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1. PRELIMINARY CONSIDERATIONS
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force (not shown in Fig. 1) and the equilibrium is established when the conductor travels at a
constant speed. Under this condition the electromagnetic force and the mechanical force are
mutually equal, but act in the opposite directions.
Consider next Fig. 2, where the same conductor is placed in the same flux density.
However, the conductor is now not connected to the electric source; instead, the electric
circuit is closed by using, say, an external resistance. The conductor is now dragged through
the flux density using mechanical force at certain speed and this is the origin of the movement
in this case. The sequence of events now reverses. An electromotive force, given with (2), is
at first induced in the conductor. Since the circuit is closed, a current starts flowing.
Interaction of the current and the flux density causes creation of the electromagnetic force.
This force again acts in the opposite direction to the mechanical force and the equilibrium is
established when the two forces are equal but act in the opposite direction. Note that in this
case the source of motion is the supplied mechanical energy. The mechanical energy is now
converted into electrical energy and the process is called generation.
B B
Fe Fm Fe
v v
I I
Suppose once more that there is a certain flux density, in which a structure is placed.
This structure can rotate and is of radius r. Assume that there are two conductors placed on
the structure, 180 degrees apart, as shown in Fig. 3, and let these two conductors carry current
in designated (mutually opposite) directions. An electromagnetic force, Fe = IlB, is created on
each of the two conductors. However, one of these two forces acts to the left, while the other
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one acts to the right (due to opposite directions of the current flow in the two conductors).
Now, a torque is created on each of the two conductors, that equals the product of the force
and the radius. However, since forces act in opposite directions at opposite sides of the
structure, the torques will both act in anticlockwise direction, initiating the rotation of the
structure in anticlockwise direction. The total electromagnetic torque will in general be the
sum of all the individual torques acting on individual conductors.
B
Current in
Fe
Fe
Current out
Fig. 3 – Torque creation in the rotating structure.
Every electric machine consists of ferromagnetic iron cores and windings mounted on
the iron cores, these elements being of essential importance for electromechanical conversion.
An electric machine consists of a stationary element, called stator, and a rotating element
(such as the one in Fig. 3) called rotor. The winding is placed in slots of the stationary stator
and/or in slots of rotational rotor. The winding consists of an appropriate number of turns. A
turn is composed of two conductors which are placed in such a way that the induced
electromotive forces in them sum up. The current therefore flows in the opposite direction, as
illustrated in Fig. 3.
As already noted and explained, the operation of electric machines relies on Faraday's
law of electromagnetic induction and on Bio-Savar's law of electromagnetic force (torque).
One important point to note is that the induced emf will be described with (2) only if the
current in the system is pure constant DC current. A more general expression for the induced
emf says that, if the total flux through the electric circuit is changed, an electromotive force is
induced,
e = − dψ dt
ψ = Li
e = − L di dt − i dL dt = − L di dt − i dL dθ (dθ dt ) (3)
di dL
−e = L + ωi
dt dθ
The first term in this expression will exist only in circuits with AC currents and it is called
transformer emf. The second term is what corresponds to (2) and it is the induced emf due to
the movement of a conductor in certain flux density. It is called rotational emf. Note that,
according to (3), a rotational emf will be induced only if the inductance of an electromagnetic
structure is a function of the rotor position θ. This may sound awkward but will be clarified
later on. In deriving (3) the use was made of the correlation between the angle travelled by the
rotor and its speed of rotation,
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θ = ò ωdt (4)
that reduces for a constant speed of rotation to θ = ωt. Chain differentiation rule was applied
as well. The total flux of the winding is called flux linkage and is denoted with ψ in (3). It
depends on the flux seen by each conductor Φ and on the number of turns N. Flux linkage is
ψ = NΦ.
Electromotive force in an electric machine is induced either due to rotation of a
winding in the flux density, or due to rotation of the flux density with respect to a stationary
winding. Change of flux linkage can be caused either by mechanical motion or by change of
current in time. This is reflected in (3) and will be elaborated in detail later on.
Let us further clarify the two operating regimes of electric machines, generating and
motoring. Generating is discussed first. Due to the action of the prime mover (which delivers
mechanical energy to the machine’s shaft) rotational part of the machine is forced to rotate
(Fig. 4). Consequently, the speed of rotation is constant (n = const.) and Te = TPM. Voltage at
machine terminals and induced emf differ because of the voltage drop in the winding; for
generating induced emf is greater than terminal voltage (in the sense of rms values in AC
machines, i.e. in the sense of average values in DC machines). Note that in generation
direction of the speed of rotation coincides with the direction of the mechanical (prime
mover’s) torque, while the electromagnetic torque of the machine opposes motion.
During motoring (Fig. 4) created electromagnetic torque, which is a consequence of
electric energy delivered to the machine, acts as the source of motion, i.e. it causes the rotor
rotation. In this case the direction of speed and the electromagnetic torque coincide, while the
mechanical torque (that is now load torque) acts against the direction of rotation. Once more
the speed of rotation is constant (n = const.) and Te = TL. During motoring induced emf has
the opposite polarity since it balances the applied voltage. It is therefore usually called
counter-electromotive force. The terminal voltage is greater than the counter-emf in motoring.
n n
TPM Te
Te TL
Fig. 4 – Torque and speed directions in generation (left) and motoring (right).
Efficiency of an electric machine is defined in the same way as for any other device,
as ratio of the output to input power
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Pout Ploss
η = Pout Pin = =1− <1 (5)
Pout + Ploss Pout + Ploss
where the difference between the input and the output power is the loss in the machine, that
consists of three components: winding loss (or copper loss) that is caused by the current flow
in windings of the machine (in general, it appears at both stator and rotor), iron (or core) loss
that appears in the ferromagnetic structure of the machine that is exposed to AC flux, and
mechanical loss that takes place due to friction in bearings and rotation of the rotor in the air:
Ploss = Pin − Pout = PCu + PFe + Ploss − mech (6)
2
Copper losses are of standard RI form and total winding loss is given with the summation of
losses for all individual windings. Iron or core loss depends on the flux density and frequency
and comprises hysteresis and eddy-current losses,
PFe = mFe (ςf + ξf 2 )Bm2 (7)
It is, according to (7), proportional to the mass of the ferromagnetic material. Mechanical loss
can be taken as proportional to the speed of rotation squared,
Ploss − mech = kω 2 (8)
Since mechanical power is a product of torque and speed, this means that the mechanical loss
torque is taken as proportional to the speed of rotation.
One important point to note is that the nature of the input and output power depends
on the role of the machine. In motoring the input power is electrical, while the output power is
mechanical. In generation it is the other way round, the input power is mechanical while the
output power is electrical (in generation, there may be some windings that take electrical
power as well, while some other windings generate electrical power). It has to be remembered
that the rated power of the machine (power for which the machine has been designed), which
is always given on the nameplate of the machine, is the output power. Hence, in generation
the known rated power (always identified further on with an index n) is the output electrical
power, while in motoring it is the output mechanical power.
Since the role of the input and the output power is dependent on the function that the
machine performs, the two cases are treated separately. In what follows lower case symbols
are used for all the quantities, meaning that instantaneous time-domain variables are under
consideration. The idea behind the subsequent development is to develop a general
mathematical model that is valid for any rotating electric machine. It is for this reason that the
number of windings is not specified. Instead, it is taken as being equal to n, where this is an
arbitrary number. The electric machine is for the time being a black box. There are two doors
that enable access to the machine, electrical door and mechanical door. The power can be
either delivered to the machine, or taken away from the machine, through these two doors.
Electromechanical conversion takes place inside the box and the converted power is pc. Fig. 5
illustrates power flows inside an electric machine for motoring and generating. Apart from
these two doors there are two windows that are unwanted outputs only. These windows are
outputs for winding losses and mechanical losses, which are inevitably created within a
machine, and which represent lost power. Note that the iron (or core) loss is omitted from this
representation. The reason is that it is of electromagnetic nature and it does not take place in
the windings. The existence of the iron loss can be accounted for at a later stage, in an
approximate manner, as it is done in transformer theory. Both doors can be either inputs or
outputs (depending on whether the machine operates as a motor or as a generator), while
windows are outputs only. Normally, one door will be the input while the other door will be
the output, although in generation some windings make consume electrical energy, while
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other windings are generating it (as shown in Fig. 5). The role of doors is thus reversible, as
the machine can operate both as a generator and as a motor.
Copper Mechanical
losses in loss
windings
Copper Mechanical
losses in loss
windings
Small electrical
input power
Fig. 5 – Power flow in an electric machine for motoring and generation, respectively.
As can be seen from Fig. 5, apart from input and output power and losses, there are
two internal storages of energy inside the machine. The first one is the stored electromagnetic
energy, while the second one is the stored mechanical energy. Stored mechanical energy is the
energy stored in rotating masses (kinetic energy) and it is in every aspect analogous to the
1
energy stored under linear movement (which is Wmech = mv 2 , where m is the mass of the
2
body). Rotating bodies are characterised with so-called inertia (that is function of the mass
and dimensions) J [kgm2], while instead of the linear velocity one uses angular velocity.
Hence
1
Wm = Jω 2 (9)
2
Stored energy in the electromagnetic system is function of the inductances and the
currents of the windings (or flux linkages and currents). For example, in the case of a single
winding
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1 2 1
We = Li = ψi (10a)
2 2
If the machine has two windings, then the stored energy is
1 1 1
We = L1i12 + L2i22 + L12i1i2 = (ψ 1i1 + ψ 2i2 )
2 2 2
ψ 1 = L1i1 + L12i2 (10b)
ψ 2 = L2i2 + L12i1
Taking index e for electrical power and index m for mechanical power in Fig. 5, one can write
the following power balance equations:
Motoring:
dWe
pe = pCu + + pc
dt
(11)
dWm
pc = ploss − mech + + pm
dt
Generation:
dWm
pm = ploss − mech + + pc
dt
(12)
dWe
pc = pCu + + pe1 − pe 2
dt
Note that storages are energies, as defined in (9)-(10). Powers are time derivatives of energies
and this is taken into account in formulation of (11)-(12). In generation some windings make
take the power (pe2), while other winding actually generate the power (pe1).
Equations (11)-(12) enable formulation of the converted power that is defined as
pc = teω m (13)
in terms of other known powers and derivation of the equation for motion of rotating masses
in terms of known parameters and inputs of the machine. This is a tedious procedure for the
generalised n-winding converter and most of the derivations will be therefore omitted. Only
the starting equations and the final equations are presented in the next sub-section. It is to be
noted that all the powers, as well as all the other variables (currents, flux linkages) were
denoted with lower-case letters in this section. These are instantaneous time domain
quantities, and the same approach is used in the following sub-section. This enables creation
of a general mathematical model, in terms of time-domain instantaneous quantities, that is
valid for all possible existing types of electric machines with rotational movement.
Each of the n windings of the machine is a piece of wire. Hence each winding can be
characterised with its resistance and inductance. In addition, there are mutual inductances
between any two windings. An induced emf appears in general in each winding. Hence the
voltage equilibrium equation for one particular winding can be written as
vi = Ri ii − e = Riii + dψ i dt
(14)
ψ i = Li ii + Li1i1 + L12i2 + ........... + Linin
There is one flux linkage equation and one voltage equation for each of the n windings. It is
convenient to use further on matrix notation to express these and other equations, since matrix
notation will enable substitution of n equations with a single matrix equation. Hence for all
the n windings one has (matrices are underlined):
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dψ
v = Ri +
dt (15)
ψ = Li
where
é R1 ù é L1 L12 L13 .. .. L1n ù
ê ú ê
R2 L L2 L23 .. .. L2 n ú
ê ú ê 21 ú
ê .. ú ê L31 L32 L33 .. .. L3n ú
R= ê ú L= ê ú (16a)
ê .. ú ê .. .. .. .. .. .. ú
ê Rn −1 ú ê .. .. .. .. .. .. ú
ê ú ê ú
ëê Rn ûú ëê Ln1 Ln 2 Ln3 .. .. Lnn ûú
é v1 ù é i1 ù éψ 1 ù
ê ú ê ú ê ú
v
ê 2ú
i
ê 2ú
ψ
ê 2ú
ê v3 ú êi3 ú êψ 3 ú
v= ê ú i= ê ú ψ= ê ú (16b)
ê .. ú ê .. ú ê .. ú
ê .. ú ê .. ú ê .. ú
ê ú ê ú ê ú
êëvn úû êëin ú
û êëψ n úû
and the correlation between speed of rotation and the angle travelled is
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θ = ò ωdt ω = dθ dt (22)
2π
Angular speed of rotation is related to the speed n in [rpm] through ω = n . Angle θ is the
60
mechanical angle measured with respect to certain stationary defined axis in the machine’s
cross-section. Mechanical torque in (21) can be the load torque (in motoring) or the prime
mover torque (in generation).
Stored mechanical energy remains to be given with
1
Wm = Jω 2 (23)
2
What remains to be done is to substitute all the powers and derivatives of stored
energies into the power balance equations (11)-(12). This enables, first of all, calculation of
the converted power and the electromagnetic torque. Regardless of which of the two regimes
is considered, the converted power is found to be
1 T dL
pc = i i (24)
2 dt
Since according to (13) converted power is pc = teω and since one can write using chain
differentiation rule that d L / dt = (d L dθ )(dθ dt ) = (d L dθ )ω , one finds the electromagnetic
torque in the form
p 1 T dL
te = c = i i (25)
ω 2 dθ
Electromagnetic torque is positive for the motoring, while it has negative value in generation
(as it opposes motion). From the second of (11) or the first of (12) one finds the equation of
motion of the rotor in the form
dω
te − TL = J + kω motoring
dt
(26a)
dω
TPM − te = J + kω generation
dt
On the left-hand one has the difference between the driving torque (electromagnetic torque in
motoring, prime mover torque in generation) and the opposing torque (load torque in
motoring and electromagnetic torque in generation). On the right-hand side the first term is
the acceleration/deceleration torque (that exists only during transients and is zero in steady-
state) and the second term is the torque that describes mechanical losses. This particular
torque can be always taken as part of the load (or prime mover) torque since it is mechanical
in nature. One then arrives at the equation of mechanical motion in the frequently used form
dω
te − TL = J motoring
dt
(26b)
dω
TPM − te = J generation
dt
which shows that in any steady state (at constant speed)
te − TL = 0 motoring
(27)
TPM − te = 0 generation
The meaning of (27) is simple. It is the basic law of action and reaction. In any steady state
the two torques are of the same absolute value but act in the opposite direction.
The equations presented in this sub-section fully describe any rotational electrical
machine, in terms of the instantaneous time-domain variables. The full mathematical model is
summarised in the following sub-section.
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Any rotating electric machine, regardless of the actual structure of the stator and rotor and
regardless of the number of windings, is completely described with the following set of
equations:
dψ
v = Ri +
dt
ψ = Li
dω é − TL , te > 0 motoring
te + tm = J + kω tm = ê (28)
dt ë TPM te < 0 generation
1 T dL
te = i i
2 dθ
ω = dθ dt
2.5 Existence of converted power and electromagnetic torque and average torque
Equation (25) shows that power will be converted if and only if the machine rotates. This
means that at zero speed converted power is always zero. Further, one can see that
electromagnetic torque can exist at zero speed (a machine will always start from standstill and
the torque at zero speed is called starting torque). In order for an electromagnetic torque to
exist it is necessary that at least some windings carry current and that at least some
inductances of the machine are functions of the rotor angular position. Note that unless this
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condition is satisfied, torque will be zero. The issue of dependence of machine’s inductances
on angular position of the rotor will be discussed later.
Although an electromagnetic torque will exist if appropriate currents flow in the
machine and there are inductances that depend on the rotor position, this is still not sufficient
to realise useful electromechanical energy conversion. Assume that the torque of a
hypothetical electric machine varies as a sine function of time, with the period equal to the
period of rotation. The instantaneous torque does exist. But, it is positive in the first half-cycle
and negative in the second half-cycle. The average torque is zero and hence the average
converted power will be zero even if the machine runs at a constant speed. The machine will
do motoring in the first half-cycle and generating in the second half-cycle, with a net zero
converted power over one cycle. Thus it follows that, if useful electromechanical conversion
is to take place, average torque of the machine must differ from zero. Average
electromagnetic torque Te can only exist if the certain correlation between stator current
(voltage) frequency, rotor current (voltage) frequency and the frequency of rotation is
satisfied. It can be shown that Te will be of nonzero value if and only if
ω = ωs − ωr (30)
where indices s and r identify stator and rotor angular frequency. Note that DC case is
encompassed by (30). Note as well that, according to (30), it is not possible to realise useful
electromechanical energy conversion if both stator and rotor windings are supplied with DC
currents. In such a case an average torque can only exist at zero speed. But converted power
equals zero at zero speed.
On the basis of (30) is it is now possible to classify the most commonly used electric
machines into three categories:
1. Synchronous machines: rotor frequency is zero. Hence frequency of rotation
equals stator frequency.
2. Induction machines: both stator and rotor windings carry AC currents. Rotor speed
is related with the two angular frequencies as ω = ω s − ω r .
3. DC machines: stator frequency is zero. Hence frequency of rotation must equal
frequency of rotor winding currents.
Note that even when (30) is satisfied, this still does not mean that the electromagnetic torque
is constant. However, if the machine’s torque varies in time, then it follows from the equation
of the mechanical motion that the speed will constantly vary although mechanical torque
might be perfectly constant. It is therefore necessary to provide such arrangements in
electrical machines that not only (30) is satisfied but in addition
te = Te (31)
This implies that the instantaneous torque value equals the average torque. In other words,
torque is just a constant time-independent quantity. The means of achieving (31) in AC
machines (induction and synchronous) will be discussed shortly. Chapter on DC machines
will explain how (31) is achieved in that particular case.
Consider as an example a rotating electric machine with one winding on stator and one
winding on rotor. General mathematical model (28)
dψ
v = Ri +
dt
ψ = Li
ω = dθ dt (28)
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1 T dL
te = i i
2 dθ
dω é − TL , te > 0 motoring
te + tm = J + kω tm = ê (28)
dt T
ë PM t e < 0 generation
remains to be valid in the same form. However, (29) reduces to
évs ù éis ù éψ ù é Rs ù é Ls Lsr ù
v=ê ú i=ê ú ψ = ê sú R=ê ú L=ê (32)
ëvr û ëir û ëψ r û ë Rr û ë Lrs Lr úû
and the electromagnetic torque expression reduces to
1 dL 1 dL dL
te = is2 s + ir2 r + is ir sr (33)
2 dθ 2 dθ dθ
The first two components of the torque expression will have non-zero values only if the
winding self-inductance is a function of the rotor position. The third torque component is the
one due to the interaction of the stator and rotor winding and this component will exist in all
machines that do have windings on stator and rotor. The component of the torque due to
interaction of the stator and rotor winding is called fundamental torque component. The
torque component that exists only if self-inductances of the windings are functions of the
rotor position is called reluctance torque component. In general both torque components will
contribute to the average torque so that
Te = Tereluc tan ce + Te fundamental (34)
Mutual inductance between a stator and a rotor winding is always a function of the rotor
position. However, self-inductances are in many cases constants, so that the reluctance torque
component will rarely exist. Fig. 6 illustrates two commonly met cross-sections of AC
machines. The air-gap is white, while the rotor and stator body are grey. The first cross-
section is characterised with cylindrical stator and rotor. The air-gap is therefore uniform.
Recall that an inductance is inversely proportional to the magnetic reluctance. Magnetic
reluctance comprises mostly of the air-gap reluctance. Since air-gap is uniform, the magnetic
reluctance seen by both stator and rotor winding is constant. Self-inductances of the stator and
rotor winding are in this configuration constant and they do not depend of the rotor position.
The reluctance torque component is therefore zero and torque consists only of fundamental
torque component. This cross-section corresponds to all induction machines, numerous
synchronous machines (so-called turbo-machines and permanent magnet synchronous
machines with surface mounted magnets) and modern DC machines.
The other cross section in Fig. 6 is characterised with cylindrical stator and non-
cylindrical rotor. The rotor is of so-called salient pole structure. Assume that there is a
winding on both stator and rotor. From the point of view of rotor the air-gap appears as
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MIr
s
LsrIr
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machines with uniform air-gap. If the machine is with salient poles on rotor, the expression
for the mutual inductance becomes more complicated.
As the next step, let us consider the induced emfs in the two windings of the machine
in Fig. 7. By definition
− es = dψ s dt
(37)
− er = dψ r dt
Substitution of (35) into (37) yields to
æ di di ö æ dL dL ö
− es = ç Ls s + Lsr r ÷ + ç is s + ir sr ÷
è dt dt ø è dt dt ø
æ dis di ö æ dL dL ö dθ
− es = ç Ls + Lsr r ÷ + ç is s + ir sr ÷
è dt dt ø è dθ dθ ø dt
æ dis di ö æ dL dL ö
− es = ç Ls + Lsr r ÷ + ç is s + ir sr ÷ω (38)
è dt dt ø è dθ dθ ø
and in the same way for rotor
æ dir di ö æ dL dL ö
− er = ç Lr + Lsr s ÷ + ç ir r + is sr ÷ω
è dt dt ø è dθ dθ ø
The first term is the transformer induced emf, while the second term is the rotational emf.
Note that in the case of Fig. 7, when both stator and rotor self-inductance are constant, (38)
reduces to
æ di di ö æ dL ö
− es = ç Ls s + Lsr r ÷ + ç ir sr ÷ω
è dt dt ø è dθ ø
(39a)
æ dir dis ö æ dLsr ö
− er = ç Lr + Lsr ÷ + ç is ÷ω
è dt dt ø è dθ ø
Assuming further that rotor current is constant (this corresponds to a synchronous machine)
further simplifies this expression to
Example 1:
A two winding system has the following inductances: stator winding self inductance =
0.8 H, rotor winding self-inductance = 0.2 H and mutual inductance between the stator
winding and the rotor winding = 0.4 cos θ [H]. The rotor revolves at constant angular
velocity of 40 rad/s and the initial value of the mechanical co-ordinate at zero time
instant equals zero. Determine the instantaneous value of induced electromotive force
in open-circuited rotor winding if the current that flows through the stator winding is
equal to 10cos(100t) A.
Solution:
In this example rotor current and its derivative are zero since the rotor winding is open circuited.
Moreover, stator and rotor self-inductances are constant. Hence the induced emf follows from (39b) as
æ di ö æ dL ö
− e r = ç Lsr s ÷ + ç i s sr ÷ω
è dt ø è dθ ø
Derivatives of the stator current and the mutual inductance are
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Example 2:
A two-winding system has stator inductance of 0.1 H, rotor inductance of 0.04 H and
mutual inductance of 0.05 cosθ [H].
a) Rotor rotates at 200 rad/s and stator current is known to be 10sin200t. Find the
induced emf in rotor winding if it is open-circuited. The initial value of mechanical co-
ordinate at zero time is zero.
b) Current 10sin200t flows through both windings, which are connected in series. Find
the speeds at which average torque will exist; find the average torque values and
determine the values of the load angle which yield maximum values of the average
torque.
Solution:
a) Rotor current and its derivative are again zero. Hence once more
æ di ö æ dL ö
− er = ç Lsr s ÷ + ç is sr ÷ω
è dt ø è dθ ø
dis dt = 2000 cos 200t
dLsr dθ = −0.05 sin θ
θ = ò ωdt = ωt − δ = ωt
−e r = 100 cos 200t cos 200t − 100 sin 200t sin 200t
− e r = 100 cos 400t
ω r = 400 [rad/s]
E r = 100 / 2 = 70.7 V
b) Condition of average torque existence yields speeds at which the average torque will have non-zero
values:
ω = (ω s ± ω r )
ω s = ω r = 200[rad / s]
é 0 [rad/s]
ω=ê
ë400 [ rad/s]
Note that both self-inductances are constant. Hence the torque contains only the fundamental torque
component. Instantaneous torque is
t e = is ir dLsr dθ = i 2 dLsr dθ
t e = (10 sin 200t )2 [− 0.05 sin (ωt − δ )]
t e = −5 sin 2 200t sin (ωt − δ ) = −2.5(1 − cos 400t ) sin(ωt − δ )
For the speed of zero [rad/s]:
T
1
Te = ò t e dt = −2.5 sin(−δ ) = 2.5 sin δ [Nm]
T
0
Te max = 2.5 [Nm] for δ = π / 2
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Example 3:
An electromechanical converter has a three winding structure, with two windings on
stator and one winding on rotor. The two stator windings are displaced in space by 90
degrees. The winding self-inductances and mutual inductances are equal to:
Ls1 = 1 H Ls 2 = 1 H Lr = 0.95 H
Ls1r = 0.9 cos θ Ls 2 r = 0.9 sin θ
Ls1s 2 = 0 where θ = ω t − δ
Rotor winding current is constant DC, of 10 A. Stator windings are fed with two-phase
system of currents, such that
i s1 = 10 cos ω s t i s 2 = 10 sin ω s t
a) Sketch a cross-sectional view of the machine and identify the type of the machine.
b) Develop the expression for the instantaneous and average torque produced by the
machine under the assumption that the condition of average torque existence is
satisfied. Calculate the average torque for load angle equal to 30 degrees and explain
its nature.
c) Sketch the dependence of average torque on load angle δ, identify motoring and
generating part and define the region of stable operation.
Solution:
In this example a so-called two-phase machine is considered. The example will show that with the
specific two-phase winding structure on stator it is possible to realize electromechanical energy
conversion with the time independent constant torque developed by the machine. Two-phase structure
is realized by displacing in space two stator windings by 90 degrees and by feeding the two-phase
winding with currents having phase displacement of 90 degrees. This example serves as an introduction
into the explanation of why three-phase machines are used nowadays and how time independent torque
is obtained, elaborated in the next section.
a) Rotor frequency is zero. According to the condition of average torque existence, stator angular
frequency must in this case equal angular frequency of rotation. The machine is therefore a synchronous
machine with cylindrical stator and rotor structure. The cross section is shown in figure.
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S2 axis
S1 r
r
S1 axis
S2
b) Self-inductances of all the three windings are constants. Mutual inductance between two stator
windings is zero. The instantaneous torque therefore contains only fundamental torque components and
is given with
t e = is1ir dLs1r dθ + is 2 ir dLs 2 r dθ
dLs1r dθ = −0.9 sinθ
dLs 2 r dθ = 0.9 cosθ
t e = I r [10 cos ω s t (− 0.9 sin θ ) + 10 sin ω s t 0.9 cosθ ]
t e = 90[sin ω s t cos(ωt − δ ) − cos ω s t sin(ωt − δ )]
t e = 90 sin(ω s t − ωt + δ )
ωs = ω
t e ≡ Te = 90 sin δ
Instantaneous torque is therefore time independent and equal to its average value. For the load angle of
30 degrees the average torque is 45 [Nm].
c) Average torque is a sine function of the load angle. Positive values correspond to motoring, while
negative values describe generation. The machine can operate stably in the load angle region from -π/2
to π/2. The region from -π/2 to zero is the generating region. The region from zero to π/2 is the
motoring region. Stable operation is not possible outside these regions.
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three phase m.m.f.’s in the given instant of time correspond to those met in any three phase
system.
a
c
b
Fa Fb Fc
b
c
a
The resultant magneto-motive force that stems from the three phase system of currents
flowing through spatially displaced windings is the sum of the individual contributions of the
three phases. The summation is done in the cross-section of the machine, and it is necessary to
observe the spatial displacement between the three m.m.f.’s. One may regard the cross-section
of the machine as a Cartesian co-ordinate system in which phase a magnetic axis corresponds
to x-axis, while y-axis is perpendicular to it. For the purposes of calculation this co-ordinate
system may be treated as a complex plane, with x-axis corresponding to the real axis, and y-
axis corresponding to the imaginary axis. In terms of the complex plane, spatial displacement
of the m.m.f. by 120 degrees corresponds to the so-called ‘vector rotator’, a = exp( j 2π / 3) .
Hence the resultant magneto-motive force can be written as
2π 4π
( )
j j
Fres = Fa + aFb + a Fc 2
a=e 3
, a =e
2 3
(42)
Fres = NI m ( cosωt + a cos( ωt − 2π / 3) + a cos( ωt − 4π / 3) ) 2
The expression for the resultant magneto-motive force is most easily found if one recalls the
well-known correlation cosδ = 0.5( exp( jδ ) + exp(− jδ )) . Hence
Fres = NI
1
2
(e jωt
+e
− jωt
+ ae
j ( ωt − 2π / 3)
+ ae
− j ( ωt − 2 π / 3)
+ a 2e
j ( ωt − 4 π / 3)
+ a 2e
− j ( ωt − 4π / 3)
)=
Fres = NI m
1
2
( ω j t
e +e
− jωt
+ aa * e
jωt
+ aae
− jωt
+ a 2 a 2*e
jωt
+ a 2 a 2e
− jωt
)
1+ a + a 2 = 0
a* = a2 a 2* = a a3 = 1 a4 = a (43)
Fres = NI m
1
2
( e ω (1 + a
j t 2
a + aa 2 ) + e
− jωt
(1+ a 2 + a) ) =
Fres = NI m
1
2
( ω
e ( 3) + e
j t − jωt
( 0) )
3 jωt
Fres = NI me
2
Symbol * in (43) stands for complex conjugate. The result obtained in (5) is an important one.
The equation
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3 jωt
Fres = NI m e (44)
2
describes a circular trajectory in the complex plane. This means that the resulting magneto-
motive force, produced by three stationary, time-varying m.m.f.’s (often called pulsating
m.m.f.’s) is a time-independent and rotating magneto-motive force. Thus it follows that the
three-phase system creates a rotating field (called also Tesla’s field) in the machine. Figure 9
illustrates the rotating field in different instants of time. The speed at which the rotating field
travels equals the angular frequency of the stator three-phase supply.
Im
ωt=90°
ωt=0°
Re (a)
1.5NIm
Fig. 9 - Resultant field in the three-phase machine for sinusoidal supply conditions.
When the machine is synchronous, rotor winding carries DC excitation current and a
field is produced by this current. This field is stationary with respect to rotor. Since the rotor
rotates at synchronous speed, then, looking in from stationary stator, this rotor field rotates at
synchronous speed. This is always the case in any multi-phase AC machine: regardless of
whether the rotor rotates synchronously or asynchronously, all the fields in the machine rotate
at synchronous speed.
Since the resulting m.m.f. is responsible for the resulting flux density and ultimately
resulting flux, this means that apart from the rotating m.m.f., there is a rotating flux density
wave and a rotating flux in the machine as well. The term rotating field in general denotes any
of the three.
Example 4:
Consider a three-phase machine with cylindrical cross section of stator and rotor.
Rotor carries a single winding, supplied with DC current. Mutual inductances between
stator windings and rotor winding and three phase stator currents are given with:
Lar = M cos θ Lbr = M cos(θ − 2π / 3) Lcr = M cos(θ − 4π / 3)
ia = I m cos ω s t ib = I m cos(ω s t − 2π / 3) ic = I m cos(ω s t − 4π / 3)
Derive the expression for the instantaneous and the average torque.
Solution:
The instantaneous torque will once more be equal to the average torque, since the stator carries a three-
phase winding. All the self-inductances are constant, as are the mutual inductances within the stator
winding. Hence the torque is:
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dLar dL dL
t e = ia I r + ib I r br + ic I r cr
dθ dθ dθ
[
t e = MI m I r − cos ω s t sin θ − cos(ω s t − 120o ) sin(θ − 120o ) − cos(ω s t − 240o ) sin(θ − 240o ) ]
o
t e = −0.5 MI r I m [sin(θ + ω s t ) − sin(ω s t − θ ) + sin(θ + ω s t − 240 ) −
− sin(ω s t − θ ) + sin(θ + ω s t − 120o ) − sin(ω s t − θ )]
t e = 1.5MI r I m sin(ω s t − θ )
θ = ωt − δ
ω = ωs
t e ≡ Te = 1.5MI m I r sin δ
Note that the three terms with 0, 120 and 240 degrees mutual phase displacement in the instantaneous
torque expression sum to zero in any instant in time. This is a definition of a three-phase system. This
leaves only the three terms that are mutually the same and each yield 1/3 of the total torque. Torque is
time independent, this being the consequence of the three-phase winding existence on stator. The
machine is a synchronous machine with excitation winding on rotor.
Example 5:
A three-phase synchronous machine is operated with constant DC current in the rotor
winding and it runs as a generator at constant speed of rotation ω. Stator windings are
open circuited. Determine induced emfs in the stator windings. Mutual inductances
between stator and rotor are Lar = M cos θ , Lbr = M cos(θ − 2π / 3) , Lcr = M cos(θ − 4π / 3) .
Solution:
Since rotor current is constant and since the stator currents are zero, induced emfs in the stator windings
are:
dL
ea = − I r ar ω = I r Mω sin θ = (MI rω ) sin ωt
dθ
dL
eb = − I r br ω = I r Mω sin(θ − 2π / 3) = ( MI rω ) sin(ωt − 2π / 3)
dθ
dLcr
ec = − I r ω = I r Mω sin(θ − 4π / 3) = ( MI rω ) sin(ωt − 4π / 3)
dθ
It follows that a system of three-phase voltages is generated at open-circuited stator terminals. This
example shows the basic principle of three-phase electricity generation using synchronous three-phase
generators.
4. TUTORIAL QUESTIONS
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current is known to be 10 sin 300t, find the induced electromotive force in rotor
winding if it is open-circuited (the initial value of mechanical co-ordinate at zero time
is zero).
Q4. An electromechanical converter has two windings only, both mounted on stator and
displaced in space by 90 degrees. The winding self-inductances and mutual inductance
can be given with
Ld + Lq Ld − Lq
L11 = + cos 2θ
2 2
Ld + Lq Ld − Lq
L22 = − cos 2θ
2 2
Ld − Lq
L12 = sin 2θ
2
where θ = ωt − δ .
Stator windings are fed with two-phase currents is1 = Im cosωst and is2= Im sinωst.
a) Sketch the cross-sectional view of the machine and identify the type of the machine.
b) Derive the expression for instantaneous torque developed in the converter and the
expression for average torque assuming that condition of average torque existence is
satisfied.
c) Calculate the average torque and explain the origin of the torque in this machine if
o
Ld = 2 H, Lq = 1 H, I m = 5 A and δ = 30 .
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