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Extract sucrose from sugar cane………………………..pg 3-8

Fractional distillation of crude oil……………………...pg 9-12

Thermal and Catalytic Cracking……………………….pg 13-16

Sources………………………………………………….pg 17

Conclusion………………………………………………pg 18

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The extraction of sucrose from sugar cane
Processing this crop is primarily a physical process, but there’s
quite a lot of chemistry behind the changes that sugar cane juice
undergoes before it makes it to our sugar bowl. After harvesting
the sugar cane is washed of impurities like dirt and small stones.
Then it goes on to the crushing process.

The cane is then crushed with the use of large rollers to extract
all the juice from it.

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The juice from the mills, a dark green color, is acid and turbid.
The clarification (or defecation) process is designed to remove
both soluble and insoluble impurities (such as sand, soil, and
ground rock) that have not been removed by preliminary
screening. The process employs lime and heat as the clarifying
agents. Milk of lime (about one pound per ton of cane)
neutralizes the natural acidity of the juice, forming insoluble lime
salts. Heating the lime juice to boiling coagulates the albumin
and some of the fats, waxes, and gums, and the precipitate
formed entraps suspended solids as well as the minute particles.

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The sugar beet solution, on the other hand, is purified by
precipitating calcium carbonate, calcium sulfite, or both in it
repeatedly. Impurities become entangled in the growing crystals
of precipitate and are removed by continuous filtration.

The mud or froth contains sugar, and in order to withdraw the


sugar, it is subject to vacuum filtering process. Initially, we add
bagasse, lime, and flocculate to the froth to increase filtration,
subsequently the froth is pumped to the vacuum rotating filters
where the solids are separated from the resulting juice. Hot water
is applied into the filters with spray nozzles in order to minimize
the quantity of residual sucrose in the froth. The solid matter is
transported by conveyor belts to the hoppers in order to load them
into wagons or dump trucks, to be weighted and distributed in the
field as a stabilizer for soils lacking organic matter. The resulting
turbid juice is clarified by flotation through the use of phosphoric
acid, lime, flocculant and air, in such a way that the clarified
filtered juice is mixed with the clear juice, to be sent to the
evaporators and the non-sugar solid mud is returned to the
filtering operation, where the mud and the froth are evacuated.

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To concentrate this clarified juice, about two-thirds of the water
is removed through vacuum evaporation. Generally, four vacuum-
boiling cells or bodies are arranged in series so that each
succeeding body has a higher vacuum (and therefore boils at a
lower temperature). The vapors from one body can thus boil the
juice in the next one—the steam introduced into the first cell does
what is called multiple-effect evaporation. The vapor from the
last cell goes to a condenser. The syrup leaves the last body
continuously with about 65 percent solids and 35 percent water.

The sugar beet sucrose solution, at this point, is also nearly


colorless, and it likewise undergoes multiple-effect vacuum
evaporation. The syrup is seeded, cooled, and put in a centrifuge
machine. The finished beet crystals are washed with water and
dried.

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Crystallization of the sugar starts in the vacuum pans, whose
function is to produce sugar crystals from the syrup. In the pan
boiling process, the syrup is evaporated until it reaches the
supersaturation stage. At this point, the crystallization process is
initiated by “seeding” or “shocking” the solution. When the
volume of the mixture of liquor and crystals, known as
massecuite, reaches the capacity of the pan, the evaporation is
allowed to proceed until the final massecuite is formed. At this
point, the contents of the vacuum pans (called “strike”) are
discharged to the crystallizer, whose function is to maximize the
sugar crystal removal from the massecuite. Some mills seed the
vacuum pans with isopropyl alcohol and ground sugar (or other
similar seeding agent) rather than with crystals from the process.
From the crystallizer, the massecuite (A massecuite) is transferred
to high-speed centrifugal machines (centrifugals), in which the
mother liquor (termed “molasses”) is centrifuged to the outer
shell and the crystals remain in the inner centrifugal basket. The
crystals are washed with water and the wash water centrifuged
from the crystals.

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he high-speed centrifugal action used to separate the massecuite
into raw sugar crystals and molasses is done in revolving machines
called centrifugals. A centrifugal machine has a cylindrical
basket suspended on a spindle, with perforated sides lined with
wire cloth, inside which are metal sheets containing 400 to 600
perforations per square inch. The basket revolves at speeds from
1,000 to 1,800 RPM. The raw sugar is retained in the centrifuge
basket because the perforated lining retains the sugar crystals.
The mother liquor, or molasses, passes through the lining (due to
the centrifugal force exerted). The final molasses (blackstrap
molasses) containing sucrose, reducing sugars, organic
nonsugars, ash, and water, is sent to large storage tanks.

Once the sugar is centrifuged, it is "cut down" and sent to a


granulator for drying. In some countries, sugarcane is processed
in small factories without the use of centrifuges, and a dark-
brown product (noncentrifugal sugar) is produced. Centrifugal
sugar is produced in more than 60 countries while noncentrifugal
sugar in about twenty countries.

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Fractional Distillation of Crude Oil

Crude oil or Unprocessed oil, when taken directly from its source
(on land or sea),is a mixture of hydrocarbons . These hydro
carbons vary in chain length. The longer the molecule gets, it will
have a stronger molecular force and will require a lot of energy to
break them apart. The smaller and shorter molecules will
therefore have a weaker molecular force and in turn will require
less energy to be boiled. This also affects the boiling point of the
fractions. The more less energy required to break these molecules
the lower the boiling point and the more energy required will
increase the boiling point.

In the fractionating colum the crude oil, being already heated is


pumped into the tank. The fractions with the lower boiling point
will quickly evaporate and rise to the top (25 degrees Celsius
where bottles gas is in a gas state). The fractionating column is a
heat gradient . At the very bottom the temperature is roughly 350
degrees Celsius and some fractions are still in liquid form where
they are then collected. As the rest of the molecules begin to rise
up they make their way through bubble caps in each tray which

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slow down the rate of the rising vapor. The molecules then
condense and are eventually collected in the trays.

Hydrocarbons with similar boiling points are collected in the


same tray and this is what is known as fractions. Here are some
fractions and their uses

 - Around the world, 'bottled gas' typically refers to liquefied


petroleum gas. 'Bottled gas' is sometimes used in medical
supply, especially for portable oxygen tanks. It can also be
used in cooking gas tanks.

 -This is used the internal combustion engine in cars and


vehicles

 -This can be cracked to form various chemicals in chemistry


some of which is used to make plastic.

 -Used as fuel for jet engines and also as lighting in paraffin


lamps

 -This is commonly used as fuel for cars

- Fuel Oil

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- Used in ships
- Lubricating Oil
- Used to lubricate bikes ect.
- Waxes
- Used to polish surfaces

 -Used to pave roads and cover roofs due to its waterproofing


properties

*PLEASE SEE NEXT PAGE FOR MORE DETAILS ABOUT THE FREATIONAL
DISTILATION PROCESS*

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Thermal and Catalytic Cracking

Cracking is the name given to breaking up large hydrocarbon


molecules into smaller and more useful bits. This is achieved by
using high pressures and temperatures without a catalyst, or
lower temperatures and pressures in the presence of a catalyst.

The source of the large hydrocarbon molecules is often the


naphtha fraction or the gas oil fraction from the fractional
distillation of crude oil (petroleum). These fractions are obtained
from the distillation process as liquids, but are re-vaporised before
cracking.

There isn't any single unique reaction happening in the cracker.


The hydrocarbon molecules are broken up in a fairly random way
to produce mixtures of smaller hydrocarbons, some of which have
carbon-carbon double bonds.

This is only one way in which this particular molecule might


break up. The ethene and propene are important materials for
making plastics or producing other organic chemicals. The
octane is one of the molecules found in petrol (gasoline).

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Modern cracking uses zeolites as the catalyst. These are complex
aluminosilicates, and are large lattices of aluminium, silicon and
oxygen atoms carrying a negative charge. They are, of course,
associated with positive ions such as sodium ions. You may have
come across a zeolite if you know about ion exchange resins used
in water softeners.

The alkane is brought into contact with the catalyst at a


temperature of about 500°C and moderately low pressures.

The zeolites used in catalytic cracking are chosen to give high


percentages of hydrocarbons with between 5 and 10 carbon
atoms - particularly useful for petrol (gasoline). It also produces
high proportions of branched alkanes and aromatic hydrocarbons
like benzene.

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The zeolite catalyst has sites which can remove a hydrogen from
an alkane together with the two electrons which bound it to the
carbon. That leaves the carbon atom with a positive charge. Ions
like this are called carbonium ions (or carbocations).
Reorganisation of these leads to the various products of the
reaction.

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In thermal cracking, high temperatures (typically in the range of
450°C to 750°C) and pressures (up to about 70 atmospheres) are
used to break the large hydrocarbons into smaller ones. Thermal
cracking gives mixtures of products containing high proportions
of hydrocarbons with double bonds - alkenes.

Thermal cracking doesn't go via ionic intermediates like catalytic


cracking. Instead, carbon-carbon bonds are broken so that each
carbon atom ends up with a single electron. In other words, free
radicals are formed.

Reactions of the free radicals lead to the various products.

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Sources

Read more: http://www.madehow.com/Volume-1/Sugar.html#ixzz4vdarYusF

https://www3.epa.gov/ttn/chief/ap42/ch09/final/c9s10-1a.pdf

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=JZdvsQzOKuk&t=171s

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=EP_fgp7zYKk

https://www.decodedscience.org/processing-chemistry-sugarcane/43324

https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s12649-010-9046-2

http://www.udop.com.br/index.php?item=noticias&cod=2641

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