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Journal of Catalysis
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a r t i c l e i n f o a b s t r a c t
Article history: Acrolein was obtained by reacting gas-phase glycerol/water mixtures with zeolite catalysts. Glycerol
Received 3 January 2008 was converted through a series of reactions involving dehydration, cracking, and hydrogen transfer and
Revised 10 April 2008 catalyzed by the acid sites of the zeolite. Acrolein was the major product; short olefins, aromatics,
Accepted 19 April 2008
acetaldehyde, hydroxyacetone, acids, and acetone also were formed through a complex reaction network.
Available online 23 May 2008
© 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
Keywords:
Catalytic cracking
Glycerol
Olefins
Acrolein
Biomass
Biochemicals
Zeolites
1. Introduction feed [2,11]. Vegetable oils also can be converted into diesel fuel
range alkanes by hydrotreatment [12–14]. It is estimated that ap-
Today, there is renewed interest in the conversion of biomass proximately 80% of the biofuels in Europe are biodiesel [11]. As
and biomass-derived products into fuels and chemicals [1–6]. Oxy- biodiesel production increases, the price of glycerol is expected
genated petrochemicals are currently produced through the con- to drop significantly from the actual cost, which has already de-
trolled oxidation of hydrocarbons. The conversion of petroleum- creased by half in the last few years [15]. Thus, it has been
derived feedstocks into functionalized oxygenated chemicals in- estimated that the cost of unrefined glycerol could decrease to
volves the high-temperature activation of thermally stable mole- 0.44 $/kg [16]. Importantly, the economics of biodiesel produc-
cules that have low functionality. In contrast, biomass-derived tion are such that a credit of 300 $/ton is given for the reselling
feedstocks with high oxygen content are thermally unstable but of crude glycerol, based on 2010 NREL estimates [17]. Such an
can be converted into oxygenated chemicals via deoxygenation inexpensive feed makes the development of processes for the con-
processes [7,8]. These oxygenated chemicals can be high-value version of glycerol into other chemicals desirable.
chemical feedstocks that possibly could replace petroleum-derived One of the chemicals into which glycerol can be converted is
products. The deoxygenation process typically involves dehydration acrolein. The dehydration of glycerol into acrolein has been known
reactions to remove the oxygen as water. One example of this is since the nineteenth century. Acrolein is used to produce acrylic
the selective dehydration of fructose and xylose in biphasic mix- acid, acrylic acid esters, superabsorber polymers, and detergents.
tures to produce 5-hydroxyfurfural and furfural, respectively, or As early as 1918, Sabatier and Gaudion [18] reported the synthe-
2,5-dimethylfuran from fructose [9,10]. sis of acrolein (10% yield) from glycerol by gas-phase dehydration
Glycerol is currently a valuable byproduct of biodiesel produc- on Al2 O3 or UO2 catalysts at 360 and 350 ◦ C, respectively, with
tion with a refined value close to 1 $/kg. Biodiesel is currently ethanol, water, and allyl alcohol as other products. In 1928, Fre-
produced by transesterification of vegetable oils (triglycerides) and und reported that pure acrolein could be produced from glycerol
methanol, with 1 mol of glycerol produced per mol of triglyceride at 180 ◦ C using diatomaceous silica [19]. Twenty years later, Hoyt
and Manninen reported a method to produce acrolein from glyc-
erol using solid phosphoric acid catalysts [20]. Heinemann et al.
*
Corresponding author.
studied the dehydration of organic compounds (including glycerol)
E-mail address: acorma@itq.upv.es (A. Corma).
1
Present address: Chemical Engineering Department, University of Massachu- with activated bauxite catalysts and observed acrolein yields of up
setts, 159 Goessmann Lab, 686 N. Pleasant St., Amherst, MA 01003-9303, USA. to 42% from glycerol working in gas phase at 430 ◦ C [21]. In 1993,
0021-9517/$ – see front matter © 2008 Elsevier Inc. All rights reserved.
doi:10.1016/j.jcat.2008.04.016
164 A. Corma et al. / Journal of Catalysis 257 (2008) 163–171
Table 2
High temperature glycerol conversion in Microdowner (MD) and Microactivity test
(MAT) reactors (50 wt% glycerol aqueous solution)
Glycerol conversion, wt% 100 100 100 100 100 100 100
Table 6
Product selectivity in the conversion of several main products obtained from the
glycerol processing. Tests in MAT and MD units with ZSM5-based catalyst, 50 wt%
aqueous solutions
Table 7
Product selectivity in the conversion of minor products observed in the glycerol
conversion at 350 ◦ C, with ZSM5-based catalyst, and compared with acetol conver-
sion under similar conditions
Fig. 2. Comparison between MD and MAT units for glycerol processing, low temper-
ature. Laboratory unit MAT MAT MAT
Product Acetol 1,2-Propanediol Propionic acid
Table 5 Operating conditions
Standard MAT operating conditions and modifications for glycerol conversion Temperature (◦ C) 350 350 350
Operating conditions Standard, VGO Glycerol cracking Catalyst to feed ratio 2 1 1.3
Residence time (s) 20 20 20
Time on stream (s) 30 20 WHSV (h−1 ) 90 180 142
Catalyst to feed ratio 2–6 0.5–2 Feed dilution (wt% glycerol) 50 50 50
WHSV (h−1 ) 20–60 90–360
Temperature (◦ C) 500–550 350 Feed conversion, wt% 23 65 39
been observed on a wide variety of catalysts, including base- and 3.4.2.2. Acetone and 2-propenol conversion Acetone was fed at
acid-supported catalysts and zeolites [37–39]. Similarly, we found 350 ◦ C and 500 ◦ C and a space velocity of 90 h−1 , whereas 2-
the formation of significant amounts of acrolein during the MD ex- propenol was fed at 500 ◦ C and a space velocity close to 90 h−1 .
periments with glycerol, as well as significant quantities of acetol (Propenol was not observed as a product in the conversion of glyc-
at 350 ◦ C and below. But we also found large amounts of subprod- erol at 350 ◦ C.) The results, presented in Table 6, indicate that
ucts, including acids, acetone, hydrocarbons, and coke, whose for- 2-propenol was nearly as reactive as glycerol, whereas acetone was
mation pathways from glycerol and the primary products formed less reactive, with only 30% conversion at 500 ◦ C under the same
from glycerol have not yet been described. In addition, it is known operating conditions. These two reactants showed high selectivity
that glycerol can form oligomers (polyglycerols), which may lead toward olefins, but 2-propanol was more selective to propene and
to coking reactions [40]. (Water may decrease the amounts of ethylene, whereas acetone was more selective to butenes, as re-
oligomers.) The same mechanism is applicable to acetol as well. ported previously for acetone [45]. The conversion of acetone also
Coke is also formed from acetaldehyde [41], and probably acrolein; produced a significant yield of CO2 . Acetic acid also was a major
coke can be formed from many sources. product at 350 ◦ C but not at 500 ◦ C. Some bimolecular mechanism
may explain the butene and acid selectivity at low temperature,
3.4.2.1. Acetol conversion To detect the secondary products rising with the overall stoichiometry
from acetol, we fed acetol into the MAT unit at 350 and 500 ◦ C
2 Acetone → butene + acetic acid. (2)
and a WHSV close to 90 h−1 . The results, presented in Table 6,
show that acetol was very reactive; with 86 wt% conversion at Interestingly, coke selectivity, which usually increases with a bi-
500 ◦ C, but still was less reactive than glycerol. As was the case molecular mechanism, was low in this case. At higher tempera-
for glycerol conversion, oxygenate and coke yields decreased and tures (>450 ◦ C), acetic acid was converted into CO2 and hydro-
gas and hydrocarbon yields increased with increasing temperature. carbons, as was shown by Gayubo et al. [45]. There was a higher
Nevertheless, the detailed product distribution of acetol conver- coke selectivity with 2-propanol, as well as a higher selectivity
sion was quite different from that of glycerol conversion; whereas toward high-molecular-weight oxygenated components. Production
coke selectivity was similar or slightly increased at low tempera- of pentenes and BTX production also was greater. The 2-propenol
ture, acetol yielded more acids and acetone and had unidentified also could undergo hydrogenation to form propanol, which in turn
high-molecular-weight oxygenates/hydrocarbons as major prod- could undergo dehydration to yield propene. No propanol was
ucts. Meanwhile, acetaldehyde yield was lower, and acrolein was found as a product; another donor may exist that leads to propene,
nearly missing as a reaction product. This confirms that glycerol similar to the following reaction:
dehydrates through two distinct and independent pathways, one propen-2-ol + H-donor → propene + H-receptor + H2 O. (3)
leading to acrolein through 3-hydroxypropenal (a very unstable
product) and the other forming acetol, as shown in Fig. 3. The first As in the case of acetol, such a donor can be coke, an olefin,
pathway implies the removal of the central alcohol function in the or another oxygenated oligomer obtained in the conversion of
glycerol molecule, whereas the second implies the removal of one 2-propenol. Aromatics may be formed from small olefins gener-
of the two terminal alcohol groups. Statistically, the glycerol would ated during the cracking of acrolein. The aromatics thus formed
then split into 66% acetol (and subproducts) and 33% acrolein. can then condense with small olefins to form coke, as is well
A selectivity to acrolein of close to 60% was observed at 350 ◦ C, known in the cracking of hydrocarbons [46]. Although acetone and
indicating preferential removal of the central alcohol group with 2-propenol are similar in structure, they have very different con-
ZSM5. version networks, as shown in Fig. 5.
Acetone can be obtained from the hydrodeoxygenation of ace-
tol, as shown in Fig. 4. Whether the reaction proceeds through an 3.4.2.3. Propionic acid and propanediol conversion We also fed pro-
intermediate, 1,2-propane diol, which is not observed as a product, pionic acid and propanediol into the MAT reactor at 350 ◦ C to
or occurs directly in a combined reaction with H2 or a hydrogen check for minor conversion pathways. The findings are compared
donor in a similar way as in catalytic cracking [42–44] as set in with those of acetol under similar operating conditions in Table 7.
Eq. (1) is not clear. Propanediol exhibited a reactivity similar to that of acetol along
with a high selectivity to acetone, obtained by direct dehydration.
Acetol + H-donor → acetone + H-receptor + H2 O. (1)
The propionic acid reactivity was much lower, with a very high
Coke, olefins, and their acetol species can be H-donor species. The selectivity to coke at low temperature and low conversion. The
formation of acid can be explained by the isomerization of acetol, main conversion pathways of these components complete the ace-
forming propionic acid. tol conversion scheme as shown in Fig. 4.
A. Corma et al. / Journal of Catalysis 257 (2008) 163–171 169
3.4.2.4. Reaction network Fig. 6 summarizes all of the foregoing hydrogen-transfer mechanism, with acetaldehyde formed from a
findings in a general glycerol conversion scheme. Along with the dehydrogenated dione intermediate, as shown in Fig. 6. The unsta-
information included in Figs. 3–5, Fig. 6 presents an additional ble dione reaction intermediates rapidly decomposed into CO and
reaction pathway for the formation of acetaldehyde. Note that ac- acetaldehyde, and thus diones were not observed in reaction prod-
etaldehyde was found as a main product in glycerol conversion ucts.
and, to a lesser extent, in acetol conversion. No product demon- Fig. 6 depicts the main conversion pathways for glycerol and
strated acetaldehyde yields as high as glycerol yields, indicating subproducts at 350–500 ◦ C. At higher temperatures (above 600 ◦ C),
the formation of acetaldehyde by a different route than that de- acrolein and other oxygenates may undergo decarbonylation, yield-
picted in Fig. 4. Chai et al. [37] and Tsukuba et al. [39], based ing ethylene and other small olefins as well as CO [47]. These
on a previous computational study [36], proposed that the de- reactions account for the high olefin yield at high temperature
composition of 3-hydroxylpropenal should yield acetaldehyde and in a more direct way than at low temperature, where more oxy-
formaldehyde by retro aldol condensation. Formaldehyde then may genated intermediates are preserved. Finally, steam cracking of
be decomposed into CO + H2 or hydrogenated into methanol. In glycerol and all of the dehydrated species may produce CO and H2
our study, at 350 ◦ C, formaldehyde was not detected as a prod- at high temperature, and the WGS reaction also can produce more
uct and methanol was present in only trace amounts. Moreover, H2 as well as CO2 . The additional reactions to Fig. 6 that directly
our hydrogen/CO molar ratio was much lower than 1 at 350 ◦ C, produce CO, CO2 , and H2 are then
whereas a ratio of 1 should result from formaldehyde decompo- CxH yOz + (x − z)H2 O → xCO + ( y /2 + x − z)H2 (4)
sition. Acetaldehyde also was found as a reaction product in the
conversion of acetol. Consequently, we propose that the mecha- and
nism of acetaldehyde formation was coupled with some type of CO + H2 O → CO2 + H2 . (5)
The FCC unit is attractive because the heat necessary for the
reaction is generated readily within the process. In state-of-the-art
units, 3–5% of the feed is converted to coke, which is burned in
the regenerator, generating sufficient heat to vaporize the feed and
support the endothermic reaction. Compared with VGO cracking,
the processing of glycerol solutions requires that more water to be
vaporized per unit of feed, thus increasing the heat requirement
(and hence the coke yield) per kg of feed processed.
To calculate the amount of coke that must be burned to main-
tain the process autothermal, we need the following parameters:
Fig. 6. Proposed general glycerol conversion scheme. Reactant and main reaction products have been highlighted.
170 A. Corma et al. / Journal of Catalysis 257 (2008) 163–171
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