PROBLEM 1.6.

FAM

GIVEN:
As part of stem-cell transplantation (in cancer treatment), the donor stem cells (bone marrow, peripheral
blood, and umbilical cord blood stem cells) are stored for later transplants. Cryopreservation is the rapid direc-
tional freezing of these cells to temperatures below −130◦C. Cryopreservative agents are added to lower freezing
point and enhance dehydration. Cooling rates as high as −dT /dt = 500◦C/s are used (called rapid vitrification).
The cells are frozen and kept in special leak-proof vials inside a liquid nitrogen storage system, shown in Figure
Pr.1.6(a). At one atmosphere pressure, from Table C.4, Tlg (p = 1 atm) = 77.3 K = −195.9◦C. The storage
temperature affects the length of time after which a cell can be removed (thawed and able to establish a cell
population). The lower the storage temperature, the longer the viable storage period. In one protocol, the liquid

yy
nitrogen level in the storage unit is adjusted such that T = −150◦C just above the stored material. Then there is
a temperature stratification (i.e., fluid layer formation with heavier fluid at the bottom and lighter fluid on top)
with the temperature varying from T = −196◦C at the bottom to T = −150◦C at the top of the unit, as shown
in Figure Pr.1.6(a).

SKETCH:

yy
Figure Pr.1.6(a) shows the storage container and the temperature stratification within the container.

Vent Insulation
Ambient Air
Tf,1 >> Tlg

Container Wall Nitrogen Vapor

Tf = -150 C
Vials
Make-up Liquid Nitrogen Vapor
Nitrogen Tf = -178 C

g Liquid Nitrogen
Tf = Tlg = -196 C
slg < 0

Figure Pr.1.6(a) An insulated container used for storage of cryopreserved stem cells.

OBJECTIVE:

yyy
Draw the steady-state heat flux vector tracking for the storage container showing how heat transfer by surface
convection and then conduction flows through the container wall toward the liquid nitrogen surface. Also show
how heat is conducted along the container wall to the liquid nitrogen surface. Note that Ṡlg < 0 since heat is
absorbed during evaporation. In order to maintain a constant pressure the vapor is vented and make-up liquid
nitrogen is added.

yyy
SOLUTION:
Figure Pr.1.6(b) shows the heat flux vector tracking, starting from the ambient air convection qu , surface
radiation qr , and surface convection qku , and then leading to conduction qk through the insulation. Heat is

qr

yyy
qu
qku
q
qu ku qk

qr qk
qu
qku
slg

Figure Pr.1.6(b) Tracking of the heat flux vector.

11
conducted through the container wall and, due to the higher temperature at the top of the container, heat is also
conducted along the wall and toward the liquid nitrogen surface. All the conducted heat is converted into the
liquid-vapor phase change Ṡlg (which is negative). The upper portion of the container also transfers heat to the
liquid surface by surface radiation qr .

COMMENT:
Note that between the top and bottom portions of the container there is a difference in temperature ∆T = 46◦C.
Since the heavier gas is at the bottom, no thermobuoyant motion will occur. A special insulation is needed to
minimize the heat leakage into the container (and thus reduce the needed liquid nitrogen make-up flow rate).

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PROBLEM 1.8.FAM

GIVEN:
A bounded cold air stream is heated, while flowing in a tube, by electric resistance (i.e., Joule heating). This is
shown in Figure Pr.1.8(a). The heater is a solid cylinder (ceramics with the thin, resistive wire encapsulated in it)
placed centrally in the tube. The heat transfer from the heater is by surface convection and by surface-radiation
emission (shown as Ṡe,ϵ ). This emitted radiation is absorbed on the inside surface of the tube (shown as Ṡe,α )
and then leaves this surface by surface convection. The outside of the tube is ideally insulated. Assume that no
heat flows through the tube wall.

SKETCH:

yyy
Figure Pr.1.8(a) shows the tube, the air stream, and the Joule heater. The surface radiation emission and
absorption are shown as Ṡe,ϵ and Ṡe,α , respectively.

Tube Wall Ideal Insulation (No Heat

Se,a Se,J Flows in Tube Wall)
Se, '

Bounded Cold Bounded Hot

Air Stream In Air Stream Out

Electric Resistance Heating (Thin Wires

Encapsulated in Ceramic Cover)
Figure Pr.1.8(a) A bounded air stream flowing through a tube
is heated by a Joule heater placed at the center of the tube.

OBJECTIVE:
Draw the steady-state heat flux tracking showing the change in fluid convection heat flux vector qu , as it flows
through the tube.

SOLUTION:
Figure Pr.1.8(b) shows the inlet fluid convection heat flux vector qu entering the tube. The heat transfer
by surface convection qku from the heater contributes to this convection heat flux vector. The surface radiation
emission from the heater is absorbed by the inner surface of the tube. Since no heat flows in the tube wall, this

yyy
heat leaves by surface convection and further contributes to the air stream convection heat flux vector. These are
shown in Figure Pr.1.8(b).

No Heat Flow S (Surface Radiation Absorption)

(Ideal Insulation) e, a
qku

qu qu
qr
qku qk
Se,J
Se, (Surface
'

Radiation Emission)
Figure Pr.1.8(b) Tracking of heat flux vector.

COMMENT:
In practice, the heater may not be at a uniform surface temperature and therefore, heat flows along the heater.
The same may be true about the tube wall. Although the outer surface is assumed to be ideally insulated, resulting
in no radial heat flow at this surface, heat may still flow (by conduction) along the tube wall.

15
PROBLEM 1.13.FAM

GIVEN:
Popcorn can be prepared in a microwave oven. The corn kernels are heated to make the popcorn by an
energy conversion from oscillating electromagnetic waves (in the microwave frequency range) to thermal energy
designated as ṡe,m (W/m3 ). With justifiable assumptions for this problem, (1.23) can be simplified to

dT
Q |A = −ρcv V + ṡe,m V, integral-volume energy equation,
dt
where the corn kernel temperature T is assumed to be uniform, but time dependent. The control volume for a
corn kernel and the associated energy equation terms are shown in Figure Pr.1.13(a).
The surface heat transfer rate is represented by

T (t) − T∞
Q |A = Q + ,
Rt
where, Q (prescribed heat flow) = 0, and T∞ is the far-field ambient temperature and Rt (K/W) is the constant
heat transfer resistance between the surface of the corn kernel and the far-field ambient temperature.
ρ = 1,000 kg/m3 , cv = 1,000 J/kg-K, V = 1.13×10−7 m3 , ṡe,m = 4×105 W/m3 , T (t = 0) = 20◦C, T∞ = 20◦C,
Rt = 5 × 103 K/W.

SKETCH:
Figure Pr.1.13(a) shows the corn kernel and the thermal circuit diagram.

Oscillating Electric Field Intensity

ee

Corn Kernel, T(t) Qt

V T1
Q=0
dT Rt (K/W)
− ρcvV
dt se,mV

Figure Pr.1.13(a) Thermal circuit model for a corn kernel heated by microwave energy conversion.

OBJECTIVE:
(a) For the conditions given below, determine the rise in the temperature of the corn kernel for elapsed time t up
to 5 min. In Section 3.6.2, we will show that the exact analytical solution is

T (t) = T (t = 0) + ṡe,m V Rt (1 − e−t/τ ), τ = ρcp V Rt .

(b) At what elapsed time does the temperature reach 100◦C?

SOLUTION:
The energy equation
T − T∞ dT
Q|A = = −ρcv V + ṡe,m V
Rt dt
is an ordinary differential equation with T as the dependent variable and t as the dependent variable. The solution
requires the specification of the initial condition. This initial condition is T (t = 0). This energy equation has a
steady-state solution (i.e., when the temperature no longer changes). The solution for the steady temperature is
found by setting dT /dt = 0 in the above energy equation. Then, we have

T − T∞
= ṡe,m V or T = T∞ + ṡe,m V Rt .
Rt
Here we are interested in the transient temperature distribution up to t = 5 min.
The solver (such as SOPHT) requires specification of the initial condition and the constants (i.e., ρ, cv , V , ṡe,m

24
and Rt ) and a numerical integration of the transient energy equation.

(a) The solution for T = T (t), up to t = 1,000 s, is plotted in Figure Pr.1.13(b). Examination shows that initially
(T − T∞ )/Rt is small (it is zero at t = 0) and the increase in T is nearly linear. Later the time rate of increase
in T begins to decrease. At steady-state (not shown), the time rate of increase is zero.
As will be shown in Section 3.6.2, the exact analytical solution is

T (t) = T (t = 0) + ṡe,m V Rt (1 − e−t/τ ), τ = ρcv V Rt (1.1)

Here ṡe,m V Rt = 2.260 × 102 , and τ = 565.0 s.

(b) The time at which T = 100◦C is t = 247 s and is marked in Figure Pr.1.13(b).

220

180
T, oC

140

100

60

20
0 200 400 600 800 1,000
t, s
Figure Pr.1.13(b) Variation of corn kernel temperature with respect to time.

COMMENT:
The pressure rise inside the sealed corn kernel is due to the evaporation of the trapped water. This water
absorbs most of the electromagnetic energy. Once a threshold pressure is reached inside the corn kernel, the
sealing membrane bursts.

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PROBLEM 1.18.FAM

GIVEN:
The temperature of the earth’s surface and its atmosphere are determined by various electromagnetic energy
conversions and, to a smaller extent, by the radioactive decay (within the earth) Ṡr,τ . These are shown in
Figure Pr.1.18(a) [which is based on the materials presented in Figures Ex.1.2(a) and (b)]. Starting with solar
irradiation (qr,i )s , this irradiation is partly absorbed by the atmospheric gases (Ṡe,τ )s , partly reflected (qr,i )ρ ,
and the remainder is absorbed by the earth surface (Ṡe,α )s . The earth’s surface also emits radiation Ṡe,ϵ and this
mostly infrared radiation is partly absorbed (mostly by the greenhouse gases, such as CO2 ) in the atmosphere
(Ṡe,τ )i and this is in turn re-emitted (Ṡe,τ )i = (Ṡe,ϵ )i .
SKETCH:
Figure Pr.1.18(a) shows the various energy conversions.

Solar Irradiation (Infrared,

Visible, and Ultraviolet)
Sun
(qr,i)s

(Se,α)s
Reflected (qr,i)ρ (Se,τ)i + (Se, )i
∋
Irradiation
(Se,τ)s Se, , Surface Emission (Infrared)
∋

Absorption of
Various Gases (Se,α)i , Surface Absorption

qk, Conduction through Earth

Earth Se,τ, Radioactive Decay in the Earth

Earth's Atmosphere
A, Control Surface Wrapped
Around the Earth
Surface Temperature, T A

Figure Pr.1.18(a) Solar irradiation and internal radiation heating

of the earth and its surface and infrared, radiation emission
(part of this is absorbed and emitted by the earth atmosphere).

OBJECTIVE:
(a) Complete the heat flux vector tracking by drawing the radiation qr and conduction qk heat flux vectors arriving
and leaving the earth control surface A, also shown in Figure Pr.1.18(a). Assume a steady-state heat transfer.
(b) Starting from (1.22) and assuming a steady state with the left-hand side approximated as Qk = −Aqk , A =
4πR2 , qk = 0.078 W/m2 , and the right-hand side approximated by

(Ṡe,α )s + Ṡe,ϵ + (Ṡe,α )i ,

where

(Ṡe,α )s = A × 172.4(W/m2 ) time and space average solar irradiation

Ṡe,ϵ + (Ṡe,α )i = −A(1 − αr,i )σSB ⟨T ⟩4A , σSB = 5.67 × 10−8 W/m2 -K4 ,

determine the time-space averaged earth surface temperature ⟨T ⟩A for αr,i = 0.55.

SOLUTION:
(a) The heat flux vector tracking is shown in Figure Pr.1.18(b). Starting from the solar irradiation, this is partly
absorbed by the earth’s atmosphere, partly reflected, and the remainder is absorbed by the earth’s surface.
The earth’s surface emits radiation (in the infrared wavelength range, which will be discussed in Chapter 4),
which is partly absorbed in the earth’s atmosphere and then re-emitted and part of this is absorbed by the
earth’s surface.

36
The radioactive decay releases heat and this will make it turn into the earth’s surface by conduction.

Solar Irradiation (Infrared,

Visible, and Ultraviolet)
Sun
(qr,i)s Surface
Absorption qr , To Space
qr
(Se,α)s
qr (qr,i)r qr (Se,τ)i + (Se, )i
qr ∋

To Space Absorption and Emission

qr by Greenhouse Gases
(Se,τ)s se,τ qk se, , Surface Emission (Infrared)
∋
Absorption of Radiation
Various Gases Decay (se,α)i , Surface Absorption

Earth

Earth's Atmosphere
A, Control Surface Wrapped
Around the Earth
Surface Temperature, T A

Figure Pr.1.18(b) Tracking of heat flux vector.

(b) The energy equation (1.22) becomes

Q|A = −Aqk = −A × (0.078)(W/m2 )

= (Ṡe,α )s + Ṡe,ϵ + (Ṡe,α )i
= A × (172.4)(W/m2 ) − A × (1 − αr,i )σSB ⟨T ⟩4A .

Solving for ⟨T ⟩A , we have

[ ]1/4
A × (172.4)(W/m2 ) + A × (0.078)(W/m2 )
⟨T ⟩A =
A(1 − αr,i )σSB
[ ]1/4
(172.4 + 0.078)(W/m2 )
= = 286.7 K = 13.55◦C.
(1 − 0.55) × 5.67 × 10−8 (W/m2 -K4 )

COMMENT:
The numerical value αr,i = 0.55 is used here as an approximate representation of the greenhouse effect. As
αr,i increases, due to an increase in the concentration of CO2 and other greenhouse gases, ⟨T ⟩A increases, leading
to global warming.

37