Arithmetic series Infinite series

General (kth) term, uk = a + (k – 1)d x2 xr

f(x) = f(0) + xf'(0) + –– f"(0) + ... + –– f (r)(0) + ...

W
last (nth) term, l =
Sum to n terms,
un = a + (n – l)d
Sn = 1–2 n(a + l) = 1–2 n[2a + (n – 1)d]
2!
(x – a)2
r!
(x – a)rf(r)(a)

or
f(x) = f(a) + (x – a)f'(a) + –––––– f"(a) + ... + –––––––––– + ...
2! r!
Geometric series
x2 xr

ld
General (kth) term, uk = a r k–1 f(a + x) = f(a) + xf'(a) + –– f"(a) + ... + –– f(r)(a) + ...
2! r!
a(1 – r n) a(r n – 1)
Sum to n terms, Sn = –––––––– = –––––––– x2 xr

Of
1–r r–1 ex = exp(x) = 1 + x + –– + ... + –– + ... , all x
2! r!
Sum to infinity a ,–1<r<1
S∞ = ––––– x2 x3 xr
1–r ln(1 + x) = x – –– + –– – ... + (–1)r+1 –– + ... , – 1 < x < 1

M
2 3 r
Binomial expansions
x3 x5 x 2r+1
= x – –– + –– – ... + (–1)r –––––––– + ... , all x

at
When n is a positive integer sin x
3! 5! (2r + 1)!
n
() n
() n
()
(a + b)n = an + 1 an – 1 b + 2 an –2 b2 + ... + r an–r br + ... bn , n ∈ N x2 x4 x 2r
where
h) e cos x = 1 – –– + –– – ... + (–1)r –––– + ... , all x
2!
x3
4!
x5
(2r)!
x 2r+1

m
n
() n n! n
() ( ) (
n n+1 arctan x = x – –– + –– – ... + (–1)r –––––– + ... , – 1 < x < 1

ALGEBRA
r = Cr = ––––––––
r!(n – r)! r + r+1 = r+1 3 5 2r + 1

at x3 x5 x 2r+1
2

General case sinh x = x + –– + –– + ... + –––––––– + ... , all x

3! 5! (2r + 1)!

ics
n(n – 1) 2 n(n – 1) ... (n – r + 1)
(1 + x)n = 1 + nx + ––––––– x + ... + ––––––––––––––––– xr + ... , |x| < 1, x2 x4 x 2r
2! 1.2 ... r cosh x = 1 + –– + –– + ... + –––– + ... , all x
n∈R 2! 4! (2r)!

&
x3 x5 x 2r+1
Logarithms and exponentials artanh x = x + –– + –– + ... + –––––––– + ... , – 1 < x < 1
logbx 3 5 (2r + 1)
exln a = ax loga x = –––––

St
logba
Hyperbolic functions
Numerical solution of equations

at
f(xn) cosh2x – sinh2x = 1, sinh2x = 2sinhx coshx, cosh2x = cosh2x + sinh2x
Newton-Raphson iterative formula for solving f(x) = 0, xn+1 = xn – ––––
f'(xn)
x 2 + 1 ), x 2 – 1 ), x > 1

ist
arsinh x = ln(x + arcosh x = ln(x +
Complex Numbers
1 + x
{r(cos θ + j sin θ)}n = r n(cos nθ + j sin nθ) 1
(
artanh x = –2 ln ––––– )
1 – x , |x| < 1
ejθ = cos θ + j sin θ
The roots of zn = 1 are given by z = exp( ––––
Finite series
2πk j) for k = 0, 1, 2, ..., n – 1
n
Matrices
ics(
Anticlockwise rotation through angle θ, centre O:
cos θ
sin θ
2θ
–sin θ
cos θ
sin 2θ
)
n 1
∑ r2 = – n(n + 1)(2n + 1)
n 1
∑ r3 = – n2(n + 1)2
Reflection in the line y = x tan θ : ( cos
sin 2θ –cos 2θ )
r=1 6 r=1 4
 b2 + c2 – a2 (etc.) A Perpendicular distance of a point from a line and a plane
Cosine rule cos A = ––––––––––
2bc ax1 + by1 + c

W
c b
a2 = b2 + c2 –2bc cos A (etc.) Line: (x1,y1) from ax + by + c = 0 :
a2 + b2
B C
Trigonometry

or
sin (θ ± φ) = sin θ cos φ ± cos θ sin φ
a n1α + n2β + n3γ + d
Plane: (α,β,γ) from n1x + n2y + n3z + d = 0 : ––––––––––––––––––
√(n12 + n22 + n32)

ld
cos (θ ± φ) = cos θ cos φ 7 sin θ sin φ
tan θ ± tan φ
Vector product i a1 b1

| |(
a2b3 – a3b2
a × b = |a| |b| sinθ ^n = j a2 b2 = a3b1 – a1b3 )
1 7 tan θ tan φ

For t = tan 1–2 θ : sin θ = ––––––

Of
tan (θ ± φ) = –––––––––––– , [(θ ± φ) ≠ (k + W)π]

(1 – t2)
2t , cos θ = –––––– a1 b1 c1
k a3 b3 a1b2 – a2b1

TRIGONOMETRY, VECTORS AND GEOMETRY

2
(1 + t ) 2

M
(1 + t )
sin θ + sin φ = 2 sin 1–2 (θ + φ) cos 1–2 (θ – φ)
| |
a. (b × c) = a2 b2 c2 = b. (c × a) = c. (a × b)
a3 b3 c3

sin θ – sin φ = 2 cos 1–2 (θ + φ) sin 1–2 (θ – φ)

at a × (b × c) = (c . a) b – (a . b) c

he
Conics
cos θ + cos φ = 2 cos 1–2 (θ + φ) cos 1–
2 (θ – φ) Ellipse Parabola Hyperbola
Rectangular
hyperbola
cos θ – cos φ = –2 sin 1–2 (θ + φ) sin 1–
2 (θ – φ)
m Standard
form
––
a2
y2
x2 + ––
b2
=1 y2 = 4ax ––
a2
y2
x2 – ––
b2
=1 x y = c2

at
3

Vectors and 3-D coordinate geometry Parametric form (acosθ, bsinθ) (at2, 2at) (asecθ, btanθ) (ct, –c–)
t
(The position vectors of points A, B, C are a, b, c.)
The position vector of the point dividing AB in the ratio λ:µ
µa + λb Foci
ics
Eccentricity
e<1
b2 = a2 (1 – e2)
(± ae, 0)
e=1

(a, 0)
e>1
b2 = a2 (e2 – 1)
(± ae, 0)
e = √2

(±c√2, ±c√2)
is –––––––
(λ + µ)
Directrices
& x = ± –a
e
x = –a x = ± –ae x + y = ±c√2

St
Line: Cartesian equation of line through A in direction u is
x y
x – a1 y – a2 z – a3 Asymptotes none none a– = ± –b x = 0, y = 0
= –––––– = –––––– =t ( )
at
––––––
u1 u2 u3
Any of these conics can be expressed in polar l

ist
a.u coordinates (with the focus as the origin) as: – = 1 + e cos θ
The resolved part of a in the direction u is ––––– r
|u| where l is the length of the semi-latus rectum.

ics
Plane: Cartesian equation of plane through A with normal n is
n1 x + n2y + n3z + d = 0 where d = –a . n Mensuration

The plane through non-collinear points A, B and C has vector equation Sphere : Surface area = 4π r2
r = a + s(b – a) + t(c – a) = (1 – s – t) a + sb + tc Cone : Curved surface area = π r × slant height
The plane through A parallel to u and v has equation
r = a + su + tv
 Differentiation f(x) f'(x) Integration f(x) ∫f(x) dx (+ a constant)
ksec2 kx sec2 kx

W
tan kx (l/k) tan kx
sec x sec x tan x tan x ln |sec x|
cot x –cosec2 x cot x ln |sin x| x

or
cosec x –cosec x cot x cosec x –ln |cosec x + cot x| = ln |tan –
2|
1 x π
arcsin x –––––––
√(1 – x2)
sec x | (
ln |sec x + tan x| = ln tan – + – )|
ld
2 4
1 1 x–a
arccos x
–1
–––––––
––––––
x2 – a2
––
2a | |
ln –––
x +––
a
√(1 – x2)

Of
1 x
––––––– arcsin ( –
a ) , |x| < a
arctan x
1
––––– √(a2 – x2)
1 + x2 1 1 x
–––––– a arctan( –
– a)

M
sinh x cosh x a2 + x2
cosh x sinh x 1 1 a+x 1 x
2a | a – x | a
tanh x sech2 x –––––– –– ln ––––– = – artanh ( –
a ) , |x| < a
arsinh x
1
–––––––
at
√(1 + x2)
a2 – x2
sinh x cosh x

arcosh x
1
–––––––
√(x2 – 1) he cosh x
tanh x
1
–––––––
sinh x
ln cosh x
()
arsinh –x
a or ln (x + x + a ),
2 2

m √(a2 + x2)

CALCULUS
1
–––––––
artanh x 1 x
(1 – x2) arcosh ( –
a ) or ln (x + x
2
– a 2 ), x > a , a > 0

at
–––––––
√(x2 – a2)
4

S = 2π∫y ds = 2π∫y√(ẋ
du dv
v ––– – u –––

ics
Surface area of revolution 2 + ẏ 2) dt
u dy dx dx x

S = 2π∫x ds = 2π∫x√(ẋ
Quotient rule y = – , ––– = 2
v dx v 2 + ẏ 2) dt
y

∫a ydx ≈ 1–2 h{(y0 + yn) + 2(y1 + y2 + ... + yn –1)}, where h = –––

&
b b –––
a Curvature
Trapezium rule n d2y
dψ –––
ẋ ÿ – ẍ ẏ dx2
∫ u ––– dx = uv – ∫ v ––– dx κ = –––
St ( [ ] )
dv du = –––––––– 3/2 = –––––––––––––
Integration by parts ds 2 2
(ẋ + ẏ ) dy 2 3/2
dx dx 1 + ––

at
dx
Area of a sector A = 1–2 ∫ r dθ (polar coordinates)
2
1
Radius of curvature ρ = –– Centre of curvature c = r + ρ n^
κ,
A = 1–2 ∫ (xẏ – yẋ) dt (parametric form) L'Hôpital’s rule
ist
i
f(x) f'(a)
s = ∫ √ (ẋ + ẏ ) dt (parametric form)
If f(a) = g(a) = 0 and g'(a) ≠ 0 then Lim ––––

cs
2 2 = ––––
Arc length x ➝a g(x) g'(a)

s = ∫ √ (1 + [ –––] ) dx (cartesian coordinates)

2
dy Multi-variable calculus
dx ∂g/∂x
s = ∫ √ (r + [ –––] ) dθ (polar coordinates)
2
dr
dθ
2
( )
grad g = ∂g/∂y
∂g/∂z
∂w
∂x
∂w
∂y
∂w
For w = g(x, y, z), δw = ––– δx + ––– δy + ––– δz
∂z
 Centre of mass (uniform bodies) Moments of inertia (uniform bodies, mass M)
2 1

W
Triangular lamina: – along median from vertex Thin rod, length 2l, about perpendicular axis through centre: – Ml2
3 3

Solid hemisphere of radius r: 3

– r from centre 1
– Ml2
Rectangular lamina about axis in plane bisecting edges of length 2l:

or
8 3

Hemispherical shell of radius r: 1

– r from centre 4
– Ml2
2 Thin rod, length 2l, about perpendicular axis through end:

ld
3

Solid cone or pyramid of height h: 1

– h above the base on the 4
– Ml2
4 Rectangular lamina about edge perpendicular to edges of length 2l: 3
line from centre of

Of
Sector of circle, radius r, angle 2θ:
base to vertex
2r sin θ
–––––––
3θ
from centre
Rectangular lamina, sides 2a and 2b, about perpendicular
axis through centre:
1
– M(a2 + b2)
3

M
Hoop or cylindrical shell of radius r about perpendicular
r sin θ axis through centre: Mr2
Arc of circle, radius r, angle 2θ at centre: ––––––– from centre
θ

at
1
– Mr2
Hoop of radius r about a diameter: 2
Conical shell, height h: 1
– h above the base on the 1

he
3 line from the centre of Disc or solid cylinder of radius r about axis: – Mr2
2
base to the vertex
1
– Mr2
Disc of radius r about a diameter:

MECHANICS
4
2
– Mr2
Solid sphere of radius r about a diameter:

at
5
Motion in polar coordinates
5

2
– Mr2
Motion in a circle Spherical shell of radius r about a diameter:

ics
3

Transverse velocity: v = rθ̇ Parallel axes theorem: IA = IG + M(AG)2

v2
Radial acceleration: –rθ̇ 2 = – ––
r

&
Perpendicular axes theorem: Iz = Ix + Iy (for a lamina in the (x, y) plane)
Transverse acceleration: v̇ = rθ̈

St
General motion
Radial velocity: ṙ
Transverse velocity:
Radial acceleration:
rθ̇
r̈ – rθ̇ 2
at
ist
1 d
Transverse acceleration: rθ̈ + 2ṙ θ̇ = – –– (r2θ̇ )
r dt
Moments as vectors
The moment about O of F acting at r is r × F ics
 Probability P(A∪B) = P(A) + P(B) – P(A∩B) Product-moment correlation: Pearson’s coefficient
∑ xi yi

W
P(A∩B) = P(A) . P(B|A)
P(B|A)P(A)
Sxy Σ( xi – x )( yi – y ) n
–xy
r= = =
P(A|B) = –––––––––––––––––––––– Sxx Syy
[
Σ( xi – x ) Σ( yi – y )
2 2
] ∑ xi 2   ∑ yi 2 

or
P(B|A)P(A) + P(B|A')P(A')
 − x2 − y2
P(Aj)P(B|Aj)  n   n 

Populations ld
Bayes’ Theorem: P(A j |B) = ––––––––––––
∑P(Ai)P(B|Ai) Rank correlation: Spearman’s coefficient
6∑di2
Discrete distributions
Of
X is a random variable taking values xi in a discrete distribution with
rs = 1 – ––––––––
n(n2 – 1)
Regression
P(X = xi) = pi
Expectation: µ = E(X) = ∑xi pi M Least squares regression line of y on x: y – y = b(x – x )

Variance:
at
σ2 = Var(X) = ∑(xi – µ)2 pi = ∑xi2pi – µ2 Sxy
b = –––
∑(xi – x) (yi – y )
= ––––––––––––––– =
∑ xi yi
n
–xy
For a function g(X): E[g(X)] = ∑g(xi)pi

Continuous distributions he Estimates

Sxx ∑(xi – x )2 ∑ xi 2
n
– x2

STATISTICS
X is a continuous variable with probability density function (p.d.f.) f(x) Unbiased estimates from a single sample
σ2
Expectation: µ = E(X) = ∫ x f(x)dx

at X for population mean µ; Var X = ––

6

n
Variance: σ2 = Var (X)

For a function g(X):

= ∫(x – µ)2 f(x)dx = ∫x2 f(x)dx – µ2
E[g(X)] = ∫g(x)f(x)dx ics 1 ∑(x – x )2f
S2 for population variance σ 2 where S2 = ––––
n–1 i i

&
Cumulative Probability generating functions
x
distribution function F(x) = P(X < x) = ∫–∞f(t)dt
For a discrete distribution
Correlation and regression For a sample of n pairs of observations (xi, yi) G(t) = E(tX)
St
Sxx = ∑(xi – x )2 = ∑xi2 –
(∑xi)2
––––– , Syy = ∑(yi – y )2 = ∑yi2 –
(∑yi)2
––––– , at
E(X) = G'(1); Var(X) = G"(1) + µ – µ2

ist
n n GX + Y (t) = GX (t) GY (t) for independent X, Y
(∑xi)(∑yi)
Sxy = ∑(xi – x )(yi – y ) = ∑xi yi – ––––––––– Moment generating functions:

ics
n
MX(θ) = E(eθX)
Sxy
Covariance –––– = ∑( xi – x )( yi – y ) = ∑ xi yi – x y E(X) = M'(0) = µ; E(Xn) = M(n)(0)
n n n
Var(X) = M"(0) – {M'(0)}2
MX + Y (θ) = MX (θ) MY (θ) for independent X, Y
 Markov Chains Regression
pn + 1 = pnP

W
Long run proportion p = pP
Yi
α + βxi + εi
RSS
∑(yi – a – bxi)2
No. of parameters, p
2
Bivariate distributions
or
Cov(X, Y) = E[(X – µX)(Y – µY)] = E(XY) – µXµY
α + βf(xi) + εi
α + βxi + γzi + εi
∑(yi – a –
∑(yi – a – bxi –
bf(xi))2
czi)2
2

ld
Covariance 3
RSS
Cov(X, Y) εi ~ N(0, σ2) a, b, c are estimates for α, β, γ. σ^2 = n––––
ρ = ––––––––

Of
Product-moment correlation coefficient σX σY –p
Sum and difference For the model Yi = α + βxi + εi,
Var(aX ± bY) = a2Var(X) + b2Var(Y) ± 2ab Cov (X,Y)
Sxy σ2 b−β
b = ––– , b ~ N β, ––– ( , ) ~ tn – 2

M
If X, Y are independent: Var(aX ± bY) = a2Var(X) + b2Var(Y)
Sxx Sxx

σ 2∑xi2
σ̂ 2 / Sxx

at
E(XY) = E(X) E(Y)
Coding
a = y – b x , a ~ N α, –––––––
nS ( xx
)
X = aX' + b
Y = cY ' + d } ⇒ Cov(X, Y) = ac Cov(X', Y')
he a + bx0 ~ N(α + βx0, σ2 1–
n
(x0 – x )2
{
+ –––––––
Sxx }
m
2

STATISTICS
(Sxy)
RSS = Syy – ––––– = Syy (1 – r2)
Analysis of variance Sxx

at
7

One-factor model: xij = µ + αi + εij, where εij ~ N(0,σ2) Randomised response technique

Ti2 T 2
SSB = ∑ni ( x i – x )2 = ∑ –––
ics n –y – (1 – θ)
E(p^) = ––––––––––
(2θ – 1)
[(2θ – 1) p + (1 – θ)][θ – (2θ – 1)p]
Var(p^) = ––––––––––––––––––––––––––––––
2 n(2θ – 1)

i i
ni – ––
n
Factorial design
&
St
2
SST = ∑ ∑ (xij – x )2 = ∑ ∑ xij 2 – T
––
n Interaction between 1st and 2nd of 3 treatments
i j i j

{ at }
(Abc – abc) + (AbC – abC) (ABc – aBc) + (ABC – aBC)
(–) ––––––––––––––––––––– – ––––––––––––––––––––––
2 2

Exponential smoothing
ist
^y = y^ + α(y – y^ )
n+1 n n n
ics
y^n+1 = α yn + α(1 – α)yn–1 + α(1 – α)2 yn–2 + ... + α(1 – α)n–1 y1
+ (1 – α)ny0

y^n+1 = α yn + (1 – α) y^n
 W
Description

or Test statistic Distribution Description Test statistic Distribution

Pearson’s product
moment
correlation test
r= ld ∑ xi yi
n
–xy
t-test for the
( x – y ) – ( µ1 – µ2 )

s
1 1
+
tn
1 + n2 – 2

Of
 ∑ xi 2   ∑ yi 2  difference in the n1 n2
 – x2
 
– y2
 means of
 n n
2 samples (n1 – 1)s12 + (n2 – 1)s22

M
where s2 = –––––––––––––––––––––––
Spearman rank n1 + n2 – 2
6∑di2
correlation test rs = 1 – –––––––

at

STATISTICS: HYPOTHESIS TESTS

n(n2 – 1)
Wilcoxon single A statistic T is calculated

he
See tables
Normal test for x–µ sample test from the ranked data.
N(0, 1)
a mean σ/ n

x–µ m Samples size m, n: m < n

tn – 1

at Wilcoxon
8

t-test for a mean Wilcoxon Rank-sum

s/ n W = sum of ranks of See tables
(or Mann-Whitney)

χ2 test ∑
(f o
– fe )
2

χ 2v
ics
2-Sample test
sample size m
Mann-Whitney
T = W – 1–2 m(m + 1)

&
fe
p –θ
Normal test on
 θ (1 – θ )  N(0, 1)

t-test for ( x1 – x2 ) – µ t with (n – 1)

binomial proportion

St  n 

at
degrees of
paired sample s/ n freedom
χ2 test for variance (n – 1)s 2 χ2n – 1
Normal test for the
difference in the ( x – y ) – ( µ1 – µ2 ) ist
σ2

s12 /σ12

ics
N(0, 1)
means of 2 samples σ 12 σ 2 2 F-test on ratio of
Fn –1, n2 –1
with different + ––––––– , s12 > s22 1

n1 n2 two variances s22 /σ22

variances
 W p.g.f. G(t) (discrete)

or Name Function Mean Variance

m.g.f. M(θ) (continuous)

Discrete
ld
Binomial B(n, p) P(X = r) = nCr qn–rpr ,
for r = 0, 1, ... ,n , 0 < p < 1, q = 1 – p
np npq G(t) = (q + pt)n

Poisson (λ) Of P(X = r) = e–λ –––

λr
r! , λ λ G(t) = eλ(t – 1)

M
Discrete for r = 0, 1, ... , λ > 0

at ( ( ) )

STATISTICS: DISTRIBUTIONS
Normal N(µ, σ2) f(x) =
1
he x–µ
exp – W –––––
σ
2
,

m
σ 2π µ σ2 M(θ) = exp(µθ + Wσ 2θ 2)
Continuous
–∞ < x < ∞

at
9

Uniform (Rectangular) on
[a, b] Continuous
1
f(x) = –––––
b–a
, a<x<b ics
a+b
–––––
2
1
––
12
(b – a)2
ebθ – eaθ
M(θ) = –––––––––
(b – a)θ

Exponential
f(x) = λe–λx , x > 0, λ > 0
1
––
λ & 1
––
λ
M(θ) = –––––
λ–θ

St
Continuous λ2

Geometric
Discrete
P(X = r) = q r – 1p ,
0<p<1
r = 1, 2, ... ,
, q=1–p
1
––
p p
q
––2
at pt
G(t) = –––––
1 – qt

Negative binomial
P(X = r) = r – 1C
n–1 qr – n pn ,
n nq ist ( )
ics
r = n, n + 1, ... , –– ––2 pt n
Discrete p p G(t) = –––––
1 – qt
0<p<1 , q=1–p
 Numerical Solution of Equations Taylor polynomials
f(xn) h2
f(a + h) = f(a) + hf '(a) + ––– f"(a) + error

W
The Newton-Raphson iteration for solving f(x) = 0 : xn + 1 = xn – –––– 2!
f'(xn)
Numerical integration h2
f(a + h) = f(a) + hf '(a) + ––– f"(a + ξ), 0 < ξ < h
The trapezium rule

∫
b or 2!
(x – a)2

ld
1 b–a
ydx ≈ –2 h{(y0 + yn) + 2(y1 + y2 + ... + yn – 1)}, where h = –––––
n
f(x) = f(a) + (x – a)f '(a) + –––––– f"(a) + error
2!
a
(x – a)2
The mid-ordinate rule = f(a) + (x – a)f '(a) + –––––– f"(η) , a < η < x

Of
f(x)
2!
∫a ydx ≈ h(y
b b–a
1
– + y1 1– + ... + yn – 1 1– + yn – 1– ), where h = –––––
n
2 2 2 2

M
Numerical solution of differential equations
Simpson’s rule

DECISION & DISCRETE MATHEMATICS

dy
for n even For –– = f(x, y):

at
dx
∫a ydx ≈
b 1–
3 h{(y0 + yn) + 4(y1 + y3 + ... + yn – 1) + 2(y2 + y4 + ... + yn– 2)}, Euler’s method : yr + 1 = yr + hf(xr, yr); xr+1 = xr + h

he

NUMERICAL ANALYSIS
b–a Runge-Kutta method (order 2) (modified Euler method)
where h = –––––
n

m
The Gaussian 2-point integration rule yr + 1 = yr + 1–2 (k1 + k2)

  −h   h  

at
h where k1 = h f(xr, yr), k2 = h f(xr + h, yr + k1)
∫ f ( x )dx ≈ h f   + f   
10

–h
  3  3
Runge-Kutta method, order 4:
Interpolation/finite differences
n

i=0
x – xi
Lagrange’s polynomial : Pn(x) = ∑ Lr(x)f(x) where Lr(x) = ∏ ––––––
xr – xi
ics yr+1 = yr + 1–6 (k1 + 2k2 + 2k3 + k4),

&
i≠r
where k1 = hf(xr, yr) k2 = hf(xr + 1–2 h, yr + 1–2 k1)
Newton’s forward difference interpolation formula
(x – x0)
f(x) = f(x0) + ––––––
h ∆f(x0 ) +
(x – x0)(x – x1)
––––––––––––
2!h2 ∆2f(x0) + ...
St
k3 = hf(xr + 1–2 h, yr + 1–2 k2) k4 = hf(xr + h, yr + k3).

Newton’s divided difference interpolation formula Logic gates

at
f(x) = f[x0] + (x – x0]f[x0, x1] + (x – x0) (x – x1)f[x0, x1, x2] + ...
ist
ics
NOT AND
Numerical differentiation
f(x + h) – 2f(x) + f(x – h)
f"(x) ≈ –––––––––––––––––––––
h2
OR NAND