well-being which can in turn lead to health problems and affect
work attendance and performance. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. Stratified,
purposive and simple random samplings were used to select the study sample. Data was
gathered using the teachers financial stress questionnaire. Data was summarized and described
using frequencies and percentages. The latest version of statistical package for social sciences
(SPSS) computer programme aided in data analysis.The results indicated that teachers in Nakuru
Sub- County experience financial stress but do not seek professional counseling. The paper
recommends that the teachers be provided with financial counselling as mitigation against the
stress.
Literature Review:
Causes of Financial Stress: One of the causes of financial stress is debt. Debt levels are
rising faster than both incomes and assets. Never has it been easier to access debt in all forms –
lines of credit, mortgages, credit cards. Debt has created a lot of the economic problems we face
today and was the biggest factor in the world financial crisis in 2007 (Miami-dade.com,
2006).The debt problem has been fueled by consumerism and consumption. In 2005, a national
Symposium in Financial Capability suggested that Canadians spend 25% more than their income
(Richard, 2004). People no longer practice delayed gratification. Instead they practice delayed
consequence. Savings rates have been steadily declining since a peak in the early 80′s when it
was almost 18%. Today savings is pretty much non-existent hovering around 2% to 5% (investor
words.com). This is less than half of what we need to save to be financially secure in the future.
This is a real serious problem because our financial future both on a macro level and a micro
level is largely dependent on how much we save today. Unfortunately the real consequence of a
low savings rate has yet to be seen. For most of the 1990′s wealth was created by the stock
market as we experienced one of the strongest and longest financial booms in history.
Unfortunately, stock markets do not move in a straight line and they experience cycles just like
anything else (nytimes.com, 2005). For most investors, the decade from 2000 to 2010 was not
very prosperous. In fact, for many, the stock market has destroyed wealth as opposed to create
it due to two major bear markets in the last 10 years (Breuning et al, 2004). Not only has the
stock markets contributed to the ups and downs of financial stability but so has real estate.
Anyone who owned real estate in the financial boom loved their investment. It was a period of
time I call ‗stupid money‘. Stupid money exists when money can be made without any effort.
The problem with every real estate boom is some people become over leveraged and over
extended. When the boom stops, slows down or experiences a correction, that‘s when problems
hit. Because real estate is largely leveraged which means you don‘t pay cash but you borrow lots
of money to buy real estate, period after booms can create massive problems like the financial
crisis in the late 2000.Payment increase or mortgage adjustment. Currently, this is the most
common reason for financial distress. Billions of dollars of bad loans were written during the
most recent real estate boom, and many of them were ―creative products‖ designed to bring
borrowers who couldn‘t normally afford to buy a home into the home-buying game
(mytimes.com, 2005). Now that those products are adjusting, the result is typically a payment
that the borrower can no longer afford. The tragic part is that the terms of the loan make it clear
that the adjustment is part of the plan, yet most home owners do nothing to prepare for the
change (Barbatto, Cocannon & Leppert, 2006) .Loss of Employment is another factor. If you lose
your job, in most cases, unless you‘re fortunate enough to receive a severance package, you are
without income immediately. This will suddenly become a source of seemingly insurmountable
stress. For the self-employed, your income depends on your skills as an entrepreneur, and the
market you‘re in. Without a solid contingency plan for your business finances, the loss of your
business also means the loss of your income (Breuning, & Cobbclark, 2004). Unexpected damage
to property also causes financial stress. When there‘s Causes of Financial Stress and Intervention
Strategies used by Teachers in Public… Francisca A. Asino Volume-III, Issue-VI May 2017 144
damage to your home, it will cost you. When your insurance company fails to provide for the full
amount of your claim, you‘ll be left filling the gap, which in many cases exceeds 60 days reserve.
One of the most devastating life experiences is the loss of a loved one, especially if they were
the primary income earner in the family. This is why it is critical that you have a plan in place and
have proper life insurance for your situation. If a primary wage earner dies, it‘s just like losing an
income, instantly. Death of a family member is another source of financial stress. When a family
member who is not earning income dies, it is emotionally devastating and the ripple effects will
spread throughout every area of your life, affecting your work, your business, and your
relationships. This can produce undue stress and affect your earning ability. It may even lead to
needing to support survivors which will increase your costs (Miami-dade,com,2006 ).Severe
illness can lead to extremely high medical debt and loss of income during recovery. Effects of
Financial Stress: The effects of financial stress are negative and affect not only the individual but
all the people they interact with. People who are financially stressed like to forget about their
problems and anxiety by drowning themselves through drinking, smoking, overeating and other
unhealthy behaviors that just leads to more stress (studymode.com,2006). Another effect of
financial stress is the loss of sleep. People experience sleeping problems due to the pressure of
thinking about where to earn more. Lack of sleep then impairs their immune performance and
cognitive abilities, making them unproductive and more prone to moodiness and irrational
decision-making People who are under a lot of financial stress also tend to put aside less money
for their own self-care. Since they are in a tight budget, they sacrifice the portion for their health
care for a more basic need like food, water bills, and housing payments (Greenberg, 2002). This
might be something small, but often ignoring your health can lead to a larger problem thus
adding more stress .Another common effect of financial stress are developing unhealthy
emotions. A great deal of debt can take a toll on a person's health. They experience anxiety,
frustrations, and tend to feel hopeless as the debts and bills they have to pay rises up into a big
heap of stress. This often leads to depression and in some cases to suicide (Weiten, 2006). With
people ignoring their own selves and work their bodies into exhaustion, financial stress would
be too hard to handle. It needs a lot of mental, physical and emotional re-assessing in order for
one to get back on the right track and start handling these sources of stress and finding ways to
manage them in a more healthy way to avoid these common effects of financial stress and their
other stressors.
 ____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

46.Financial Stress and Personal Characteristics of the School Teachers:

Evidence from Sri Lanka
Sivarajah, K 1 Achchuthan, S 2 Umanakenan, R 3 1. Department of Marketing Management, Faculty of
Management Studies and Commerce, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka, 2. Department of Marketing
Management, Faculty of Management Studies, Sabaragamuwa University of Sri Lanka, PO box 02,
Belihuloya 70140, Sri Lanka. 3. Commerce Graduate, University of Jaffna, Sri Lanka * E-mail of the
corresponding author: achchu2009@gmail.com

Abstract

The primary aim of the study is to find out the significant mean difference in financial stress
among personal characteristics of the school teachers as gender, age, family size, subjects for teaching,
educational qualification, and work experience. The study employs independent samples t- test and
one-way ANOVA (f-test) to test the operational hypotheses. The survey method used in this study
is a questionnaire and a total of 360 usable responses were obtained using simple random sampling
technique. Findings revealed that, there is a significant mean difference in financial stress among
subject for teaching, educational qualification and working experience of the school teachers in the
northern province of Sri Lanka. In contrast, we found that, there is no significant mean difference
in financial stress among gender, age level and family size. Further, we suggested that,
Governmental bodies should have the responsibility to control the financial instability in the Northern
Province and as well as all island through the better policy drafts in the monetary and fiscal aspects. Key
Words: Financial Stress, Personal characteristics, Northern Province, Sri Lanka and School Teachers

Review of Literature and Development of Conceptual Framework Study on financial Stress, pay
satisfaction and workplace performance has been conducted by Kim and Garman, 2004. The results of
the study indicated that, those who are financially stressed are more likely to have lower levels of
pay satisfaction, spend work time handling financial matters, and be absent from work. Financial stress
is one of the key factors in pay satisfaction, work time use dealing with financial concerns, and
absenteeism. Kim, Sorhaindo and Garman (2006) investigated the study on relationship between
financial stress and workplace absenteeism. The study utilized the databases available from large
non-profit credit counseling organization that operates telephone counseling nationwide. The
population for the study was a group of consumers who telephoned the credit counseling
organization seeking assistance with managing their debts. The results revealed that, absenteeism at
work is caused by the financial stress. Respondents with high levels of financial stress are more
likely to experience higher levels of absenteeism, which decreases the time they are at work. Further,
they suggested to provide financial education for the employees who are in trouble to manage the
financial matters. Financial education through the work place helps or aids to the employees
deal with and reduce financial stress, finally which will reduce the employees’ absenteeism. Hong and
Waheed (2011) carried the research on Herzberg's Motivation-Hygiene Theory and Job Satisfaction in
the Malaysian Retail Sector. Researchers investigated that what motivates sales personnel in the retail
industry in Malaysia and examines their level of job satisfaction as a result of Herzberg's hygiene
factors and motivators. Results showed that, hygiene factors were the dominant motivators of sales
personnel job satisfaction. Working conditions were the most significant in motivating sales
personnel. Recognition was second, followed by company policy and salary. Further, love of
money appears to be identified as a mediator influencing the relationship between money and
job satisfaction. They suggested that any retail organization in Malaysia preparing a reward
scheme may need to consider the four motivational factors of working conditions, recognition,
company policy, and money and emphasize them over other motivational factors. Those four factors can
be used to help improve job satisfaction, productivity and performance of salespeople. Baakile (2011)
focused the study on comparative analysis of teachers’ perception of equity, pay satisfaction,
affective commitment and intention to turnover in Botswana. The purpose of the study was to
investigate the relationships between equity, pay satisfaction, affective commitment and intention to
turnover among junior and senior secondary school teachers in Botswana. Results revealed that, the
relationship between equity and pay satisfaction was strong and significant for both junior and
senior secondary school teacher. The relationship between equity and affective commitment, pay
satisfaction and intention to turnover, and affective commitment and intention were all significant.
The major conclusions are that teachers’ perception of these variables is similar regardless of
whether they are at a junior or senior school. Secondly, even though junior secondary school
teachers are supposed to hold diplomas, some have a degree that is why there seem to be the same
level of understanding of issues by both the two streams

(PDF) Financial Stress and Personal Characteristics of the School Teachers: Evidence from Sri Lanka.
Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/270895028_Financial_Stress_and_Personal_Characteristics_
of_the_School_Teachers_Evidence_from_Sri_Lanka [accessed Nov 15 2018].

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot
47.Financial Stress, Self-Efficacy, and Financial Help-Seeking Behavior of
College Students
HanNa Lim1 , Stuart J. Heckman2 , Jodi C. Letkiewicz3 , Catherine P. Montalto4

Literature Review Financial Help-Seeking Behavior Help-seeking behavior has been studied
extensively in medical, psychological, and sociological research (Grable & Joo, 1999). However,
until Grable and Joo (1999) developed a framework applied to financial help, there had been
very limited research on financial help-seeking behavior. Grable and Joo viewed help-seeking
behavior as a coping strategy related to financial problems and based their approach on help-
seeking behaviors in health care decision-making processes (see Suchman, 1966). The financial
help-seeking process consists of five stages: (1) the exhibition of financial behaviors, (2) the
evaluation of own financial behaviors, (3) the identification of the causes of financial behaviors,
(4) the decision to seek help, and (5) the choice among help assistance options. Based on Grable
and Joo’s framework, two streams of research are most prevalent: the decision to seek help
(stage 4) and from whom or what type of help to seek (stage 5). Grable and Joo’s (1999)
empirical analysis examined whether demographic and socioeconomic factors, financial
knowledge, financial stressors, financial risk tolerance, and financial behaviors were
determinants of help-seeking behavior among clerical workers. The results from the
discriminant analysis showed that individuals who were younger, did not own homes, reported
high levels of financial stressors, or reported poor financial behaviors were more likely to seek
help. Britt et al. (2011) explored factors affecting whether students seek on-campus, peer-based
financial counseling. Data were obtained from students who sought free financial counseling
from an on-campus financial counseling center (the clinical group) and a sample of students who
completed the survey in response to a cash incentive (the non-clinical group). All respondents
were college students from the same university. The dependent variable was an indicator
variable for whether the student was in the clinical group (i.e., sought help) or the non-clinical
group. The independent variables included measures of demographic characteristics, financial
resources, financial attitudes, and mental health status. The results from a Classification and
Regression Tree indicated that, in order of importance, persons with lower perceived net worth,
higher mental health distress, higher age, lower perceived financial knowledge, and lower
predicted income satisfaction were more likely to seek on-campus financial counseling. Results
from the logistic regression analysis confirmed that students who were older, had less net
worth, and less financial knowledge were more likely to be help-seekers (Britt et al., 2011).
Several studies have explored the types of help individuals use for personal finance assistance.
Grable and Joo (2001) examined factors associated with the choice of seeking help from a
financial professional or a non-professional. Those who indicated use of financial planners,
financial counselors, insurance agents, or stockbrokers as their primary help provider were
classified as professional help-seekers, while those who indicated use of friends, family, or work
colleagues as their primary help provider were classified as non-professional help-seekers. Two
psycho-social variables, self-esteem and financial satisfaction, were included in the analysis in
addition to the explanatory variables utilized in Grable and Joo’s (1999) original framework. The
 results from the discriminant analysis suggested that the decision to seek professional help is
most directly associated with higher financial risk tolerance, better financial behaviors,
homeownership, higher financial satisfaction, and higher age. Joo and Grable (2001) also
explored the factors associated with seeking professional help when making retirement
investment decisions. The dependent variable was a dummy variable indicating whether or not
the respondents used the advice of a financial professional for their recent retirement
investment decisions. The independent variables included various demographic and
socioeconomic variables, and factors for financial behavior, retirement attitude, and risk
tolerance. The logistic regression results indicated that males and those with low income were
significantly less likely to seek help from professionals while those who had better financial
behaviors, positive retirement attitudes, and higher levels of risk tolerance were significantly
more likely to seek professional help for their retirement investment decisions.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

48.CAUSES OF STRESS AMONG TEACHERS IN PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS:

A CASE OF PUBLIC SECONDARY SCHOOLS IN STAREHE DISTRICT
BY PACIFICA MORAA NYAMBONGI D53/R1/11764/2004

Stress
The understanding of stress originated in the empirical research of Derogatis (1987), who
conducted his research using the Derogatis Stress Profile (DSP), a psychological questionnaire to
measure individuals’ stress dispositions. Derogatis based this questionnaire on Lazarus’s (1966)
social interaction theory of stress which consequently led us towards Lazurus’s more recent
research and theories of stress and how to cope with it. Lazarus and Folkman (1984) define
stress as a particular interaction between the person and the environment. The person
appraised or evaluated the environment as being taxing or exceeding his or her personal
resources. This disrupts his or her daily routines. According to Derogatis, stress may be defined
as a state of psychological pressure influenced by three main sources or domains: personality
mediators (put together of time pressure, driven behaviour, attitude posture, relaxation
potential, and role definition); environmental factors (constituting of vocational satisfaction,
domestic satisfaction, and health posture); and emotional responses (such as hostility, anxiety,
and depression).
Derogatis accordingly explains that these three sources must be studied interactively to develop
a comprehensive account of psychological stress. With nervous energy skyrocketing, the
teachers need understanding and support, they need voices of reason to counteract both the
stress-inducing messages they get from this culture, work and the demoralizing, self-defeating
beliefs, some of them persist in telling themselves. Many signs of stress are so common that
they are accepted as the normal, even expected, cost of leading busy, productive lives. Teachers
should be aware of basic truths about the insidious, sometimes devastating, effects of stress on
people throughout the live. Individuals may experience burnout as a result of stress itself, a
sudden breakdown of their mediating coping mechanisms, or an ineffectiveness of their
mediating coping mechanisms over a Long period of time (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998;
Vandenberghe & Huberman, 1999). Burnout has traditionally been viewed as having three
components: emotional exhaustion, depersonalization, and lack of personal accomplishment.
Burnout is most frequently measured using Maslach’s Burnout Inventory (Maslach & Jackson,
1981). A feeling of burnout is not a direct effect of repeated exposures to stressful situations.
However, Burnout is mediated through various active and passive coping mechanisms and is a
result of the accumulation of positively and negatively oriented emotional responses that have
arisen through coping mechanisms 1.1.2 Stress and Teacher Performance Too much stress can
contribute to health problems. Stress can also reduce the ability to perform at the highest levels
(Chan, 1998). The negative effects of stress can impact negatively on performance and quality of
life. The effects of stress are unmistakably many. They include increase heart rate, speed
breathing or held breath, tightens muscle to prepare to fight or to flee, directing blood to the
brain and major muscles (away from digestion, hands/feet, Reproductive organs), releases
stress hormones like cortisol and adrenaline, slows or stops digestion, causes the brain to be
more reactive/less thoughtful, increases perspiration, reduces immune system response
(Guglielmi and Tatrow, 1998). Tension headaches, neck/back/shoulder pain, tight jaw, sleeping
problems, fatigue, loss of concentration, learning problems can increase, irregular or rapid heart
rate, migraine headaches, poor circulation, Raynaud Syndrome, high blood pressure, sexual
dysfunction (in either sex), digestive problems, upset stomach, ulcers, colitis, hormone
imbalances, reduction of immune system function, over reaction by immune system (allergies or
autoimmune diseases worse), increased asthma activity, increased aging rate, anxiety,
depression, substance abuse, poor habit control, over-eating, low energy, prone to accidents or
mistakes, can impair communication, poor performance, among others effects are
characteristics of stress (Guglielmi and Tatrow, 1998). According to Kobasa et al. (1985),
competitive athletes have been aware of the negative effects of stress on their performance.
Tight muscles can drop their time in a track and field sprint by fractions of a second. This can be
the difference between winning or losing an event. Since the Eastern European athletes began
their mental training in the 1970's, world class athletes have begun spending as much as 70% of
their training time in mental preparation for controlling stress during competition. In the same
preparations are golfers, tennis players, softball players, pilots, even law students preparing for
the state bar examinations. Their performance has been enhanced with the use of a program
that includes stress management, visualization, and skill development. This process has also
worked for managers, executives, policemen, professional sales people, teachers, and even
dentists. Scheier and Carver (1985), argue that learning to control responses of stress and to get
out of one’s own way has saved companies money, increased production, encouraged creativity,
enabled teams to communicate more effectively, reduced the anxieties which surround the
 process of change, increased the pace of professional learning and development, and even
reduced accidents and harassment claims. Any organization needs to save money, reduce turn
over, increase sales and productivity, or improve the quality of work life. It should give
consideration to the return on investment of stress management coaching or training. Every
organization is different and requires a tailored approach when installing an effective program.
The process can work with individuals, teams, departments, or company wide. It is
recommended that you test the process by working with a sampling from the departments in
the company. The process may require time for assessments and benchmarking, and then
implementation. According to \TSC (2008), the significant challenge facing secondary education
today is not the shortfalls in the number of teachers in schools but teachers who have no ability
to 5 work with students to improve performance. Increased access to primary and secondary
schooling has placed great demand on teachers, especially since the free primary education was
introduced in 2003. Most teachers work under stress, in overcrowded classrooms and
dilapidated buildings without the necessary learning resources. This aspect has escaped many
stakeholders and more so the Kenya National Union of Teachers (KNUT), which has been
campaigning for teacher quantity across the board. Even without the burden of having to deal
with large classes and insufficient learning resources, there is need for improvements in teacher
recruitment and training. Statistics from the Kenya National Examinations Council (KNEC)
indicate performance in KCSE has been on a downward trend. For instance, in 2008, only 24 per
cent of candidates obtained mean grades of C+ and above compared to 30 per cent the previous
year and 26 per cent in 2006. The number of candidates who scored mean grade E rose to 7,067
in 2008 from 2,952 in 2007 and 3,711 in 2006. Similarly, the number of candidates who obtained
grade D- cascaded to 42,084 in 2008 from 24,467 in 2007 and 27,583 in 2006 while those who
scored mean grade of A went down to 817 in 2008 from 1,157 in 2007 and 1,165 in 2006. Unless
there are other unexplained factors behind the picture provided by those statistics, it seems
teachers’ effectiveness has been on a downward trend. According to United Nations
Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization UNESCO, while financial resources invested in
schools could influence learning they cannot replace the teachers. "Teacher effectiveness is a
strong determinant in student learning," says Prof Lorin Anderson of the University of Carolina
and a senior education consultant to United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural
Organization UNESCO

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot

49.Relationship between Financial Stress and Workplace Absenteeism of

Credit Counseling Clients Jinhee Kim Æ Benoit Sorhaindo Æ E. Thomas
Garman
Literature Review

This section presents the review of relevant research on financial stress, and the effects of financial
stress on individual well-being and work behaviors. The personal consequences of failing to effectively
meet one’s major life or family responsibilities include increased levels of stress and stress-related
illness, lower life satisfaction, higher rates of family strife, violence, and rising incidences of substance
abuse (Hobson, Delunas, & Kesic, 2001). These problems have societal consequences as well. Employees
who are not fully functioning might be suffering from health-related conditions such as depression, low
back pain, emotional and physical stress, and other circumstances that play a role in hindering their
work performance (Goetzel & Ozminkowski, 1999). The inability to meet family needs could develop as a
serious stress. Stress creates pressure on individuals and families (Boss, 1988). While stress is not
necessarily a negative thing, it can be problematic when there exists a number of uncontrollable
stressors such as having too many debts. Stressors also can be cumulative in nature. Continuing stressful
events could build up particularly when one event is being handled while another is already being
experienced (Boss, 1988). Financial stressors could be additive when one continues to experience
unpaid bills, late notices, and calls from creditors and collection agencies. Financial strain occurs when
one is unable to meet his/her financial responsibilities (Tacheuchi, Williams, & Adair, 1991). Financial
strain results in part from an evaluation of one’s current financial status, including perceived financial
adequacy, preponderance of financial concerns and worries, adjustments made to changes in one’s
financial situation, and one’s projected financial situation (Voydanoff, 1990). Financial strain such as
financial inadequacy often predicts psychological distress (Ferraro & Su, 1999; Whelan, 1993) and this
relationship could be mitigated by social relationships such as family and community supports (Ferraro
& Su, 1999), which tend to alleviate the negative impacts of financial strain on psychological wellbeing
(Ferraro & Su, 1999; Krause, 1997). Personal finance increasingly has become a major concern of
millions of Americans. Some people are not satisfied with their future financial security, while a
substantial minority report that their financial situation is poor, which causes them stress (Yin, 2002). A
recent national survey found that 60% of working Americans who are employed by a company that
offers a retirement plan indicated that they were experiencing moderate to high levels of financial stress
(American Express Retirement Services, 2004). Another national survey showed that 52% of employees
manage their finances by living paycheck-to-paycheck (MetLife, 2003). Financial stress has become an
issue for many Americans not just for low-income individuals. Researchers investigated the effects of
financial strain on individual’s well-being (Aldana & Liljenquist, 1998; Dennis, Parke, Coltrane, Blacher, &
Borthwick-Duffy, 2003; Drentea & Lavrakas, 2000; Moos, Fenn, Billings, & Moos, 1989; Peirce, Frone,
Russell, & Cooper, 1996). McGuigan (1999) suggests that as one repeatedly reacts to stressful events,
the disastrous effects on the body accumulate so that the individual becomes increasingly susceptible to
emotional problems, accidental injuries, physical illnesses, and behavioral disorders. Prolonged financial
stress, such as continuous credit problems and unmet financial needs, can have negative effects on
one’s health. Financial strain has been associated with individuals’ health (Drentea & Lavrakas, 2000),
drinking problems (Moos et al., 1989; Peirce et al., 1996), decreased selfesteem (Aldana & Liljenquist,
1998), marital stress (Lorenz, Conger, Simon, Whitbeck, & Elder, 1991), depression, and reduced
psychological well-being (Jackson, Iezzi, & Lafreniere, 1997; Mills, Grasmick, Morgan, & Wenk, 1992).
Prolonged financial stress could lead to detrimental impacts on an individual’s wellbeing. Financial stress
often spills over into workplaces. Brown (1993) estimated 10% and Garman et al. (1996) concluded 15%
of workers in the United States are experiencing reduced work productivity affected by their financial
stress. Research found a strong positive relationship between financial strain and depression in workers
(Ensminger & Celentano, 1988). Other studies found that employees who were financially distressed had
lower levels of pay satisfaction (Kim & Garman, 2003) and organizational commitment (Kim & Garman,
2004). Further, pay satisfaction and organizational commitment influence absenteeism (Brooke & Price,
1989; Hendrix et al., 1987). Stress is one of the most common reasons for unscheduled absences from
work (CCH Inc., 2002). Absenteeism is defined as missed work time by an employee (Bagwell, 2000).
Adams (1987) suggested that over 70% of all job absenteeism was tied to stress-related illnesses. More
recent research has focused on both occupational stress and life stress as being associated with
absenteeism (Tang & Hammontree, 1992). In addition to absences from work, workers often report to
their jobs but are unable to carry out their responsibilities (Forthofer, Markman, Cox, Stanley, & Kessler,
1996) or spend work time handling personal finances (Kim, 2000). Therefore, employees with financial
stress could experience increased absenteeism. A number of studies have linked financial stress to
absenteeism (Hendrix et al., 1987; Jacobson et al., 1996; Kim & Garman, 2003). In a study of
absenteeism, Jacobson et al. (1996) found that personal finance was one of the strongest stressrelated
predictors of absences. They also suggested that inability to meet financial obligations due to financial
constraints may lead to stress and perceptions of the stress can undermine a person’s sense of control.
In a recent study, Kim and Garman (2003) examined the relationship between financial stress and
absenteeism. They found that high financial stress was related to high absenteeism among white-collar
workers. Most of these studies found some relationship between financial stress and absenteeism with
white-collar employees. There has not been much published research about credit counseling clients.
Some studies found that credit counseling clients experience acute financial stress (Bagwell, 2000;
Garman et al., 1999; Garman, Sorhaindo, Bailey, Kim, & Xiao, 2004), which affects their financial well-
being and health (Kim et al., 2003), and productivity (Bagwell, 2000). Previous studies suggest that
financial stress might affect an individual’s well-being and work behaviors such as absenteeism.
However, little is known about credit counseling clients who often experience acute financial stress.

____ Blank spot

____ Blindspot
50. Stress Among Prospective Teachers: a Review of the Literature
Sallie Gardner Griffith University: Gold Coast

Email: s.gardner@griffith.edu.au

Much is known anecdotally about the stressors on teachers, especially following the ever-increasing
demands of change associated with developments in technology, and curriculum. There is a
considerable body of literature reviewing psychological distress in the general population (Australian
Bureau of Statistics. National Survey of Mental Health and Wellbeing: Summary of Results. ABS Cat No.
4326.0. Canberra: ABS, 2007), and among university students, but these are mostly in health-related
faculties (Dyrbye, Thomas, & Shanafelt, 2006; Humphris, Blinkhorn, Freeman, Gorter, Hoad-Reddick,
Murtomaa, O'Sullivan, & Splieth, 2002) rather than education. Similarly, strategies for stress
management have been focussed in health faculties (Pritchard, Wilson, & Yamnitz, 2007). Whereas well-
being studies identify teacher stresses (Montgomery & Rupp, 2005; Pillay, Goddard, & Wilss, 2005), less
attention has been paid to the demands of the practicum and the mental health and well-being of
student-teachers. This paper examines 21st century psychological distress, demands associated with the
student-teachers’ practicum, the impact of distress, and strategies presented for coping and well-being.
The review highlights the ramifications for student-teachers who may be distressed, and an overview of
stress management practices offers potential directions for teacher education. Psychological distress
research appears to occur primarily in health care. It is seldom defined as a distinct concept. Physician
Hans Selye articulated the term distress to explain the impact on the body of arousal through stress
(Selye, 1982). The term psychological distress has since been embedded within the context of strain,
stress, and distress (Ridner, 2004), and incorporates anxiety and depression, as these two disorders
commonly co-occur (Bultmann, Huibers, Van Amelsvoort, Kant, Kasl, & Swaen, 2005; Hirschfeld, 2001).
In Australia, the approved Medicare “Initial Formulation to GP by MBS Allied Health Practitioner” is
based on depression, anxiety and stress scores obtained using either the Depression, Anxiety and Stress
Score (DASS 21) (http://www.medicareaustralia.gov.au/public/forms.jsp), or the K10. Thus , in this
paper,

psychological distress refers to a mental state that incorporates depressed mood and anxiety
(Dammeyer & Nunez, 1999; Humphris et al., 2002; Sherina, Rampal, & Kaneson, 2004; Wong, Cheung,
Chan, Ma, & Tang, 2006), and may be experienced as anxiety (Dyrbye et al., 2006) and/or depression
(Jorm, Christensen, & Griffiths, 2006). In the Global Burden of Disease study (Murray & Lopez, 1997), it
was predicted that by the year 2020 depression would be second only to heart disease. That report also
indicated that mental disorders, and alcohol-use disorders, were linked to disability, and death by
suicide. The prevalence of psychological distress, as defined above, referring to a mental state
characterised by anxiety and mood states (including depression), and also alcohol use in tandem, was
also reported in the 2004-05 Australian National Health Survey, conducted by the Australian Bureau of
Statistics (ABS, 2006). In that survey, 13% of the Australian adult population had high or very high levels
of psychological distress. Of these, 45% included both anxiety and depressed mood. The findings
indicated that the greatest increases in the prevalence of psychological distress were among people
aged 18-24, and females aged 35 years and over, particularly women who were separated. This was
significant, as the primary teaching profession in Australia is predominantly female, (Source: ABS 1986
and 2001 Censuses of Population and Housing 4102.0 - Australian Social Trends, 2003). Levels of
psychological distress have been reported to be greater among the university students than among the
general population, and were reported in various university faculties world-wide (Wong et al., 2006). In
that study, the prevalence of psychological distress was of moderate severity (depression: 21%, anxiety:
41% and stress: 27%). It was expected to impact on the students’ educational attainment and quality of
life, and these students were likely to suffer impairment, and require attention from health-care
professionals. The high levels of psychological distress among students constitute a serious health
concern for those affected. At the Karolinska Institute of Medical University, Stockholm, Sweden, 12% of
students were anxious, or had depressed mood (Dahlin, Joneborg, & Runeson, 2005). Among those
students, there was an association between stress factors, including financial concerns, worry about the
future and workload, gender and depression. In a larger US study of approximately 2,500 undergraduate
students who were sent a web-based survey (Eisenberg, Gollust, Golberstein, & Hefner, 2007), the
estimated prevalence of depressive and/or anxiety disorders was 15.5%. Of these, 2% had suicidal
thoughts. Although the rate of responses was less than 50%, despite a non-response bias, 44.3%
reported that emotional or emotional difficulties had affected their performance in the previous 4-
weeks, and there were strong associations between anxiety disorder and major depression (13.8% had
major depression). There was less psychological distress in the group who were older than 25 years of
age, and among those who lived on campus (not with parents) or with a partner (were not single).
Academic pressures, social issues and financial problems may cause stress for university students
(Vitaliano, Maiuro, Russo, & Mitchell, 1989). An Australian survey of university students found high
levels of psychological distress among students attending a university health service (Stallman, 2008).
However, those students over the age of 24 had higher levels of psychological distress. In that study,
53% of students had significant (moderate, high and very high) levels of psychological distress. There
was a higher level of psychological distress in all age groups, when compared to the general population
results from the 2001 National Health Survey (Australian Bureau of Statistics), but there were no
significant gender differences. Stress levels among practising teachers are high. Kyriacou (2001)
reported that 37% of teachers were stressed. Teacher distress has been reportedly greater than for the
general population (Tuettemann & Punch, 1992). Their investigation, conducted with a large sampleof
teachers in Western Australia, revealed that 45% of Australian secondary-school teachers were
psychologically distressed. Distress was related to whether or not the teachers perceived themselves to
be effective, supported by their colleagues, and if they received recognition for their work. This
proportion of psychological distress was “twice that for the general population, and perhaps four times
as high as that for the professional population” (Tuettemann and Punch, 1992, p. 44). , Little literature
on the measurement of psychological distress among studentteachers has been found. The student-
teacher and/or teacher may not recognise the symptoms, therefore their distress, which includes
anxiety, may be untreated. This is significant as the presence of an anxiety disorder is described as the
single biggest clinical risk factor in the development of depression (Hirschfeld, 2001). Therefore, the
scope and impact of depression and anxiety among student-teachers and teachers is highly significant.
Of the few international and Australian studies specifically devoted to student-teachers (Chan, 2002;
Chaplain, 2008; Zimmermann, Wangler, Unterbrink, Pfeifer, Wirsching, & Bauer, 2008), what there is
tends to focus more on student-teachers' reflections about their experiences during their Teaching
Practice, usually called the Practicum (Sumsion & Thomas, 1995). Demands Associated with Practical
Experiences Well-being studies in the field of education have identified stress and job demands among
teachers (Griva & Joekes, 2003; Pillay et al., 2005; Tuettemann & Punch, 1992). These professional
demands impact on of teachers’ psychological distress (Guglielmi & Tatrow, 1998; Schonfeld, 1992). In
the US, female teachers’ work environment was highly correlated with depression, job satisfaction and
motivation (Schonfeld, 2000). In Finland, teaching was linked to burnout, and the ill health of teachers,
whereas motivation and teacher well-being was linked to feeling engaged, and supported by the
organisation (Hakanen, Bakker, & Schaufeldi, 2006). Student-teachers may also experience stress
associated with job demands when they attend schools for practice teaching., as found in a UK study
with secondary school studentteachers(Chaplain, 2008). In that study, 38% of student-teachers were
psychologically distressed following their practicum experience They identified behaviour management,
workload and lack of support as significant professional demands impacting on their stress levels.
Overall, they felt that their teaching experience had been extremely stressful. The practicum may not be
directly associated with distress. German student-teachers did not have a practicum, but 44% reported
mental health issues (Zimmermann, Wangler, Unterbrink, Pfeifer, Wirsching, & Bauer, 2008). They,
attributed their distress to role conflict, time commitments and a need for occupational mobility.
Australian student-teachers do engage in practice teaching in schools, and have reported stress
associated with the practicum (Murray-Harvey, Silins, & Saebel, 1999).. Professional demands including
time management, funding, technology, resources, student behaviour management, administrative and
collegiate support, managing a crowded curriculum, examinations, demands of the profession and
career development are understood (Facchinetti, 2010). Impact of Psychological Distress Psychological
distress may be experienced as physical symptoms (Donaghy, 2004), or manifest as symptoms
associated with anxiety, including impaired functioning, diminishedperformance and lowered
productivity (Chandavarkar, Azzam, & Mathews, 2007; Wong et al., 2006), suicidal ideation and
increased mortality (Cuijpers, Smit, & van Straten, 2007) and depression (Garlow, Rosenberg, Moore,
Haas, Koestner, Hendin, & Nemeroff, 2008). It is also a risk factor for absence and long-term illness
(Flynn, 2000; Hickie, 2004; Kumar & Basu, 2000; Newbury-Birch et al, 2002; Pickard et al, 2000; Prince,
2007). In 2004-2005, 45% of Australian 20-24 year-olds were also found to drink at risky levels once or
more a month (Wyn, 2009 p29). Thus, psychological distress, complicated by alcohol abuse in young
adults, may potentially affect some student-teachers. Even mild depression considerably impacts on
well-being, and major depression is serious (Cuijpers et al., 2007). Physical symptoms associated with
anxiety impact on the immune system (Prince, Patel, Saxena, Maj, Maselkp, & Phillips, 2007), and may
include heartburn, chest pain, rashes and cardiovascular disease (Norton, Norton, Asmundson,
Thompson, & Larsen, 1999). Depression symptoms may include excessive worry, loss of enjoyment,
sleeping poorly or waking early and feeling slowed down (Christensen, Jorm, Mackinnon, Korten,
Jacomb, Henderson, & Rodgers, 1999). Quality of life may be affected by feelings of hopelessness, and
worry about mastery (Warmerdam, van Straten, & Cuijpers, 2007). Student-teachers may be vulnerable
to negative emotional experiences triggered by perceptions of self-doubt, or bullying. Chaplain (2008)
reported that student-teachers optimism was dampened during their training, and they anticipated their
levels of psychological distress would further increase when they began teaching. In that study, many
student-teachers never commenced teaching. Others left very early in their careers, due to stress or
mental health issues. Maguire (2001) found that young female student-teachers had been bullied to the
extent that they had lost their confidence, and were considering leaving the profession. In this UK study,
the female student-teachers were younger than 28 years. The bullies were either teacher(s) in the
school where they were undertaking their practical experience, or their university tutor(s). An Australian
study across Primary Secondary schools in Queensland found an association between professional
burnout, the impact of mastery, teaching workload, the requirement to learn new information and skills,
technological innovations, and dealings with students, parents and the community (Pillay et al., 2005).
The psychologically distressed teachers in that study saw themselves as less competent and their role as
more demanding than other occupations. Among teachers, professional demands may contribute to
diminished performance (Maslach, Schaufeli, & Leiter, 2001), absence due to long-term sickness
(Bultmann et al., 2005) or attrition from the teaching profession (Pillay et al., 2005). Dyson (2005)
suggests that the purpose of teacher education is to prepare and develop teachers, and that this process
is continual throughout a teacher’s career. Physical complaints such as back pain, chest pain, shortness
of breath, heart palpitations, problems with sleep or appetite, and fatigue are commonly used by the
general population, rather than psychological complaints, when claiming inability to work (Donaghy,
2004). Alcohol abuse has also been linked to psychological distress, and may contribute to frequent
absence without explanation, lateness, interpersonal conflicts and decreased performance (Baldisseri,
2007). The impact of psychological distress has potentially serious implications (Jorm, Griffiths,
Christensen, & Medway, 2002) for the community, including teacher education.