UASB-Process Design For Various Types of Wastewaters

Waf. Sci. Tech. Vol. 24, No.8, pp. 87·107, 1991. 0273-1223/91 $().
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UASB-PROCESS DESIGN FOR VARIOUS

TYPES OF WASTEWATERS
O. Lettinga and L. W. Hulshoff Pol
Department of Environmental Technology, Agricultural University of Wageningen,

Bomenweg 2, 6703 HD Wageningen. The Netherlands
ABSTRACT
In this paper the design of UASB-reactors is discussed for different types

of wastewater, viz. industrial soluble non-complex wastewaters, SS-rich
complex wastewaters and domestic sewage. The paper not only deals with the
UASB-reactor design, but also with other treatment steps, pre- as well as
post-treatment, that are required for as complete as possible overall
wastewater purification.
KEYWORDS
UASB-reactor; design; granular sludge; flocculent sludge; soluble

wastewater; complex wastewater.
I NTRODUCTI ON
Anaerobic digestion processes offer big potentials for the treatment of

mainly soluble non-complex wastewaters. Several high - rate treatment
systems are presently available. Of these systems. the potential user
obviously will prefer the most economical system, both in terms of
investment but particularly also in operation. Considering the present
situation concerning the application of anaerobic treatment, apparently
reactors based on the UASB-principle are popular. I n the meantime, the
feasibility of the UASB-concept for treating mainly soluble wastewaters
has been sufficiently demonstrated, both at full scale and at pilot-plant
scale (Lettinga e t al. , 1979 , 1980 , 1983 , 1984 , 1986). The total number of
full-scale UASB reactors was, by September 1990, estimated to be at least
205, as shown in Table 1.
This paper provides information about the anaerobic process and UASB
reactor design for treating soluble non-complex wastewaters and complex
partially soluble wastewater. Both low - strength and high - strength
wastewaters will be considered, as well as treatment at optimal and sub
optimal temperature conditions. Thermophilic applications will not be
dis cu s sed in thi s pre sentation.
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88 G. LETTINGA and L. W. HULSHOFF POL
TABLE 1 Full scale UASB-plants constructed before September 1 9 90
wastewater Number of UASBs UASB-volume (m3)
Alcohol 20 52, 000

Bakers' yeast 5 9, 900
Bakery 2 347
Brewery 30 60, 600
Candy 2 350
Canneries 3 2, 800
Chemical 2 2, 600
Chocolate 1 285
Citric acid 2 6, 7 00
Coffee 2 1, 300
Dairy and cheese 6 2, 300
Distillery 8 24, 000
Domestic sewage 3 3, 200
Fermentation 1 7 50
Fruit juice 3 4, 600
Fructose production 1 240
Landfill leachate 6 2, 495
Paper and pulp 28 67 , 1 97
Pharmaceutical 2 400
Potato processing 27 25, 610
Rubber 1 650
Sewage sludge liquor 1 1, 000
Slaughterhouse 3 950
Soft drinks 4 1, 385
Starch (barley, corn,
potato, wheat) 16 33, 500
Sugar processing 19 23, 100
Vegetable and fruit 3 2, 800
Yeast 4 8, 550
Total 205 33 9, 609
Source: Biogas technology in the Netherlands, publication by the

Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Environment (Anonymous, 1 988)
and information from Biotim, Gb Biothane I nternational, Paques BV and
ATO.
NON-COMPLEX SOLUBLE WASTEWATERS
I n speaking about non-complex soluble wastewaters, we mean wastewaters

which don't contain compounds at seriously inhibitory concentrations, nor
compounds that will give rise to any other serious problems, such as
severe foaming or scum layer formation. Regarding this classification of
wastewaters, one should take into account that there exists a grey area
between the two distinguished categories. It is well known that
proteins cause foaming, but the gravity of the problem depends on a number
of factors, e.g. the presence of other compounds, the temperature, the
loading rate, the extent to which the sludge is/was adapted, the
concentration of various pollutants, and fluctuations in temperature, in
concentration, in the flow rate, e t c. This paper deals with situations
where foaming problems will not occur, consequently with
- well adapted systems, and
systems where the maximum sludge loading rate never exceeds
approximately half of the maximum specific methanogenic activity of
the sludge whatever temperature occurs.

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VASB-process design 89
Taking this into account, the discussion on these types of wastewaters

will focus on soluble wastewaters containing all types of compounds
including toxic ones (but not at seriously inhibitory concentrations), and
proteins (but not at levels that will lead to serious foaming problems),
etc.
COMPLEX WASTEWATERS
Industrial wastewaters containing insoluble or potentially insoluble

pollutants, and compounds which give rise to inhibition or toxicity, to
foaming, scaling and/or sludge flotation can be designated as belonging to
the ciitegory "complex" wastewaters.
Due to the presence of these compounds, a variety of problems may manifest

in the anaerobic treatment, depending on the type and concentration of the
'complex' compounds present. In many cases these problems can be solved,
but it requires a good understanding of the fundamentals of the anaerobic
digestion process and of the anaerobic reactor system as well, and
particularly also in the real cause (s) of the problems.
Although in terms of reactor concept (s) anaerobic treatment is a fairly

simple (and low-cost) technology, the microbiology and mechanism of the
process are very complex. Despite the considerable research conducted
during recent years, still more research is needed, particularly for the
treatment of more complex wastewaters. Regarding the large variety of very
different problems that may cause problems, and considering the fact that
the present insight certainly is not complete, it obviously is impossible
to present definite guidelines within the scope of this paper. It should
be understood that generally there exist several solutions for the same
problem, consequently that in many cases anaerobic treatment can be
profitably applied.
However, in all cases the satisfactory application of the process to

complex industrial wastewaters requires:
a proper operation, which implies a sufficient understanding of
the problems that may develop, and consequently a proper control
of the process, and
a proper lay-out of the process and design of the reactor
system, once again on the basis of a good understanding of the
problems that may occur, and obviously of a good insight in the
reactor system itself.
This paper deals with the process lay-out and UASB-reactor design and the
treatment of wastewaters containing :
insoluble organic and inorganic compounds,
substrates which tend to precipitate, and
compounds which promote foaming and/or scumming occur under
specific conditions.
As the lay-out and reactor design are closely related to the way the
process is operated, attention has also been paid to operational aspects
in relation to the specific problems that can manifest.
Problems in Treating Partially Soluble Industrial wastewaters
A number of important characteristics with respect to the possible

effect (s) of the insoluble matter (or various fractions of SS) should be
taken into account, viz.:

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biodegradability, and/or the rate of degradation under the

prevailing operational conditions,
size and surface area of the SS,
affinity of bacterial matter to attach to the material,
density of the SS, i. e. its settleability or floatability,
tendency of the SS-matter to coalesce,
tendency of SS-matter to be adsorbed to the sludge.
Depending on the above characteristics, suspended matter (or potentially

precipitating matter) present in the wastewater can affect the anaerobic
treatment system quite adversely in the following ways:
It reduces the specific methanogenic activity of the sludge

(when expressed on the basis of organic sludge present) in the
case the SS is poorly or non-biodegradable and when it
accumulates in the sludge bed, i.e. either by a mechanism of
mechanical entrapment or of physical (ad) sorption. Unless the
sludge concentration in the sludge bed would increase in inverse
proportion to the specific sludge activity, which generally will
not be the case, the volumetric specific methanogenic activity
will also drop down relative to the situation where any
accumulation of SS will not occur.
Such a deterioration of the specific activity of the sludge

present in the reactor can largely be avoided by using granular
sludge UASB-reactors (unless heavy adsorption does not occur
and/or the settleability of the SS (or part of the SS) is
different from that of the granular sludge). In that case the
poorly biodegradable excess sludge formed from the SS, which
generally is flocculent in character, will accumulate above the
granular sludge bed. This will enable the separate discharge of
the poorly active excess sludge, and consequen�ly.�he granular
sludge will not seriously be diluted with the flocculent excess
sludge, and the volumetric specific activity will remain almost
unchanged.
It may lead to the formation of scum layers consisting of

floating substrate ingredients together with entrapped or
attached active sludge. Particularly the presence of suspended
fats and lipids will heavily promote the tendency for sludge
flotation, both flocculent and granular. This scum layer
formation may result in a more significant washout of active
matter, as well as in the production of considerable quantities
of poorly stabilized excess scum layer sludge; in the case of
heavy scum layer formation the reactor should be equipped with
a skimmer.
Attachment of newly generated bacterial matter to the surface of

suspended particles will, in the case when flocculent seed
sludge is used, slow down or even may completely counteract the
formation of granular sludge. When the suspended matter consists
of colloidal or of poorly settleable matter, a considerable part
of newly formed bacterial matter will leave the reactor together
with this SS-fraction. This particularly will occur when the
suspended solids consist of fibrous matter.
When granular seed sludge is used, the presence of SS in the

influent may slow down the growth in the amount of granular
sludge, and perhaps in specific cases also negatively affect the
stability (e. g. strength) of the granular seed sludge. So far
very little reliable quantitative information is available
concerning this matter. From experiments conducted at our

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UASB-proccss design 91
department with raw domestic sewage, with diluted primary +

secondary sludge (up to approximately 6 - 8 g TSS/l) and with
slaughterhouse wastewater (up to approximately 1 g TSS/l) we
know that the coarser suspended particles do not exert a serious
detrimental effect on the strength of granular seed sludge.
However, on the other hand, the experiments with slaughterhouse
wastewater also revealed that the presence of colloidal matter
may lead to a serious drop in the specific activity of the
granular sludge when prolonged higher sludge loading rates are
being imposed (Sayed, 1987).
A prolonged continuous entrapment of voluminous suspended solids

(SS) in a granular sludge bed may lead to a spontaneous and
sudden washout of almost the complete sludge bed, e. g. initiated
by an imposed organic shock load. We observed this phenomenon
both in full- scale reactors and in laboratory- (bench) scale
experiments. I n order to prevent such problems it is necessary
to clean the sludge from time to time from the entrapped (but
sometimes it may also be attached) flocculent sludge.
Apart from the characteristics of the S5, also the concentration of the
dispersed matter is of big importance. It will be evident that beyond a
certain 55-concentration, depending on the characteristics of the 5S, an
anaerobic treatment system like the UA5B-reactor will become less
feasible. The same applies for other high-rate reactor systems, although
the concentration at which these systems start to suffer, as well as the
reasons why, may differ significantly from those in UASB-reactors.
Wastewaters Containing Compounds Leading to Foaming and/or Scum Layer

Formation.
When higher concentrations of proteins and lipids/fats are present in the

wastewater, heavy foaming in the reactor can only be avoided by
a. operating the system under moderate loading rates, viz. at
sludge loading rates well below half of the maximum substrate
utilization rate at the prevailing operational temperature
conditions, and
b. maintaining good contact between sludge and wastewater.
In all cases it is recommended to install spray-nozzles in the gas bowl

for combatting foaming. Generally it is also advisable to install a
skimmer at the liquid interface of the settler, to place a baffle (e.g.
made of stainless steel screen, so that liquid can pa s s through the baffle
but not coarser sludge particles) in front of the effluent weir, while it
sometimes also will be beneficial to install spray nozzles above the
settler surface for raining effluent up the interface in order to combat
the scum layer formation.
In the treatment of wastewaters containing higher concentrations of

lipids/fats it is of great importance to maintain an excellent contact
between sludge and wastewater. I n this respect an EGSB-reactor system is
in favour of a conventional UA5B-reactor, particularly when (for some
reason) the loading rates that can be applied are moderate.
Presence of Compounds Leading to I norganic Precipitates.
When a higher concentration of Ca2+ is present in the wastewater, heavy

precipitation of CaC03 (and also of CaHP04) will occur, viz. in and on the
sludge, in effluent launders, on weir plates and in pipes. I n order to
avoid these problems the Ca2+-concentration in the wastewater has to be

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lowered prior to entering the reactor. This can be accomplished by

applying conventional softening, viz. precipitating the calcium as CaC03
by adding lime and - depending on the amount of bicarbonate present -
soda. I n order to limit the use of soda, effluent - which contains a
relatively high concentration of bicarbonate - could be mixed with the
influent. Furthermore the reactor pH could be maintained in the range 6.0
- 6.2, because the solubility of CaHC03 is relatively high.
other precipitates that frequently occur in anaerobic treatment systems

are certain metal sulphides and - at higher Mg2+ and NH/ concentrations -
magnesiumammoniumphosphate (MgNH4P04). Sulphides generally do not present
any problem, but MgNH4PO. can lead to clogging of pipes.
Presence of Formation of I nhibitory or Toxic Natural Compounds
It is well known that many compounds are inhibitory and/or severely toxic
for methanogenic organisms. In those cases where toxic concentrations of
one or more of these compounds occur, specific measures have to be taken,
and - fortunately - frequently can be taken. These measures consist of:
investing sufficient time to allow the sludge to adapt to the
toxic compounds,
applying dilution of the influent solution to such an extent
that the extent of toxicity is acceptable, and/or that
biodegradation of the toxic compound will proceed well,
applying some kind of pre-treatment by which the toxic compound
is eliminated, e.g. a chemical or biological treatment step, and
avoiding that air (oxygen) is entering the water phase, because
for specific wastewaters (e.g. potato starch industry, forestry
industry) it may lead to the formation of severely toxic
compounds.
Depending on the compounds present in the wastewater and the local

situation, very different actions can be taken. It falls beyond the scope
of this presentation to go into detail on this topic.
SYSTEM CHO I CE AND PROCESS LAY-OUT FOR THE TREATMENT OF NON

COMPLEX WASTEWATERS
The Need of Phase Separation
The category of non-complex soluble wastewaters can be split up into

acidified and non-acidified, and all intermediate forms between.
Considering the group of non-acidified soluble wastewaters, some
researchers or engineers have the opinion that the installation of a
separate acidogenic reactor would be profitable, because of the presumed
higher overall process stability and the much higher space (sludge)
loading rates that can be accommodated in the second -methanogenic
reactor. Although a certain pre-acidification of the wastewater certainly
is beneficial, we do not support the idea to pursue a complete pre
acidification and consequently the installation of a separate acidogenic
reactor for that purpose. Apart from the higher investment and operational
costs (e. g. because of the need to supply chemicals), we have clear
evidence that a complete acidification is detrimental in the following
aspects:
growth of excess granular sludge proceeds slowly, and
dispersed acidogenic sludge present in the effluent of the
acidogenic reactor can affect quite negatively the retention of
viable granular or non-granular methanogenic sludge in the
methanogenic reactor and consequently the operation of this
reactor.

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VASB-process design 93
We therefore recommend:
to apply only a slight pre-acidification, i.e. tentatively up to
20-40 %. (Hard figures cannot be provided because too many
factors are involved). Such an extent of pre-acidification
generally proceeds sufficiently in the wastewater sewer system
and/or in a holding or equalization tank,
to operate the system under conditions of a 'complete as
possible' adaptation, and
to maintain sludge loading rates always well below the maximum
methanogenic activity « approximately 75%). This is the best
guarantee for process stability.
Apart from the need to equalize big variations in the flow and/or in the
pollution strength of the wastewater, an additional reason for installing
an egualization tank in an anaerobic wastewater treatment scheme is to
achieve the desirable extent (i.e. 10 - 20%) of pre-acidification. In
those c�ses where the buffer capacity of the wastewater is insufficient
for achieving this goal, the system also should be equipped with supply
facilities for alkalinity in order to neutralize part of VFA formed. In
this connection it has to be understood that although acidogenic
bacteria are much less pH-sensitive than methanogens the rate of
acidogenesis also slows down rapidly at pH-values below 5.
Depending on the strength of the wastewater, this equalization pond also
has to be equipped with a settler or some other (acidogenic!) sludge
separation device. The installation of such a device may become
particularly beneficial for higher - strength wastewaters, viz. at COD
values exceeding approximately 10 gil.
The application of a separate acidogenic reactor may be beneficial in

those cases, when specific toxic or (potentially) obnoxious compounds can
be eliminated in this way from the wastewater. For eXCi\mple. in the
anaerobic treatment facilities of a potato starch factory in the
Netherlands, two reasons are advanced for installing a pre-acidification
reactor, viz. 1) for removing sulfite and 2) for removing the proteins and
amino-acids present in the wastewater, because these compounds would
promote sludge flotation and foaming.
With respect to the potential of an acidogenic reactor to remove toxic
compounds, so far very little relevant information is available.
SYSTEM CHOICE AND PROCESS LAY-OUT FOR THE TREATMENT OF PARTIALLY

SOLUBLE COMPLEX WASTEWATERS
Regarding the reactor system to be chosen for treating a partially soluble

complex wastewater - obviously the required removal efficiency for the 55
is of importance. In this connection it will be clear that processes which
apply a high superficial velocity, such as Fluidized Bed (FB) and Expanded
Granular Sludge Bed (EGSB) reactors are unsuitable, unless they are
combined with an adequate pre- or post-clarifier.
When applying pre-settling, the same design criteria for the anaerobic
reactor can be applied as for the treatment of mainly soluble wastewaters,
provided the settled wastewater doesn't contain a substantial
concentration of colloidal matter, because in that case the application of
high sludge loading rates may lead to a serious drop in the specific
methanogenic activity of the sludge, perhaps even to a complete loss of
activity after a prolonged period of time.
Table 2 summarizes our present tentative insights in the applicability of

granular and flocculent sludge bed UASB-reactors. Regarding the many
factors affecting the effect of SS - as mentioned above - and considering
the fact that very limited full-scale and/or relevant pilot-plant-scale

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94 G. LETIINGA and L. W. HULSHOFF POL
information is available, the criteria provided in Table 2 should be used

with caution.
TABLE 2 Applicable space loads in granular sludae and flocculent

sludge crASB-reactors in relation to the strength of the
wastewater and the height of the insoluble COD-fraction in the
wastewater.
Strength of fraction applicable loading rates at 30 °C

waste insoluble COD (kg COD/m3 • d)
(mg COD /I) (%)
flocculent granular sludge crASB
sludge
crASB little significant
TSS-removal TSS-removal
up to 2000 10 to 30% 2 - 4 8 - 12 2 - 4
30 to 60% 2 - 4 8 - 14 2 - 4
60 to 100% * * *
2000 - 6000 10 to 30% 3 - 5 12 - 18 3 - 5

30 to 60% 4 - 6 12 - 24 2 - 6
60 to 100% 4 - 8 * 2 - 6
6000 - 9000 10 to 30% 4 - 6 15 - 20 4 - 6

30 to 60% 5 - 7 15 - 24 3 - 7
60 to 100% 6 - 8 * 3 8
9000 - 18000 10 to 30% 5 - 8 15 - 24 4 - 6

30 to 60% doubtful at doubtful at 3 7
TSS>6-B gil TSS>6-B gil
60 to 100% * * 3 7
* application of the crASB-process makes no sense under these conditions
There exist little, if any, differences between flocculent and granular

sludge bed crASB-reactors with respect to the applicable space loading
rates, when a high TSS-removal efficiency should be accomplished. The use
of granular sludge bed reactors in that case looks not meaningful. As
there exists a good chance for flocculent excess sludge accumulation
between the granular sludge particles under these low space loading
conditions, it is necessary to apply occasionally, for a period of 0. 5 -
1 hour, a high superficial velocity in the anaerobic reactor in order to
segregate the two types of sludge.
Another important reason for applying relatively low space loads when a
high TSS-removal efficiency is pursued, is to achieve a satisfactory
stabilization of the accumulated solid substrate ingredients. Particularly
when operated under lower ambient temperature conditions, it �s necessary
to maintain a sufficiently long sludge detention time for that purpose.
For those cases where this condition cannot be met, some other adequate
measures have to betaken,e.g.:
combining the anaerobic reactor with a sludge digester. This
digester can be operated at an elevated temperature. After
stabilization, the sludge can be partially returned to the
anaerobic reactor. This measure can be applied relatively easily
for crASB-reactors and processes using a mixed tank reactor
combined with a sludge separation and return system ("Contact
process"), and
interrupting the feeding and elevating the reactor temperature
during short periods, e. g. during night time or during the
weekend, in the case wastewater is not available. This measure

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VASB·process design 95
can be applied for all reactor systems, and does not require a
lot of energy because only the reactor contents have to be
heated.
Both the above measures look quite appropriate for treating slaughterhouse
wastewater (Sayed, 1987) , because generally slaughtering is carried out
during day-time, and during the five or six working days (not at the
weekend) . But there are a lot more situations where no wastewater is being
produced during the weekend or during night time. In case of continuous
operation, consequently continuous production of wastewater, sometimes the
installation of a holding tank could be considered. Another possibility is
to install two anaerobic reactors which are operated in parallel;
alternately the feeding of the reactors can be interrupted for enabling
the sludge to stabilize.
The same solutions can be chosen for treating wastewaters where a heavy
substrate precipitation can occur under specific conditions. A typical
example is dairy wastewater. Under conditions of lower pH (i.e. below pH
approximately 6.2) and overloading, proteins tend to precipitate from milk
(curdling) as large agglomerates. These agglomerates accumulate between
the anaerobic sludge. Relatively much time is required for liquefying
these agglomerates, because its accessibility for enzymes and/or bacteria
is significantly worse compared to the finely dispersed (or colloidal)
proteins present in fresh milk.
In the case where little if any TSS-removal is pursued in the anaerobic

treatment step, i e. when this is delegated to a clarifier placed in
.
series with the anaerobic reactor, the applicable space loading rates for
the granular sludge bed reactor are significantly higher as compared to
flocculent sludge bed UASB's.
According to our present experience, application of granular sludge UASB

(or EGSB-) reactors becomes doubtful at TSS-concentrations in the influent
exceeding 6-8 gil, because at such high TSS-concentrations the segregation
between granular and flocculent sludge does not proceed sufficiently
rapidly. In that case it is highly recommended to apply pre-clarification.
The solids separated in this clarifier can be at least as far as
biodegradable - stabilized anaerobically in a conventional type sludge
digester. The same can be done with scum layer sludge removed as excess
sludge from the anaerobic reactor.
For high strength wastewaters with a high insoluble fraction ( i. e.

exceeding 15 %), generally conventional digesters are in favour over UASB
and other high-rate systems.
REQUIRED POST TREATMENT
Anaerobic treatment is merely efficient for removing biodegradable organic

matter, generally not for phosphate, ammon�a and certainly not for
sulphide. Therefore generally - depending on the restrictions set for
effluent discharge - some adequate post treatment has to be applied for
removing these compounds and remaining organic pollutants - including also
dispersed solids. For ammonia, commonly a nitrification step or an
integrated nitrification/denitrification process will be installed,
although at high ammonia concentrations ( > approximately 2 - 3 g NH4+/1),
application of an ammonia recovery method might be more attractive than a
NH / -destruction method, from the point of view of resource preservation.
For sulphide removal, a new process is under development in which sulphide
is converted into elementary sulphur using a bacterial consortium
consisting Thi obaci l lus and others (Buisman e t a l., 1989).

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EXCESS SLUDGE HANDLING
In addition to the required effluent post- treatment facilities, also

equipment has to be installed for handling and storing excess sludge, and
sometimes for dewatering and/or drying excess sludge. As the excess sludge
production in the anaerobic treatment of soluble wastewater is very low,
particularly for VFA-wastewaters, generally little if any problems are
encountered in sludge handling, storage and disposal. In particular, the
volume of excess sludge from the methanogenic reactor is extremely small,
because it generally is very thick (TSS-concentration over 100 g/l).
Moreover there will remain a big demand for this sludge.
The volume of excess sludge from the 'acidogenic reactor' - can be
substantially larger, because it generally will be rather voluminous in
character while the sludge yield also is higher. The amount of excess
sludge produced in the aerobic post-treatment will be quite low, unless
the performance of the anaerobic treatment is poor and/or when sUbstantial
amounts of nitrate have to be removed by applying an integrated
nitrification/ denitrification process as a post-treatment step.
GAS STORAGE/GAS PURIFICATION
In addition to gas storage frequently also some gas purification

facilities have to be installed - depending on the quality of the biogas
and its use -e. g. for removing the H2S and/or moisture.
DESIGN OF THE ANAEROBIC REACTORS
The Liquefaction Step
So far only very little relevant information is available for the design
criteria of a liquefying reactor. The size of such a reactor depends
strongly on the objectives to be achieved. In the (rather exceptional)
case that complete liquefaction has to be accomplished, the sludge
retention time of the system should be rather long e.g. at temperatures
around 20 °C, in the range of 80 - 120 days. Bearing thi s in mind, the
required size of the reactor then will depend on the daily 55-load, the
55-removal efficiency, the non-biodegradable fraction of the 55, the
liquefaction efficiency and particularly on the sludge concentration that
can be maintained in the reactor.
In general there will exist little, if any, valid reasons to pursue

a complete liquefaction of the biodegradable solids; certainly not when
the temperature is in the sub-mesophilic range and for economic rea sons
it cannot be raised temporarily to a more optimal region. In order to
minimize the investment costs of the treatment process, it generally is far
better to combine the 55-removal with a sludge digester.
At higher operational temperatures, the required sludge hold-up time in

the pretreatment step for achieving complete digestion is significantly
shorter, i. e. at 25 °C 40 - 60 days, at 30 °C 15 - 30 days, at 35 °C 10 -
20 days.
At these still rather long sludge hold-up times under the higher
temperature conditions cited, it will not be possible to prevent the
occurrence of methanogenesis in this reactor. Therefore - instead of
speaking of a liquefying reactor - the pretreatment step can better be
designated as the first module of a modular 'one-step' anaerobic treatment
system.

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UASB-process design 97
The Acidogenic Reactor
Proper designs for acidogenic bio-reactors are not yet available. Existing
acidogenic reactors are simple flow-through systems in which generally
some mixing is applied. So far little if any attempt has been made to
retain higher concentrations of acidogenic sludge in the reactor.
The reason for this relatively poor care can be found in the fact that
acidogenesis proceeds at a higher rate, while a complete acidification of
the substrate generally is not required. Moreover the extent of
acidification can be more or less controlled by the supply of alkalinity,
i.e. by the pH, because the activity of acidogenic bacteria also drops
at decreasing pH-values.
A simple completely mixed tank reactor can be utilized for the pre
acidification. The hydraulic retention time to be utilized will be
determined by the nature of the complex organic matter, the temperature
and the degree of acidification desired. The retention time of the
acidification tank will be in the range of 6 to 24 hours.
We want to emphasize here that in may cases the acidogenic reactor has to
be followed by some sludge separating device, particularly for higher
strength wastewaters. The reason for this is that suspended matter,
including bacterial matter, may disturb the proper operation of the
granular sludge bed methanogenic reactor seriously, while it also greatly
retards the formation of granular sludge in this reactor in the case it
was seeded with a flocculent sludge.
The UASB-reactor
Required Reactor Volume. The reactor volume depends on a number of

factors, including:
the maximal total daily COD-load,
the admissible liquid surface load,
the minimum temperature of the wastewater,
the strength of the wastewater, the characteristics of the
wastewate:r; (e.g. the complexity of the polluting compounds and
their biodegradability, the presence of proteins etc.),
the permissible space loading rate at a specific sludge hold-up,
the required treatment efficiency, and
the required extent of sludge stabilization.
The sludge stabilization that can be accomplished depends strongly on the

biodegradability of the entrapped, sorbed and/or precipitated substrate
ingredients, on the operational temperature and the average sludge hold-up
time.
The admissible maximum liquid surface load (based on the wet surface area
in the settler) for granular sludge UASB-reactors can be set at
approximately 3 m/hr average over a day for soluble wastewaters and at 1 -
1.25 m/hr for partially soluble wastewaters. Temporarily, for a few hours
per day, superficial velocities up to 6 m/hr and 2 m/hr can be tolerated
for soluble and partially soluble wastewaters respectively. Under these
conditions most of the granular sludge will be retained in the reactor.
The high superficial velocities may result in the washout of poorly
settleable (smaller!) granular sludge particles, but generally this will
not be accompanied by any serious problems.
For voluminous flocculent types of sludg� the admissible maximum

superficial velocities are 0. 5 m/h, with temporary (2-4 h) admissible
peaks up to approximately 2 m/h. For well settling thick sludge the
JWST 24:8-H

on 31 July 2018
98 G. LEITINGA and L. W. HULSHOFF POL
values can be set 50 % higher. For EGSB-reactor systems superficial liquid

velocities exceeding 6 m/h can be tolerated.
For the rather exceptional case where -instead of the organic loading
rate- the liquid surface load would represent the ��miting factor, the
allowable hydraulic retention time (e.) is determined by the surface area
and the height of the reactor, according to the equation:
A H
ea = (1)
Q
in which: e. allowable hydraulic retention time (h)

2
A surface area of the reactor (m )
H reactor height (m)
3
Q average flow rate at almost continuous flow (m /h)
The admissible superficial velocity (v.) will ultimately determine the

hydraulic retention time for a given reactor height:
H
(2)
e
In treating completely soluble wastewater, reactor heights of 10 m and

even higher can be applied, resulting in lower reactor space requirements.
Also the costs for the feed inlet distribution will be less, since the
wastewater has to be distributed over a comparatively smaller area.
For partially soluble wastewaters, the admissible heights obviously are

much lower, i.e. for treating dilute wastewaters like tlomestic sewage,
reactor heights of 3 - 5 m are recommended, while for wastewaters with a
COD exceeding 3000 mg/1 a reactor height of 5 - 7 can be accepted.
For dilute types of wastewaters (COD-levels below 1000 mg/l) and for
operational temperatures exceeding 25°C, the reactor volume generally will
be determined by the admissible hydraulic retention time, rather than by
the applicable organic space load, particularly for taller reactors.
However, for sub-optimal mesophilic and psychro�nilic temperature
conditions, generally the admissible organic space 1uQd is the limiting
factor. Figure 1 shows the relationship between the wastewater strength
and the required reactor volume (Vr).
Vr 1m3)
2000 .---
1500
1000 +-----�
500 Vr = a.Q Vr=2�Q

rv
0
0 2 3 4 5
( I kg CO Dim 3 )
Fig. 1. Relationship between pollution strength and reactor volume.
3
(Assumptions: e. = 4 h, Q 250 m3/h and Bv 15 kg COD/m . d)
= =

on 31 July 2018
UASB-proccss dcsign 99
At low concentrations the reactor volume will be independent of the

waste strength, and determined by the allowable hydraulic retention time:
= 6. Q (3)
The allowable hydraulic retention time will depend on the type of sludge
present in the reactor (flocculent or granular) and the quality of the
gas-solids separator.
Beyond a specific waste concentration, the reactor volume will depend on

the waste strength (C) and the applicable space loading rate (Sv),
according to the equation:
24 C Q
The lower waste concentration range at which the hydraulic retention time
dictates the reactor volume depends strongly on the applicable space
loading rate as well as the allowable (critical) superficial upflow
velocity in the reactor as indicated in Figure 2.
V, (m3)
2000..---,----r---"
1500
1000 V",t=1.5 m/h
500
-------- ------------------ verrt= 6 m/h
O�-�-�--,--�-�
o 2 3 4 5
( (kg (OO/m3)
Reactor volume at different loading rates and critical upflow

velocities. (Assumptions: Q 250 m3/h and Hr=6 m) =
For industrial wastewaters generally the controlling factor for the size
of the reactor will be the admissible organic space load (in terms of
biodegradable COD) . This space load greatly depends on the sludge
activity, and thus the temperature and the treatment efficiency pursued
for the various polluting fractions on the composition and the nature of
the pollutants, the sludge concentration, the quality of the feed
distribution system ( i.e. the degree of contact) and the desired safety
factor.
Table 3 gives guidelines for admissible organic space loading rates in

relation to the operational temperature (assuming an average granular
sludge concentration of 25 kg VSS/m3) •

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TABLE 3. Applicable organic volumetric loading rates in relation to

operational temperatures for a soluble VFA. a non-VFA soluble
wastewater and a wastewater containing 30% settleable 88-COD. in
granular sludge UA8B-reactors containing an average sludge
3
concentration of 25 kg V88/m (hydraulic load not restrictive) .
temperature organic volumetric loading rate (kg/m3.d)
(OC) VFA non-VFA 30% 88-COD
15 2 - 4 1. 5- 3 1. 5- 2 ( satisfactory 88-removal)
20 4 - 6 2 - 4 2 - 3 (satisfactory 88-removal)
25 6 - 12 4 - 8 3 - 6 (reasonable 88-removal)
30 10 - 18 8 - 12 6 - 9 (moderate 88-removal)
35 15 - 24 12 - 18 9 -
14 (fairly poor 88-removal)
40 20 - 32 15 - 24 14 - 18 (poor 88-removal)
For the quoted maximum admissible surface loads, a fairly efficient 88-
removal can be accomplished from very low-strength partially soluble
wastewaters like domestic sewage. For medium-strength wastewaters the 88-
removal efficiency presumably will drop significantly when applying
surface loads in the range of 1 m/h, mainly due to the significantly
higher gas production and consequently higher liquid turbulence in the
system under these conditions.
An important wastewater in the category "very low-strength" wastewaters is

raw and/or pre-settled domestic sewage. The safe applicable HRT's for
sewage depend very strongly on the temperature. Table 4 gives some guide
lines.
TABLE 4 Applicable Hydraulic Retention Times (HRT s) for raw domestic

sewage in a 4 m tall UA8B-reactor at various temperature ranges.
Temperature range HRT values (h)

(OC) daily average maximum acceptable peak
during 4-6 hrs during 2-6 hrs
16 - 19 > 10 - 14 > 7 - 9 > 3 - 5

22 - 26 > 7 - 9 > 5 - 7 > ± 3
> 26 > 6 > 4 > 2. 5
Feed inlet system. The feed inlet distribution system constitutes a crucial
part of the reactor. For utilizing the retained reactor sludge, it
is important to accomplish an optimal contact between sludge and wastewater,
i.e. channelling of the wastewater through the sludge-bed or the formation
of dead corners in the reactor should be avoided. The danger of channelling
becomes bigger at lower ga s production rates, v iz. less than approximately
3 3
1 m /m .d for a 4-6 m tall reactor, because the gas production contributes
substantially to the mixing of the sludge bed. The ga s production obviously
remains low when the imposed organic loading rate has to be kept low, e.g.
when very dilute wastewaters are treated and the temperature is in the
psychrophilic or low sub-mesophilic range. However, for soluble types of
wastes, even in that case, a fairly good contact between sludge and
wastewater can be accomplished by applying taller reactors, and taller

on 31 July 2018
VASB-process design 10 1
sludge beds. Generally a granular type of sludge will be present (or will
develop) in the reactor, when treating soluble types of wastewaters.
Table 5 provides rough guidelines for the number of feed inlet points
required.
TABLE 5. Rough guidelines for the number of feed-inlet points reguired in

a UASB-reactor.
type of sludge present area per feed inlet point (m 2)
Dense flocculent sludge 0. 5 - 1 at loads < 1 kg COD/m3. d

(> 40 kg TSS/m3) 1 - 2 at loads 1-2 kg COD/m3. d
2 - 3 at loads > 2 kg COD/m3. d
Medium thick flocculent sludge 1 2 at loads < 1-2 kg COD/m3. d

(20-40 kg TSS/m3) 2 - 5 at loads > 3 kg COD/m3. d
Granular sludge 0. 5 - 1 at loads up to 2 kg COD/m3. d

0. 5 - 2 at loads 2-4 kg COD/m3. d
>2 at loads > 4 kg COD/m3. d
Apart from the number of feed inlet points/lines, suppliers of full-scale

plants employ in their designs specific nozzles, minimum and maximum outflow
velocities (which can be up to several m/sec), and sometimes an intermittent
supply of the feed, over various inserted perforated feed inlet pipes placed
at the bottom of the reactor.
Particularly in treating partially soluble wastewaters one should realize

that clogging of the nozzles may represent a serious problem. Every inlet
system should be easy to clean, as always after some time of aperation inlet
'
pipes tend to become partially clogged. This will result in an uneven
distribution of the wastewater over the reactor bottom. The system shown
schematically in Fig. 3, which has been tried out for the first time at a
big (64 m3) pilot- plant scale for domestic sewage treatment in Cali, looks
quite appropriate. Each separate inlet pipe has its own distribution vessel.
In case clogging of the pipe occurs, the water level in this vessel will
rise, as a result of which, self-declogging may occur. If this is not the
case, measures can be taken easily . This system has been implemented in various
full-scale UASB-reactors treating raw domestic sewage.
The GSS-device. In order to achieve the highest possible sludge hold-up

under operational conditions, it is necessary (at least very beneficial) to
equip the UASB-reactor with a GSS-device (GSS Gas Solids Separator). In
=
principle the design of the GSS-device can be fairly simple, i.e. it does
not necessarily constitute a very expensive part of the reactor. Relatively
a lot of research has been spent in recent years for developing new, more
exclusive, systems. Some different designs are shown in the Figures 4 and
5. The last word on the design of the GSS-device certainly has not yet been
said. It is an area of continuous innovation. The objectives of the GSS
device are summarized in Table 6, at least as far as they are relevant for
the treatment of soluble non-complex types of wastewaters.

on 31 July 2018
102 G. LETIINGA and L. W. HULSHOFFPOL
Fig. 3. Feed inlet system of the 64 m3 pilot-scale UASB of EMCALI in Cali,

Colombia.
E E
(A: Inlluent. B. sludgeblanket. C. separators. D: effluent. E: blogas)
Fig. 4. UASB-reactor according to the Biothane-process. Note the special

design of the GSS-device. Through the construction of two iron
plates a downward directed flow is created in the bottom part of
the settler. This flow is claimed to be beneficial for the return
flow of settled sludge back into the reactor.
TABLE 6 Main objectives of the GSS-device for UASB-systems treating

soluble types of wastewaters
1. To separate and discharge biogas from the reactor

2. To prevent as efficiently as possible the wash-out of viable bacterial
matter
3. To enable the sludge to slide back into the digester compartment
4. To serve as a kind of barrier (stopper) for rapid excessive expansions
of a sludge blanket (which is mainly composed of flocculent sludge)
into the settler
S. To provide a polishing effect.
6. To prevent the washout of floating granular sludge

on 31 July 2018
UASB·process design 103
! biogas
treated
effluent
gas
�"*�"t-- collection
dome
sludge
blarilet rising
biogas
Fig. 5. Representation of a UASB-reactor according to the Biopaq-system.

Here 3 gas collectors are placed above each other in order to
obtain an increased efficiency in gas collection.
In the case of wash-out of viable sludge, or since dispersed solids in

general (e. g. for reasons of treatment efficiency) should be kept at a
minimum, a baffle must be placed in front of the effluent weir in order to
retain floating sludge. Special construction for such a baffle is required
in the case where heavy granular sludge flotation would occur, e. g. when
very high sludge loading rates are imposed or in the presence of proteins
or fats.
Especially for the treatment of very dilute wastewaters, it is essential to

achieve an almost complete retention of the viable sludge. A sophisticated
GSS-device is required in that case.
Special measures have to be taken in treating industrial effluents

containing higher concentrations of proteins and/or fats. The presence of
these compounds will stimulate foaming and flotation of the sludge and
consequently the wash out of viable biomass.
The formation of a thick scum layer in the gas bowl may sometimes give some
problems, because it hampers the easy release of the biogas. This may
occasionally result in a partial escape of biogas via the settler, which
obviously is quite detrimental for settling out the sludge. In those cases
where heavy scum layer formation cannot be avoided, specific provisions
have to be taken to remove the floating matter from the reactor and/or to
agitate it sufficiently in order to get it settled down. So far the problems
never were so serious that any specific measures were really needed,
although prolonged operation very likely would have made necessary specific
operative interferences. For removing the scum layers, suction could be
applied using a bent pipe which can be brought beneath the gas-bowl and
moved while sucking slowly over the total length of the GSS-device. A
similar (or the sam&) pipe could be used for recirculating biogas through
the scum layer, i.e. by returning it in the reactor immediately beneath the
scum layer.
Scum layer formation generally also occurs at the liquid interface in the
settler, particularly if a baffle has been placed in front of the effluent
weir. In the case where the installation of a baffle in front of the
effluent weir is omitted, floating particles very likely including floating
granular sludge, will rinse out of the reactor. The liquid surface area will

on 31 July 2018
remain almost clean in that case, but obviously the concentration of SS in

the effluent will be higher. When excessive scum layer formation occurs, the
installation of a skimmer looks appropriate. Special baffles, constructed
from a steel screen which extend well above the liquid interface, may be
required for retaining heavily floating granular sludge particles.
As at a certain fixed space load, the specific gas production rate (m3/m2• d)
increases proportionally with the reactor height. Special attention has to
be given to the construction of the GSS device in the case of taller
reactors in order to prevent foaming problems. Table 7 presents general
guidelines for the construction of GSS-devices.
TABLE 7. Summary of tentative guidelines for the design of the gas-solids

separator device
1. The slope of the settler bottom (i. e. inclined wall of the

gas collector) should be between 45-60°.
2. The surface area of the apertures between the gas collectors should be
15-20% of the reactor surface area.
3. The height of the gas collector should be between 1. 5-2 m at reactor

heights of 5-7 m.
4. A liquid-gas interface should be maintained in the gas collector in

order to facilitate the release and collection of gas bubbles and to
combat scum layer formation.
5. The overlap of the baffles installed beneath the apertures should be

10-20 cm in order to avoid upward flowing gas bubbles to enter the
settler compartment. '"
6. Generally scum layer baffles should be installed in front of the

effluent weirs.
7. The diameter of the gas exhaust pipes should be sufficient to guarantee

the easy removal of the biogas from the gas collection cap,
particularly also in the case of foaming.
8. In the upper part of the gas-cap, anti-foam spray-nozzles should be

installed in case the treatment of the wastewater is accompanied
by heavy foaming.
Modular design. If the volume of the UASB-reactor exceeds approximately 400

m3, a modular design of the reactor looks attractive. A modular reactor
design offers a number of advantages over the application of a one
compartment reactor:
the construction of the treatment system can be phased better in
time. Based on the results obtained in the first phase, the design
load can be adapted.
different compartments might be operated in series which will
improve the overall efficiency of the process. Preliminary results
of tests on the treatment of domestic sewage in a two-and three
staged digestion, performed at our laboratory, confirm this.
the first start-up of the plant will be easier in the case a
little amount of seed sludge is available. One or two modules can
be started separately from the other module (s) so that less seed
sludge is required, and
cleaning and/or repair works of the separate modules can be
conducted relatively easily.

on 31 July 2018
UASB-proccss design 105
Regarding the possibilities for realizing modular designs, it will be

obvious that rectangular reactors are preferable to cylindrical reactors.
Shape of the reactor. The anaerobic reactor can be constructed either in

rectangular or in cylindrical form. In latter case, when using a moduled
reactor, the modules can be arranged concentrically around the last
polishing module.
Sludge discharge. It is necessary to incorporate provisions in the design

to remove excess sludge from the reactor. Generally a good place for
discharging excess sludge is at one-half the height of the reactor, although
it is recommended to equip the reactor also near the bottom, and
approximately half a metre beneath the GSS-device,with some other inserted
sludge discharge pipes. For assessment of the total quantity of sludge in
the reactor it is recommended to install a number (5 or 6) of valves over
the height of the reactor, to be able to take sludge samples from inside the
reactor for making a sludge profile.
The discharge of the excess (flocculent) sludge should be done from the
upper part of the sludge bed.
Facilities for effluent recycle. For high - strength wastewaters it is

recommended to apply effluent recycle in order to dilute the COD level to
values below 15 gil, to save on chemicals for neutralization, to diminish
potential toxicity (e. g. high salt concentrations, caramellization products
etc.) and to improve the contact between the sludge and the wastewater. The
latter aspect is particularly important in treating wastewaters containing
higher concentrations of fats/lipids. Especially during the initial start-up
of the reactor it is beneficial for the growth of good quality anaerobic
sludge to apply a strong dilution to COD values of less than 5 gil.
CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS, CORROSION
The experience with full - scale reactors in the Netherlands showed that
corrosion can represent a major problem. All reactors constructed at the end
of the seventies and beginning of the eighties appeared to be severely
damaged by corrosion after 5 to 6 years of operation. The biggest problem
occurs in the upper part of the reactor, where H2S is oxidized to sulfate by
air (oxygen) . This can lead to very low local pH conditions. Both concrete
and steel will be affected by this. Corrosion by dissolved CO2 will occur
under the water level; CaO from concrete will dissolve as a result of the
presence of carbonic acid. Depending on the construction materials used some
corrosion of the settler plates may occur as a result of the presence of
CO2•
In order to prevent these problems either corrosion-resistant construction

materials (stainless steel or plastics) or proper coatings have to be
applied.
Full - scale practice showed that settlers constructed from a seawater

resistant aluminum-alloy became severely perforated by this phenomenon.
For a number of years UASB-reactors have been constructed using coated
steel. However, due to the severe corrosion problems, nowadays some
contractors use poly-propylene coated concrete for the reactor body, and a
material consisting of plastic covered with impregnated hardwood for the
settler. A new development is the use of plastic fortified plywood, e.g. for
the effluent weirs. Also ferrocement might become an attractive construction
material.

on 31 July 2018
106 G. LEITINGA and L. W. HULSHOFF POL
PREVENT I ON OF THE RELEASE OF MALODOROUS COMPOUNDS
Frequently anaerobic treatment is accompanied by the formation of

malodorous compounds, particularly H2S can be produced in significant
amounts. I n order to avoid nuisance problems in the environment, adequate
measures have to be taken to prevent the escape of H2S from the effluent
into air. For this purpose it is necessary to cover the anaerobic reactor
and to collect (if necessary to suck off) the gases containing this compound
and to treat them adequately. By covering t he sett ler compartment also the
occurrence of corrosion can be reduced, because t he entrance of air (oxygen)
can be greatly avoided in this way. For reasons of safety it is of major
importance to avoid that air (oxygen) is mixing up with the gases ( i.e.
methane, carbon dioxide, hydrogen sulphide) e s caping from the e ffluent
solution.
The hydrogen sulphide remaining in the e ffluent solution has to be removed
by applying an adequate post-treatment met hod, e . g . chemical precipitation
of the sulphide as FeS, biochemical or chemical oxidation to either
elementary sulphur or to sulphate.
AUXI L I ARY EQUI PMENT
A satisfactory operation of an anaerobic t reat ment facilit y requires proper

control of the s y s tem and, as far as pos s ible and economical, t he maintenance
of optimal environmental conditions.
Measurement and control equipment t o be inst alled compris es :

measurement and recording of t he inf l uent flow, t emperature and
pH.
measurement and recording of the react or t emper ature and pH
(particularly in the lower part of the reactor) .
measurement and recording of the gas production, ratfl! and the gas
composition with respect to the CO2 content and"' H2S content.
Depending on the t ype of waste tre ated, equipment has to be inst alled for
supplying essential nutrient s , like ammonia, phosphat e, sulphate or
sulphide, and of alkalinity.
In the case where waste heat can be obt ained from t he f act ory or from
elsewhere, or heat can be recovered from t he e ffluent, it may be profitable
to install heat exchange r s . The i n s t a l l at i on of heat exchanger s is also
desirable for occasional heating of the reactor cont ents when accumulated
biodegradable s olids have to be removed from the s ludge.
CONCLUSI ONS
Anaerobic wastewater treatment using t he UASB-reactor concept c an be

considered as a grown-up technology. The system has found a successful
application for a wide variety of industrial wast ewat ers and in the mean
time should be regarded as a proven technology for the treatment of domestic
wastewater at temperatures exceeding approximat ely 22 °C.
with respect to the design of UASB- reactors sufficient information is

available for t he installation of quite appropriate s ystems, generally
including pre- and post-treatment steps . In many aspects the situation is
comparable with well established aerobic t reatment s y stems. However, as
with conventional systems, undoubtedly specific further improvements i n the
design, the process lay-out and t he operation remain pos sible.

on 31 July 2018
VASB-process dcsign 107
REFERENCES
Anonymous, (1988). Biogas technology in The Netherlands, anaerobic waste and

wastewater treatment with energy production. Report published by
Netherlands Agency for Energy and the Environment, P. O. Box 8242,
Utrecht, The Netherlands.
Buisman, C. , Post, R. , Geraats, G. and Lettinga, G. , 1 989 . Biotechnological

process for sulphide removal with sulphur reclamation. A c t a B i o te cn ol. ,
�, 3, 255-267 .
Lettinga, G. , Velsen, A. F. M. van, Zeeuw, w. J. de and Hobma, S. W. , (1979) .

The application of anaerobic digestion to industrial pollution
treatment. In: An ae r obi c Dige s t i on (Stafford e t a l., eds. ), pp. 167 -
186 . Applied Science Publishers, London, England
Lettinga, G. , Velsen, A. F. M. van, Hobma, S. W. , Z eeuw, W. J. de and

Klapwijk, A. , (1980) . Use of the Upflow Sludge Blanket (USB) reactor
concept for biological wastewater treatment. B i o te chnol. Bi oeng., 22,
6 99-7 34 .
Lettinga, G. , Hobma, S. W. , Hulshoff Pol, L. W. , Zeeuw, W. J. de, Jong, P. de,

Grin, P. and Roersma, R. , (1983) . Design, operation and economy of
anaerobic treatment. Wa t. Sci . & Te ch., � ( 8 / 9 ) , pp 1 7 7 - 1 9 5 .
Lettinga, G. , Roersma, R. , Grin, P. , (1983) . Anaerobic treatment of domestic

sewage using a granular sludge bed UASB-reactor. B i o te ch n o l. Bi oeng. ,
25, 17 01-17 23 .
Lettinga, G. , Hulshoff Pol, L. W. , Koster, I. W. , Wiegant, W. M. , Z eeuw,

W. J. de, Rinzema, A. , Grin, P. C. , Roersma, R. E. and Hobma, S. W. ,
(1984) . High-rate anaerobic wastewater treatment using the,_UAS�-reactor
under a wide range of temperature conditions. B i o te chn o i. Ebgng. Re
v ie ws , �, 253-284 .
Lettinga, G. and Hulshoff Pol, L. W. , (1986) . Advanced reactor design,

operation and economy. Wa t. Sci. & Te ch., �, (12), 99-108 .
Sayed, S. K. I. , (1 987 ) . Anaerobic treatment of slaughterhouse wastewater

'
using the UASB process. PhD Thesis. Agricultural University Wageningen,
The Netherlands.

on 31 July 2018

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Waf. Sci. Tech. Vol. 24, No.8, pp. 87·107, 1991. 0273-1223/91 $().

UASB-PROCESS DESIGN FOR VARIOUS

O. Lettinga and L. W. Hulshoff Pol

Department of Environmental Technology, Agricultural University of Wageningen,

In this paper the design of UASB-reactors is discussed for different types

UASB-reactor; design; granular sludge; flocculent sludge; soluble

Anaerobic digestion processes offer big potentials for the treatment of

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TABLE 1 Full scale UASB-plants constructed before September 1 9 90

wastewater Number of UASBs UASB-volume (m3)

Alcohol 20 52, 000

Total 205 33 9, 609

Source: Biogas technology in the Netherlands, publication by the

NON-COMPLEX SOLUBLE WASTEWATERS

I n speaking about non-complex soluble wastewaters, we mean wastewaters

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Taking this into account, the discussion on these types of wastewaters

Industrial wastewaters containing insoluble or potentially insoluble

Due to the presence of these compounds, a variety of problems may manifest

Although in terms of reactor concept (s) anaerobic treatment is a fairly

However, in all cases the satisfactory application of the process to

Problems in Treating Partially Soluble Industrial wastewaters

A number of important characteristics with respect to the possible

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biodegradability, and/or the rate of degradation under the

Depending on the above characteristics, suspended matter (or potentially

It reduces the specific methanogenic activity of the sludge

Such a deterioration of the specific activity of the sludge

It may lead to the formation of scum layers consisting of

Attachment of newly generated bacterial matter to the surface of

When granular seed sludge is used, the presence of SS in the

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department with raw domestic sewage, with diluted primary +

A prolonged continuous entrapment of voluminous suspended solids

Wastewaters Containing Compounds Leading to Foaming and/or Scum Layer

When higher concentrations of proteins and lipids/fats are present in the

In all cases it is recommended to install spray-nozzles in the gas bowl

In the treatment of wastewaters containing higher concentrations of

Presence of Compounds Leading to I norganic Precipitates.

When a higher concentration of Ca2+ is present in the wastewater, heavy

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lowered prior to entering the reactor. This can be accomplished by

other precipitates that frequently occur in anaerobic treatment systems

Presence of Formation of I nhibitory or Toxic Natural Compounds

Depending on the compounds present in the wastewater and the local

SYSTEM CHO I CE AND PROCESS LAY-OUT FOR THE TREATMENT OF NON­

The Need of Phase Separation

The category of non-complex soluble wastewaters can be split up into

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The application of a separate acidogenic reactor may be beneficial in

SYSTEM CHOICE AND PROCESS LAY-OUT FOR THE TREATMENT OF PARTIALLY

Regarding the reactor system to be chosen for treating a partially soluble

Table 2 summarizes our present tentative insights in the applicability of

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information is available, the criteria provided in Table 2 should be used

TABLE 2 Applicable space loads in granular sludae and flocculent

Strength of fraction applicable loading rates at 30 °C

2000 - 6000 10 to 30% 3 - 5 12 - 18 3 - 5

6000 - 9000 10 to 30% 4 - 6 15 - 20 4 - 6

9000 - 18000 10 to 30% 5 - 8 15 - 24 4 - 6

* application of the crASB-process makes no sense under these conditions

There exist little, if any, differences between flocculent and granular

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SYSTEM CHO I CE AND PROCESS LAY-OUT FOR THE TREATMENT OF NON