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PARA SOCIAL INTERACTION - WHAT IS IT?  

 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
 
Para Social Interaction  –  What is it?

Kyla Buck

Muhlenberg College

Media Theory and Methods

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Abstract

The point of this research is to introduce what Horton and Wohl (1956) described as

Para-Social Interaction Theory and its effect on audiences’  relationships with certain persona.

Not much research has been done regarding Para-Social Interaction Theory, but with the

current and upcoming generations, the theory’s effects are being studied more in depth. The

Para-Social Interaction relationship has no distinct root, but many relationships are being

rooted from the theory itself, based on what seems to be identification and intimate attitudes.

Horton and Wohl (1956) mentioned that “authors call this a ‘para-social relationship’  because

it is based upon an implicit agreement between the performer and the viewer that they will

pretend the relationship is not mediated –  that it will be carried on as though it were face-to-face

encounter” (p. 215). Relationships are commonly two ways, but new means of communication;

radio, television, social media platforms –  are creating what Horton and Wohl (1956) call a

seeming face-to-face relationship where, the intimacy and feelings of attachment are present,

without the presence itself of one party. Para-sociability has become (1956) what is deemed as

complementary to normal social life, but shown in the following research, could slowly become

supplementary. The following research will examine what para-social interaction is –  and some

of the theory’s main affects on the human population.

Introduction

In today’s society, it is impossible to ignore the media. Being constantly surrounded by

social mediums, it is difficult to not succumb to the media itself, without subjecting oneself to a

life of isolation. With society changing, Ledbetter and Redd (2016) recognize that recent

decades have noticed the erasing of boundaries between interpersonal and mass communication
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contexts—which causes some to coin the term mass personal communication. This mass

communication ideal does not limit itself to Horton and Wohl’s (1956) original ideas of

communication contexts, being described as pseudo-interpersonal (ie: fake) connections that

stem from television characters, journalists, and video game avatars. These relationships have

grown and are no longer limited to these mediums, but have expanded to social media websites

and applications as well. Fraser and Brown (2002) mention that “one of the important

consequences of mass communication is the increased opportunity mass audiences have to

develop relationships with mythic characters” those relationships, as quoted by Kittelson, (1997)

are described as people who “express our deepest goals and values,” (as cited in Fraser and

Brown, 2002, p.184). Fraser and Brown (2002) mention the new ideal that instead of being

derived from heroic people, these new mediums, are being derived from celebrities in modern

day society. These para-social relationships are causing new perspectives on life; either by a

simple decision, such as what consumers are buying, or by shaping new existences.

Para-Social Interaction Theory and Identification

Para-social interaction is about the fictional taking precedence over the actual.

Mentioned by Horton and Wohl (1956), “This glamourous confusion of identities is temporary:

the worlds of fact and fiction meet only for the moment”  (p. 216). However, there is a difference

between para-social interaction theory and identification. Fraser and Brown (2002) define the

differences, as quoted by Burke (1969) and (Cheney, 1983)  “identification occurs when one

individual shares the interests of another individual or believes that he or she shares the interests

of another. Identification is also a way in which an audience member can perceive a

communicator as being similar or having the same interests”  (as cited in Fraser and Brown, 2002
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p.188). Identification and para-social are differentiated by what Tian and Yoo (2015) call

a “psychological social distance”  (p. 2). Meaning, that psychologically, para-sociability

and identification are two different groups based on what a society’s “norm” is. Tian and

Yoo also mention (2015) that para-social interaction theory recognizes the closeness that

a viewer feels with a media character, while identification refers to the “mechanism

through which audience members experience reception and interpretation of the text from

the inside, as if the events were happening to them”  (p.2). The distinction between para-

social interaction theory and identification is important in regards to this research based

off of this correlation mentioned by Fraser and Brown (2002); that media exposure leads

to para social interaction with celebrities, which in turn leads to celebrity identification;

and celebrity identification leads to changes in consciousness, morals, and actions of the

person who is affected. These differences give background to why the subjects studied

identify in certain ways and are receptive to para-social interaction theory, respectively.

Persona and Intimacy

In order to become involved with a theory such as para-social interaction, the subject

must be able to first identify and become intimate;  not necessarily in a sexual way, but with the

persona they are vexing to have a relationship with. According to Horton and Wohl (1956), the

persona is the typical and indigenous figure of the social scene presented by radio and television.

“These personae can claim and achieve an intimacy with what are literally crowds of strangers,

and this intimacy, even if it is an imitation and a shadow…  is extremely influential with, and

satisfying for, the great numbers who willingly receive and share in it” (p. 216). In these
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identifying situations, the feelings of intimacy with the said persona cause the subject to develop

“feelings”  or feel like they know the persona personally. This illusion of intimacy is because

para-social interaction theory is based on what audiences think is a face-to-face relationship. For

example, expressed by Lueck (2015), while studying audience–celebrity interaction, it has been

found that social attraction to a celebrity is a more important attribute within para-social

interaction than physical attraction (as quoted by Rubin and McHugh, 1987) and “that audiences

often seek a celebrity that resembles similar attitudes, appearances and backgrounds” (as quoted

by Turner, 1993); that intimate relationship (as cited in Lueck, 2015, p.94).

Celebrities and Endorsements

Celebrities are everywhere today. They have their own makeup products, clothing lines, even

expanding to creating their own kitchen appliance brands. If that is not enough celebrity

exposure, Ledbetter & Redd (2016) mention that social media presents opportunities where on

social media mediums, (e.g., Facebook, Twitter) posts from celebrities appear alongside posts

from friends. Seeing the celebrities everyone admires on television or Twitter along side

products that we may already have an affinity to by posts seen from friends, consumers are more

likely to respond. This is seen in Becker (2012) when mentioned that  “recent research on

advertising effectiveness, shows that the more credible the celebrity source, the more persuasive

the appeal and the more positive the related attitudes toward the product in question. Similarly,

the more attractive the celebrity source, the more they are ‘liked’  by members of the target

audience and the more positive the net impact of the endorsement or appeal on related attitudes

and evaluations”  (p. 8). Marketers and adverting strategists use this knowledge to their

advantage in order to sell a certain product, or skew the consumer’s thoughts in any given
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direction. In a statistic given by Fraser and Brown (2002), by 1948, a poll indicated 37% of

preteens and teens wanted to be like an athlete or other type of professional entertainer but in

1986, a similar survey found that 90% of the top 10 people teenagers wanted to be like were

entertainers.

Fowler and Thomas (2015) note that over 15% of commercials aired in the United States

contain celebrity endorsers, but this number could have been up to 25% in previous years. An

endorser is defined in the Fowler and Thomas (2015) journal by Friedmand and Friedmand

(1979) as “an individual who is known to the public for his or her achievements in areas other

than that of the product of class endorsed”  (as cited in Fowler and Thomas, 2015, p.63). Sun and

Woo explain (2012) “that sports marketers use this to their advantage by creating an emotional

tie (para-social relationship) with the celebrity and the audience in which they are targeting”  (p.

1). By creating this identification, which leads to para-sociability, thus creating an intimate

relationship with the persona, marketers are able to affectively sell their products, or in extreme

cases, can even reinforce statements; as suggested by Becker (2012) that “statements made by

popular celebrities can reinforce preexisting political opinions and also make controversial

statements seem more agreeable”  (p. 3).

Methodology

These studies used surveys, interviews/self reporting, and case studies as methods of

coding their data. The most popular correlation was the use of surveys, being used in 5/7

research articles used for this study. Using a Likert scale with these surveys was the most

common means of collecting information.

The first study was by Ledbetter and Redd (2016), which attempts to understand para-
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social interaction between being the mediator in posting frequency (via social media) and

celebrity’s credibility. Ledbetter and Redd (2016), recruited participants from a mid-sized

university in the United States, and required participants to use Facebook or Twitter in order to

follow a celebrity. Ledbetter and Redd’s (2016) sample contained 291 participants (63.9%)

female, with participant age ranging from 18-44 years. Most participants reported they were

either White/Caucasian. The participants were asked to complete a survey using an online

survey system. Participants had to report basic demographic information and information on the

participants own social media use. This study is reliable, because a survey can easily be

repeated, but has very little diversity, so further research should include other ethnicities as well

in order for research to be applicable to a wider population.

The second study conducted by Fraser and Brown (2002), was the one study out of the

seven used for this research that did not use survey methodology to collect their data. This is

because they were focusing on the identification and para-social interaction with a specific

celebrity. Three major means were used to gather data; participant observation (experiencing),

interviewing (inquiring), and studying materials prepared by others (examining). Out of Fraser

and Brown’s (2002) participants, there were 35 respondents, half of which were Elvis Presley

impersonators. Within this sample of 35 respondents, only two had personally met Elvis Presley,

and only a few had seen him before in person. The rest of the respondents only knew Elvis

through some type of social medium. Fraser and Brown (2002) conducted these interviews and

allowed respondents to give their own self reporting in order to collect data. Different

respondents gave different personal reflections on why Elvis is important to them, and why they

choose to have him so heavily involved in their personal lives. This study could be completed

again, finding a new set of Elvis Presley impersonators to interview, but future research would
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have to keep in mind that there is most likely not an abundance of people who specifically

identify with this celebrity. If research was opened up to more celebrities, the data would be

more relatable and ultimately more externally valid.

The next experiment was based on the reality television show, The Biggest Loser.

Researchers Tian and Yoo (2015) were studying audience members’  para-social interaction and

identification with cast members and wanted to focus on exploring the outcome of these para-

social interaction and identifications. Data was measured with different types of surveys asking

specific questions like “How many episodes of The Biggest Loser have you watched?”  and using

other surveys, measuring items with a Likert scale. Para-social interaction was also measured by

Rubin and Perse’s (1987) model (as cited in Tian and Yoo, 2015, pg. 4). The survey respondents

were 684 students (202 males and 482 females) who were enrolled in an undergraduate

communication course at Midwestern University. However, the final sample was cut down to

include 176 undergraduate students (40 men and 136 women) with a mean age of 25.84 years.

The sample included 110 Caucasians, 41 African Americans, 15 Asian Americans, 4 Hispanics,

and 5 others. Based on the demographics of this sample and the fact that this source was only

based on one reality television show, it may be hard to attribute it to audience members that do

not watch The Biggest Loser, are not female, and are not Caucasian. Although, in regard to the

validity of the study, a wider populace of demographics and the use of two different reality

television shows instead of one, would be very beneficial for future research.

Attempting to take a different view on things, Thomas and Fowler (2015) conduct their

study to not only connect celebrity endorsers with audiences by focusing on purchase intentions,

but how many celebrity endorsers creates the most efficiency when trying to sell a product. The

sample for this experiment was random, 301 participants were selected from a computer database
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containing a nationally representative consumer panel. Control procedures were put in place to

ensure that participants were watching the advertisements shown. Surveys included questions

that had particular answers, so the researchers would know whether or not the participants were

actually reading the questions. These control procedures caused the sample size to decrease to

275, with an average age of 51, and 32% male. The control procedures on this study make

Thomas and Fowler’s (2015) research reliable, but not validated. The population did not relate

to a younger generation, which would cause this information to not be relatable to a significant

amount of the actual population. The study was also predominantly female, so validity is lost

here as well.

Along with the accordance of the Ledbetter and Redd (2016) study and Tian and Yoo

(2015), research for the study done by Becker (2012), had a sample size of university students.

An online survey was given to these students and they were recruited from classes in the

communications department at the university. Becker’s (2012) study focused on how celebrities

affect young college student’s political views. This study, although not explicitly focusing on

para-social identity theory, gets into the topic of understanding that students’  responded

significantly more positively to celebrities with whom they which identify. Becker (2012)

conducted this survey to acquire her findings by splitting up 483 students into five stimulus

groups, and then asking them the same survey questions. This study would easily be able to be

repeated, since the methodology was not complicated and the sample size was so large. It is

valid because it relates to a university’s population, but the limitations start because it only

relates to this certain university’s population.

The next study, which was conducted by Sun and Wu (2012), a three level hierarchy of

personality traits was used to predict subject’s para-social relationship with sports celebrities.
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The three personality traits used were self-esteem, materialism, and interest in sports

spectatorship. Much like the study Thomas and Fowler (2015), this study focused on para-social

interaction and identification with celebrities who play professional sports and how they endorse

products. Sun and Wu (2012) created a survey of 381 college students from two public

universities, one in northern New England and the other in Southern California. The average age

of respondents was 22.6 years, ranging from 19-43 years. About 61% of the respondents were

women, and ethnicities had little variation; 55% Caucasian, 14.7% Hispanic Americans, and

11.8% Asian Americans, the rest were subjects who identified as other ethnicities. For this

study, a Likert scale was used in order to collect information. The Likert scale was a nine-point

scale that ranged from never to always, and there was a four item measure used regarding

interests in sports spectatorship, which was adapted from the 4-item sports interest scale

originally developed by Mowen (2000) (as cited in Sun and Woo, 2012, p.137). Two models

were used in order to measure data and how that data correlates to one another. The first model

included eight elemental traits (ex. agreeableness) and the second model took measurements on

para-social relationships, self-esteem, need for competition, ect. This study, like all of the other

studies, is reliable because it has easy means of collecting data from the experiment, so

repeatability is possible. However, the validity is like the other studies involving college

students. The information found relates to only one specific population, although the different

regions where the universities are located gives the study an advantage. In accordance with the

Ledbetter and Redd (2016) study, diversity in ethnicities is limited.

The last study was done by Lueck (2012). Lueck’s population of the study included all

fan pages of celebrity endorsers with a reality television background on Facebook. A case study

was used for means of collecting data based on the foundation that, “A case study can be
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descriptive in nature and also delivers an explanatory insight, which is intended in this context

(Babbie 2010) and will be most powerful if used in combination with a theory (Wimmer and

Dominick 2006), as provided by the Para-social Interaction Theory in this research paper.”  (as

cited in Lueck, 2012, pg. 95). Lueck (2012) chose Kim Kardashian specifically for the study

because of her recognition by Forbes.com, a respected business website and magazine, for being

a “Reality TV Star Turned Entrepreneur”  (p. 95). The unit of analysis used was Kim

Kardashian’s Facebook posts, either the post being made by her or including her name, as well as

the post’s comments. The sample included 175 posts with response rates ranging from 76 to

3,311 responses per post. Each post was mathematically partitioned to produce a product of 25

responses to become analyzed. A total of 4,375 responses were coded. The reliability of the

study was located within the journal, with a reliability variable never falling below 86.6%. The

validity on this study however had two major issues that should be noted. The study was done in

exploratory nature, and audience behavior could only be analyzed in a limited way. Both issues

of validity have to do with the fact that this methodology was a case study.

Findings

For the most part, the hypotheses each study made were proven, with the exception of the

number of celebrity endorsers, Thomas and Fowler (2015), proving to have a null hypothesis.

Ledbetter and Redd (2016) found that celebrity posting frequency positively predicts para-social

interaction with the celebrity, celebrity credibility could be predicted by para-social interaction

but only by the interest and problem solving dimensions of para-social interaction (part null

hypothesis), and finding that para-social interaction mediates the association between posting

frequency and celebrity credibility.

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The Fraser and Brown (2002) experiment showed that people choose what values and

behaviors to integrate into their lives that they see in celebrities they admire, and thus choosing

to adopt these new values and behaviors. Fans then develop self-defining relationships with

celebrities and with their new behaviors, which create powerful forms of personal and powerful

transformation for themselves. Fraser and Brown’s (2002) experiment was found to relate to

para-social interaction theory’s ideals, but not be able to relate entirely because it states that para-

social interaction does not include celebrities at all. Based on further research, makes the

original para-social interaction theory only including television characters, journalists, and video

game avatars claim by Horton and Wohl (1956), not false, but out dated.

When seeing how audiences interact with contestants on The Biggest Loser, the study

done by Tian and Yoo (2014) shows that exposure to reality television is positively related with

para-social interaction and identification, which concludes that the more frequent that an

audience member views a show, the more likely they are to para-socially interact and identify

with its cast members. Specifically, to The Biggest Loser, it was found that audience members

with a higher concern for their weight seemed to identify more with contestants on the television

show.

As hypothesized, Thomas and Fowler’s (2015) study found that when audience members

had familiarity with the first endorser there was a significant correlation with the audience

having familiarity with the second endorser, and vice versa. When the participants were

unfamiliar with the first endorser, they were unfamiliar with the second as well. The first

hypothesis in Thomas and Fowler’s (2015) study suggests that when the number of celebrities

endorsing a brand increases, purchase intentions and attitudes towards the brand will increase as

well. This was a null hypothesis because there was no change in purchase intentions or attitudes.
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The second hypothesis stated that the impact of the number of endorsers will be moderated by

consumers’  familiarity with the endorser. It was found that when familiarity is low, using more

celebrities to identify with and try to market a product makes no difference, because the audience

does not know the celebrity.

Similarly, in Becker (2012), it was found that when audiences receive information from a

well-known celebrity, information is taken into more account, regardless of when the second

source is an accredited individual on the subject. Celebrities are more relatable and well know,

so Becker’s (2012) study found that they are more likely to be attracted to information being

given by a celebrity rather than an expert on the issue. In this specific case, information given

dealt with an issue in politics, and the results showed that celebrity involvement in issue politics

can positively influence public opinion about political engagement at the issue level. Just like

Thomas and Fowler’s (2015), if you do not recognize the source, the information will not be

accepted by subjects.

Sun and Wu (2012) found that out of the three traits they were measuring para-social

interaction with, self-esteem, materialism, and interest in sports spectatorship, only materialism

directly affected para-social interaction. Self esteem as a positive predictor of a para-social

relationships, proved to be a negative predictor, causing the hypothesis to become null. Future

research would be needed to investigate the cause-and-effect relationships between the two.

Interest in sports spectatorship indirectly affects para-social interaction because consumers have

different motivations for watching sports, and based on these motivations, cannot directly relate

to para-social interaction. Materialism positively predicts para-social relationship with sports

celebrities because viewers may view the celebrity as an asset that is valuable, expensive, and

luxurious,  things materialistic people strive to acquire.

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Lastly, included in Lueck’s (2012) study, the research question regarding para-social

interaction and Kim Kardashian was supported. Kim does not interact or engage in any further

communication than her initial post, which shows that para-social interaction is taking place.

The illusion of para-social interaction occurs because Kim creates this intimate relationship, by

sharing personal things, but does not respond when people ask her further on the matter by

means of Facebook. Kim does not know any personal or intimate details of her audience,

although the audience knows a lot of information about her, which is another indicator that para-

social interaction is taking place.

Discussion

All of the research stems from Horton and Wohl’s (1956) introduction of the para-social

interaction theory. Subsequent research has broadened since then, with the latest study being

dated by Ledbetter and Redd (2016). With the insertion of new social mediums into everyday

society, para-social interaction theory will become more prevalent. It is no longer solely in

relation to television, the original research originally suggested, it has now opened up to

Facebook, Twitter, and other forms of social media.

Para-social interaction theory was mentioned in almost every article, with most of the

hypotheses having a positive relationship with the theory, despite the few that did not. Since

there is still research going on exactly 60 years later from Horton and Wohl’s original article, it

proves that further, more in-depth, research on the subject is still required. More research on the

subject would be beneficial to attribute it to both male, female, and other gender identities, as

well as the array of ethnicities. This way, the amount of validity issues in this study would no

longer be a problem, and everyone can find a way to relate, face-to-face disregarded.
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References

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Conditional Process Analysis of Online Self-Disclosure Attitude as a Moderator of Posting

Frequency and Parasocial Interaction, Western Journal of Communication, 80:5, 601-618, DOI:

10.1080/10570314.2016.1187286

Horton, D., & Wohl, R. R. (1956). Mass Communication and Para-Social

Interaction. Psychiatry,19(3), 215-229. doi:10.1080/00332747.1956.11023049

Fraser, B. P., & Brown, W. J. (2002). Media, Celebrities, and Social Influence: Identification
With Elvis Presley. Mass Communication and Society,5(2), 183-206.
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Tian, Y., & Yoo, J. H. (2014). Connecting WithThe Biggest Loser: An Extended Model of
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Thomas, V. L., & Fowler, K. (2015). More Isn't Always Better: Exploring the Influence of
Familiarity When Using Multiple Celebrity Endorsers. Journal of Promotion Management,21(2),
208-223. doi:10.1080/10496491.2014.996798

Becker, A. B. (2012). Engaging celebrity? Measuring the impact of issue-advocacy messages on

situational involvement, complacency and apathy. Celebrity Studies,3(2), 213-231.
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Sun, T., & Wu, G. (2012). Influence of personality traits on parasocial relationship with sports
celebrities: A hierarchical approach. Journal of Consumer Behaviour,11(2), 136-146.
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Lueck, J. A. (2012). Friend-zone with benefits: The parasocial advertising of Kim

Kardashian. Journal of Marketing Communications,21(2), 91-109.
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