18

CHAPTER 3
OVER CURRENT AND EARTH FAULT RELAY COORDINATION

3.1. OVERVIEW OF RELAY COORDINATION

Relay coordination has to be carried out based on many other power system
studies and Equipment Sizing calculation, are listed below
a. Load Flow Studies
b. Short Circuit Studies
c. Motor Starting Studies
d. Transient Stability Studies
e. Harmonic Analysis
f. CT Sizing

Hence it is recommended to give a brief introduction of all the above studies

before going for the relay coordination.
Types of Faults

There are two types of faults.

1. Symmetrical faults.
2. Unsymmetrical Faults.
 19

1. Symmetrical faults.

The symmetrical fault is also called as balanced fault. The Faults occurs only
when all the three phase are short critical simultaneously. There are two types of
symmetrical faults.
1. (L.L.L.G) all the three phases are short circuited to ground.
2. All the three phases are short-circuited.
The symmetrical faults will occur only 2 to 5% of the total system faults. The analysis
of symmetrical faults is mandatory for the resulting the capacity of the circuit
breakers, for choosing relays of corresponding type and other protective switchgear.

Overview of Protective Relays

There are different types of relays which are used to isolate the devices under
critical conditions
1. Magnitude Relays.
2. Impedance Relays.
3. Directional Relays.
4. Pilot Relays
5. Differential Relays
6. Latching Relays.
7. Reed Relays.
8. Bucholz Relays.
9. Over Load Protection Relays.
10. Solid State Relays.
11. Inverse definition Minimum Time Relays (IDMT Relays).
A few relays related to the thesis are explained as below.
 20

Differential Relays

Differential relay get in operation when two (or) more equipment electrical
exceed certain predetermined value. Whenever there is a difference between the
magnitude and phase difference of the currents.

Figure 3.1 Schematic Diagram and Images of Differential Relay

 21

The above figures shows the two CT Transformer connected on both sides of
the transformer the one CT will be linked on the primary side and another CT will be
connected to the secondary side of the transformer. The relay present in the system
will compare the currents on both sides of the transformer, whenever there is a
difference in current occurs then the relays get in operation. The difference relays can
be either of voltage balance differential relays, (or) bi-used differential relays.

Buchholz Relays

Their relays are gas operated. These relays will come to into operation
whenever there is imminent fault occurs. The early failure is nothing but small
mistake in which due course will develop into significant faults. It will be
accommodated in between the transformer tank and conservator. These are used only
for oil immerged relays.

Figure 3.2 Bucholz Relay Schematic Diagram and Images

The above figure shows the complete picture of bucholz relay. Whenever the
fault occurs there change in the top at the relay gas is occupied at the top. The float
will be fitted as soon as the fault has occurred. The closing of the mercury contacts
indicates that the fault has occurred and in which form the alarm will get into
operation.
 22

Solid State Relay

Solid state relays are mainly composed of BTT, SCR, IGBTC, MOSFETS’s,
AND TRIAC for the switching operation. The power required to operate the relay is
lesser when compared to other relays. The control energy needed for the functioning
of a relay is deficient. There is no mechanical contact, Hence the relay is operated
with high speeds.

Figure 3.3 Schematic Diagram and Images of Solid State Relays

 23

In these above picture photos, a sensitive semiconductor device is used for the
switching operation. The control signal will be given to the LED, which is turn gives
supplies to the photo sensitive device get into conduction, using LED. Due to this
installation of SSR, the relays operate in a faster mode and its life span is higher when
composed to the other relays. The advantages of this relays are make very less noise.

Latching Relays

Latching Relays is a relay which maintains its state each after the actuation of
the relay. The name of the relay is impulse relay. The latching relay is mainly chosen
for the low power consumption. It consists of internal magnets in which the current
supplied to the coil, maintain the contact position and there is no separate power to
support the holding.

a). Current Flows (No position). b). Current stop and relay stays in position c).
Current flows in opposite Direction.
Latching relays are consists of this coils, and the latching relays does not have
any default position since these coils are responsible for the position of the armature.
In the loop type relay, the armature position is usually determined using direction of
current flow in the coil. But in the case of two coil type, depending on the current
flow, the armature position is determined.
 24

Reed relay

The reed relay produces of mechanical actuation of physical contacts to open or

close a circuit. These relays have much smaller, and the mass of the relay is lower
when compassed to they relays.
The reed relay ends consist of contacts through which input and output
terminals are connected to them. Whenever the power is supplied to the coils it act as
an magnet and the connections make a closed path the contacts again separated using
spring which it is attached to them. The switching speed of the reed relay is very much
faster that is 10 to 20 times quicker than the other determining hierarchical relay.
 25

Figure 3.4 Schematic and images of Reed Relays

The main disadvantages of reed relay are electrical arcing since it has smaller
contacts. The arcing process makes the contacts to melt and makes it in welded
position, since the contacts are melted when it is in closed position.
The demagnetizing not operates in a proper manner hence the contacts coil
spring not in a position to separate them. The problem that is existing to over come by
means of placing the resistor (or) capacitor so that the input currents which leads to
arc will be reduced and the main advantages of these relays due to small size and high
speed operation.

Polarized Relay

These relays are very sensitive to the direction of the current flow, since the
names itself identify the process. If it is a type of electromagnetic relay then it uses
magnetic forces to attract the armature and the same for the other side.

The armature used in this type of relays uses magnetic force which attracts (or)
repeats the armature whenever the current flows through the electromagnet, it
produces a magnetic flux. The magnetic force extended by the magnet exceeds certain
limit, then the armature change is occurred, the force is reduced than permanent
magnet force and due to this effect, the armature return to its original position.
 26

Figure 3.5 Schematic and Images of Polarized Relays

The flux ᶲ will be produced by the magnet when it passes between the two parts
namely ᶲ1 and ᶲ2. The flux which is produced ᶲ1, will passes through the left gap of
the magnet. The flux which is produced as ᶲ2 will passes through the right gap of the
magnet. Due to this a current will be produced in the coil, and then the armature will
 27

stay in their own position. Depends on the parameters combination and the
interactions, a force will effect on the magnitude of the current power and the value of
the working gap. The two famous types of relays of this type including differential
and bridge type relays. In medium and normal size of the relay model, only this type
of relay is widely used.

Overview of Earth Fault Relay

These are different types of earth fault relays. This occurred during star point
treatments of generators.
a. Isolated star point.
b. Compensated star point.
c. Earthed via Reactor (Or) transformer.
d. Earthed through Registrar RE.
e. Directly Earthed star point.
f. Star point treatment through neutral earthing Registrar RE.
g. Protection is needed in case of earth fault external.
h. Protection is required in case of internal faults.

a. Isolated Star Period

Depending upon the cable capacity of the earth fault currents is isolated at star
points. This is the only method which is possible when the cable sizes are within the
network system and do not vary. In most of the power stations, however these types of
network are not available on most of the cable network system. If the fault occurs in
one conductor then the voltage of system will increase by factor.√3 times of the good
conductor.
IE = 3.I0 ≈ √3. Ui . ῶ . CE.
with IE earth fault current at earth fault location.
CE earthing capacitance = zero capacitance of the network.
ῶ. 2πf = angular frequency.
 28

b. Compensated star point

This method is possible only when the cable capacities are within the network
systems. In major power stations, the condition that is the cable dimensions is not
within the network. In the case of earth fault, a fault occurs at any one conductor, then
the voltage will increase by √3 factor of the remaining two good conductors and
thereby the line to line voltage is achieved.
IE = 3.I0 ≈ √3. Ui . ῶ . CE.
With
IE - Earth fault current at earth fault location
CE – Earthing capacitance = zero capacitance.
ῶ = 2π f (angular frequency).

c. Earthed via Reactor

In the case of earth fault, the residual current which present are very low and
the cable capacities of the entire network system are mainly paid using independence.

d. Indirectly Earthed Star Point

The reactor is used almost of the generator to determine the earth fault current
value. Due to this method the earth fault will depend on network system.

IE ≈ √3.Ui ῶ CE - 1

3 ῶ LD

IE ≈ √3.Ui ῶ CE - 1

3 ῶ LD
With
 29

IE earth fault current at earth fault location.

LD Inductance of reactor (or) transformer.
CE earthing capacitance of the network.
ῶ = 2π f = angular frequency.

The system voltage will increase to 1.4 factors due to earth factor FE when compared
to the other two good conditional conductors.

e. Earthed Through Resistor

The protection is carried out by means of earthing at one point instead of

isolating the whole system method. The fault current depends on the cable capacities
of the system.

IE ≈ √3.Ui 1
______ + I ῶ. CE
3RE

IE ≈ √3.Ui

√1/ 3RE2 + ῶ. CE 2

Ui good conductor ≤ 1.4. Ui.

With
IE - earth fault current at earth fault location.
RE - earthing resistance
CE - earthing capacitance of the network.
ῶ = 2π f = angular frequency.
 30

In the case of earth fault at the conductor, the voltage will increase approximately of a
max. Factor 1.4 due to earth fault factor F against the two good conditional
E

conductors.

f. Directs earthed star point

In the case of directly earthed star point the high one phase short circuit
currents, which is the multiple of the nominal generator current.

T2
T2

G2
G1

T1
T1

QE QE
RE

TE

Figure 3.6 Start Point Treatments through Neutral Earthling Resistor RE

With
RE - ear thing resistance with temperature suspension
 31

RE ≈ 318 Ω IRE = 20 A rated for a period of 10 s and IRE (count) = 15 A; URE = 11KV /
√3.
QE - single phase vacuum contactor of the series 12,400A, with short switching lines.
IE - cable type current transformer for backup earth fault detection at neutral earthing
resister RE. 50/1A with 2.5 VA for max 120 min at 10% IN.
T1, T2 - cable type current transformers for earth fault detection within the generators.
In the above case the generator is connected to the bus bar through the earthing
resistor. The star point of the generator which is connected to MV switch gear is
switched to neutral earthing. If the circuit breaker of the generator, whose start point is
neutral resister RE, then the corresponding circuit breaker will be in closed position.
The start point of generator only one should be earthed through neutral resistor RE.
Otherwise, third harmonic will flow across the star points.
To protect the system against fault, the inductance and capacitance will be introduced
in the system. The introduction of inductance and capacitance will make the system in
stable condition.

g. Protection is needed in case of external earth faults

If the fault occurs beyond the generator range, then the earth current IE will be
determined by the neutral earthing resistance and the source will be secondary. If the
fault is of selection theory, then the relays IDMT are used for solving the earth faults
problem. The IDMT relays are used on transmission lines to ensure that the line
current will not exceed the safe value. During fault if it exceeds then IDMT takes
minimum time to trip the circuit breaker.

h. Protection in case of internal earth faults

Figure 3.7 Wiring of Stator Earth Fault Protective Devices

 32

In the internal earth fault, the stator earth relay will has to disconnect the generator
which is not in running condition.
The cable type transformer T1 and T2 are installed to find out the earth faults within
the generator protection range.
The current will be same for the fault that is occurring outside of the protection field
of the transformer, and the rating will be same.
If the earth fault occurs within the protection range, then the current rating will be
added. If the earth fault current exceeds more that 5A, them the generator, circuit
breaker will be automatically disconnected from the network and the generator circuit
breaker tripping will be done not more than 10 sec maximum.
If the generator not grounded then the stator earth fault will to the grounded generator
which is usually in operating condition.
The earth fault current of the generator will be identified when, the primary
connection (L1, L2, L3) are solved by means of earth fault relay. This earth fault relay
will detect.

Protection of the Neutral Earthing Resistor RE

TE is used to find out the residual currents that are available in the path of
resistor. The neutral earthing resistor overload condition will be prevented by means
earth fault relay, and the relays are root picked in correct faulted state.

The pickup rate of the earth fault relay is determined using adjusting the pick
up time10 s after the latest.

The over temperature detecting facility is provided so that the overheating of the
resistor will be reduced, this over temperature detecting equipment is another source
for isolating if the earth fault do not pick up at the right period.

The pre request will be given for both overload protection and over temperature
relays, to isolate the generator from location of the faults. Following the above case
the earth fault relay is used to operate for a specified time.
 33

After the expiry of the time, the earth fault relay will get in operation and the
fault current will be grounded properly through the neutral grounding resistor.

Figure 3.8 Images of Solid State Relay

3.2. Load Flow Analysis

The planning, design, and operation of power systems require load flow
calculations to analyze the steady-state (quiescent) performance of the power system
under various operating conditions and to study the effects of changes in equipment
configuration. The basic load flow question gives the load power consumption at all
buses of a known electric power system configuration and the power production at
each generator to find the power flow in each line and transformer of the
interconnecting network and the voltage magnitude and phase angle at each bus are
founded. Based on the Analyzing the solution of this problem for various conditions
helps ensure that the power system is designed to satisfy its performance criteria while
incurring the most favourable investment and operation costs.

The load flow studies that were carried out determines the following
a. Component or circuit loadings
b. Steady-state bus voltages
 34

c. Reactive power flows

d. Transformer tap settings
e. System losses
f. Generator Exciter/regulator voltage set points
g. Performance under emergency conditions

Modern systems are complex and have many paths or branches in which power
can flow over the systems. Such systems form networks of series and parallel paths.
Load flow Analysis provides the maximum load current and minimum load current in
both the directions it constitutes the basis for selection of CT Ratios and Plug settings
of Relays.

Plug setting multiplier of relay is the ratio of fault current to its pick up current.
The selection of required current setting will be given by plug setting multiplier plug
and the plug is withdrawn inorder to adjust the current setting at the time of on load
condition, due to this the maximum current taping is connected default and the
opening of the secondary side of the CT is avoided.

Computer programs are used to solve load flows are divided into two types
static (offline) and dynamic (real time). Most of the load flow studies for system
analysis are based on static network models. Real-time load flows (online) that
incorporate data input from the real networks are typically used by utilities in
automatic Supervisory Control and Data Acquisition (SCADA) systems. Such
systems are used primarily as operating tools for optimization of generation, var
control, dispatch, losses, and tie line control. This discussion is concerned only with
only static network models and their analysis.

Tie line control in power system which will regulate the active and reactive
power flow between the micro grid and the bulk grid at the point of interconnection.
By means of this tie line control the micro grid is allowed to behave as a aggregated
power entity that can be made dispatch able by the utility. This tie line method is used
 35

to associate the renewable energy sources, wind energy which push the management
burden inside the micro grid

To balance the load flow problem pertaining that are to be balanced, steady-
state operation of power systems, a single-phase, positive sequence model of the
power system are used. Three-phase load flow analysis software is available, but they
are not needed for routine industrial power system studies.

A load flow calculation determines the state of the power system for a given
load and generation distribution. It represents a steady-state condition as if that state
has been held fixed for some time. In actuality, line flows and bus voltages fluctuate
constantly by any small variation in loads status lights, motors, and other loads
whenever turned on and off. However, these small fluctuations can be ignored in
calculating the steady-state effects on system equipment.

As the load distribution, and possibly the network, will vary considerably
during different time periods, it may be necessary to obtain load flow solutions
representing different system conditions such as peak load, average load, or light load.
These solutions will be used to determine either optimum operating modes for
standard conditions, such as the proper setting of voltage control devices, or how the
system will respond to abnormal conditions, such as outages of lines or transformers.
Load flows form the basis for determining both when new equipment additions are
needed and the effectiveness of new alternatives to solve present deficiencies and meet
future system requirements.

The load flow model is also the basis for several other types of studies such as
short-circuit, stability, motor starting, and harmonic studies. The load flow model
supplies the network data and an initial steady-state condition for these studies.
 36

3.3. Short Circuit Studies

Electrical power systems are, in general, fairly complex systems composed of a

wide range of equipment devoted to generating, transmitting, and distributing
electrical power to various consumption centres. The very complexity of these
systems suggests that failures are unavoidable, no matter how carefully these systems
have been designed. The feasibility of designing and operating a system with zero
failure rates is, if not unrealistic, economically unjustifiable. Within the context of
short-circuit analysis, system failures manifest themselves as insulation breakdowns
that may lead to one of the following phenomena:

i. Undesirable current flow patterns

ii. Appearance of currents in excessive magnitudes that could lead to
equipment damage and downtime
iii. Extreme over voltages, of the transient and/or sustained nature, that
compromise the integrity and reliability of various insulated parts
iv. Voltage depressions in the vicinity of the fault that could adversely
affect the operation of rotating equipment
v. Creation of system conditions that could prove hazardous to personnel

The short circuits cannot always be prevented, but we can only attempt to
mitigate some degree contain their potentially damaging effects. One should, at first,
aim to design the system so that the likelihood of the occurrence of the short circuit
fault becomes very small. If a short circuit occurs, however, mitigating its effects
consists of

a. Managing the magnitude of the undesirable fault currents

b. Isolating the smallest possible portion of the system around the area of
the mishap in order to retain service to the rest of the system.

A significant part of system protection is devoted to detecting short-circuit

conditions in a reliable fashion. Considerable capital investment is required in
 37

interrupting equipment at all voltage levels that is capable of withstanding the fault
currents and isolating the faulted area. It follows, therefore, that the primary reasons
for performing short-circuit studies are the following

i. The adequacy verification will be preferred for the existing interrupting

equipment. The same type of studies will form the basis for the selection
of the interrupting equipment for system planning purposes.
ii. Determination of the system protective device settings, which is done
primarily by quantities characterizing the system under fault conditions.
These amount also referred to as “protection handles,” typically include
phase and sequence currents or voltages and rates of changes of system
currents or voltages.
iii. Determination the effects of fault currents on various system
components such as cables, lines, bus ways, transformers, and reactors
during the time of fault persists.
iv. Thermal and mechanical stresses from the resulting fault currents should
always be compared with the corresponding short-term, first-cycle,
operation with stand capabilities of the system equipment.
v. The assessment of different kinds of short circuits in varying severity
may have effect on the overall system voltage profile. These studies will
identify areas in the system for which faults can result in unacceptably
widespread voltage depressions.
vi. Conceptualization, design and refinement of system layout, neutral
grounding, and substation grounding will lead to short circuits

Short Circuit study provides information related to maximum fault current,

minimum fault current, Maximum through fault current etc., for various kinds of
faults which are all input for setting the relays.
 38

Short circuit studies are as necessary for any power system, like other
fundamental system studies such as power flow studies, transient stability studies,
harmonic analysis studies, etc.

Short-circuit studies can be performed at the planning stage to help finalize the
system layout, determine voltage levels, and size cables, transformers, and conductors.
For existing systems, fault studies are necessary in the cases of added generation,
installation of extra rotating loads, system layout modifications, rearrangement of
protection equipment, verification of the adequacy of existing breakers, relocation of
already acquired switchgear to avoid unnecessary capital expenditures, etc. “Post-
mortem” analysis may also involve short-circuit studies in order to duplicate the
reasons and system conditions that led to the system’s failure.

The requirements and extent of a short-circuit study will depend on the

engineering objectives sought. In fact, these objectives will dictate what type of short-
circuit analysis is required. The amount of data required will also depend on the extent
and the nature of the study. The great majority of short-circuit studies in industrial and
commercial power systems addresses one or more following short circuits
i. In three-phase fault conditions, it may or may not involve ground, but all three
phases shorted together.
ii. In single line-to-ground fault, only one phase is shorted to ground.
iii. In line-to-line fault. Any two phases are shorted together.
iv. In Double line-to-ground fault. Any two phases are connected and then one line
to ground

These types of short circuits are also referred to as “shunt faults,” since all four
exhibit the common attribute of being associated with fault currents and MVA flows
diverted to different paths from the prefault “series” ones.

In conventional Three-phase short circuits often turn out to be the most severe
of all. Hence It is thus customary to perform only three phase-fault simulations when
 39

seeking maximum possible magnitudes of fault currents. However, importance

exceptions do exist. For instance, single line-to-ground short-circuit currents can
exceed three-phase short-circuit current levels whenever they occur in the vicinity of
the following
i. A solidly grounded synchronous machine.
ii. The solidly grounded wye side of a delta-wye transformer of the three-phase
core.
iii. (three-leg) design.
iv. The grounded wye side of a delta-wye autotransformer.
v. The grounded wye, grounded wye, delta-tertiary, three-winding transformer.

For systems, where any one or more of the above conditions exist, it is
advisable to perform a single line-to-ground fault simulation. The fact that medium-
and high-voltage circuit breakers have 15% higher interrupting capabilities for single
line-to-ground faults should be taken into account if elevated single line-to-ground
fault currents are found. Line-to-line or double line-to-ground fault studies may also
be required for protective device coordination requirements. It should be noted that,
since only one phase of the line-to-ground fault can experience higher interrupting
requirements, the three-phase fault will still contain more energy because all three
phases will experience the same interrupting requirements.

Other types of fault conditions that may be of interest which included are so-called
“series faults”
(Anderson [B1]) and pertain to one of the following types of system unbalances:

i. One line open. Any one of the three phases may be open.
ii. Two lines open. Any two of the three phases may be open.
iii. Unequal impedances. Unbalanced line impedance discontinuity.

The term “series faults” is used because the above unbalances are associated
with a redistribution of the pre-fault load current. Series faults occur when assessing
 40

the effects of snapped overhead phase wires, failures of cable joints, blown fuses,
failure of breakers to open all poles, inadvertent breaker energization across one or
two poles and other situations that result in the flow of unbalanced currents.

Industrial and commercial power systems are usually multimachine systems

with many motors and possibly more than one generator, all are interconnected
through transformers, lines, and cables. There should also be one or more locations at
which the local power system is interconnected to a larger grid. These areas are
commonly known as “utility-interface” points. The objective of the short-circuit study
is to correctly determine the short-circuit currents and voltages at various system
locations. Given the dynamic nature of the short-circuit current, it is essential to relate
any calculated fault currents to a particular instant in time from the onset of the short
circuit. AC decrement analysis serves the purpose of correctly determining the
symmetrical RMS values of the fault currents, while dc decrement analysis will
provide the necessary dc component of the fault current, thus yielding a correct
estimate of the total fault current. It is the total fault current which, in general, must be
used for breaker and switchgear rating and in some cases for protective device
coordination. System topology considerations are equally important because the
system layout and electrical proximity of the rotating machinery to the fault location
will determine the actual magnitude of the short-circuit current. It therefore becomes
necessary to devise a model for the system, as a whole and analyze it as such in a
flexible, accurate, and computationally convenient manner. The AC decrement
analysis will able to determine the system subtransient, transient and steady state of a
generator during the fault condition. Whenever a fault is occurred in the generator the
current in the all three phases rises rapidly about 10 to 18 times of full load current
during the first cycle of operation and starts decreases during the second cycle of
operation. The change in RMS value of the current and reactance are determined

The symmetrical components theory dictates that for a three-phase system, three
sequence systems need, in general, to be set up for the analysis of an unbalanced fault
condition. The first is the positive sequence system, which is defined by a balanced set
 41

of voltages and currents, equal in magnitude, following the standard phase sequence
of a, b, and c. The second is the negative sequence system, which is similar to the
positive sequence system but it is defined by a balanced set of voltages and currents
with a reverse phase sequence of a, c, and b. Finally, the zero sequence system is a
system defined by a set of voltages and currents that are in phase with each other and
not displaced by 120 degrees, as is the case with the other two systems. The topology
of the zero sequence system can be quite different from that of the Positive and
negative sequence systems because it depends heavily on the power transformer
connections and system neutral grounding, factors which are not of importance when
determining the topology of the other two sequence networks.

Static system equipment like transformers, lines, cables, bus ways, and static
loads present, under balanced conditions, the same impedances will flow to the
positive and negative sequence currents. In case of the same components present, then
different impedances will flow through the zero sequence currents. Rotating
equipment like synchronous generators, motors, the positive sequence impedances are
the ones typically used for balanced power flow studies. All sequence impedances
must be calculated, measured, provided by the equipment manufacturers, or estimated.
The zero sequence impedance may not exist for some rotating equipment, depending
on the machine grounding.

3.4. Motor Starting Studies

Motors on modern industrial systems are becoming increasingly larger; some

are considered large even in comparison to the total capacity of large industrial power
systems. In starting large motors, especially across-the-line, can cause severe
disturbances to the motor due to locally connected load, and also to buses electrically
remote from the point of motor starting. Ideally, a motor-starting study should be
made before a large motor is purchased. A starting voltage requirement and preferred
locked-rotor current should be stated as part of the motor specification. A motor-
starting study should be made if the motor horsepower exceeds approximately 30% of
the supply transformer(s) base kVA rating, if no generators are present. If generation
 42

is present, and no other sources are involved, a study should be considered whenever
the motor horsepower exceeds 10–15% of the generator kVA rating, depending on
actual generator characteristics. The study should also recognize contingent
condition(s), i.e., the loss of a source (if applicable).
It may be necessary to make a study for smaller horsepower sizes depending on
the daily fluctuation of nominal voltage, voltage level, size and length of the motor
feeder cable, amount of load, regulation of the supply voltage, the impedance and tap
ratio of the supply transformer(s), load torque versus motor torque, and the allowable
starting time. Finally, some applications may involve for starting large groups of
smaller motors of sufficient collective size to impact system voltage regulation, during
the interval of starting.
Motor starting study provides the essential information of time vs current
during motor starting. This is very necessary for the setting of the relay curves should
be above these motor starting curves to prevent the maloperation of relays during
motor starting.

3.5. Transient Stability Studies

For years, system stability was a problem almost exclusively to electric utility
engineers. Small independent power producers (IPPs) and co-generation (co-gen)
companies were treated as part of the load and modelled casually. Today, the structure
of the utility industry is going through a revolutionary change under the process of
deregulation. A full-scale competition in the generation market is on the horizon.
Increasing numbers of industrial and commercial facilities have installed local
generation, large synchronous motors, or both. The role of IPP/co-gen companies and
other plants with on-site generation in maintaining system stability is a new area of
interest in power system studies When a co-generation plant is connected to the
transmission grid, it changes the system configuration as well as the power flow
pattern. This may result in stability problems both in the plant and the supplying
utility.
 43

Transient stability studies provide the information regarding the critical

clearing time. Relay setting should be done in such a way that relay will isolate the
fault well before this critical clearing time.

3.6 Harmonic Analysis

Traditionally, the primary source of harmonics in power systems has been the
static power converter used as rectifiers for various industrial processes; however, the
static power converter is now used in a variety of additional applications such as
adjustable speed drives, switched-mode supplies, frequency changers for induction
heating, etc. Semiconductor devices are being increasingly used as static switches that
modulate the voltage applied to loads. Examples of these are soft starters for motors,
static var compensators, light dimmers, electronic ballasts for arc-discharge lamps,
etc. Other examples are devices with nonlinear voltage-current characteristics such as
arc furnaces or saturable electromagnetic devices. Since nonlinear loads represent an
ever-increasing percentage of the total load of an industrial or commercial power
system, harmonic studies have become an important part of overall system design and
operation. Fortunately, the available software for harmonic analysis has also grown.
Guidelines for the acceptance of harmonic distortion are well-defined in IEEE Std
519-1992
By modelling power system impedances as a function of frequency, a study can
be made to determine the effect of the harmonic contributions from nonlinear loads on
the voltages and currents in the power system. The harmonic study provides the
information on the maximum distortion for which relay should not maloperate.

3.7 CT Sizing

Proper selection and sizing of Current Transformers are first important step in
over current relay coordination. CT ratio should be selected based on the Full load
current of component with the overload margin. Protection CT shall be sized in such a
way that it is not saturated for maximum fault current. However new numerical relays
allows CT saturation without any maloperation.
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3.8 Setting Time for Over Current and Earth Fault

3.8. 1 Introduction

Conventionally overcurrent (OC) relay settings are provided based on full load
current of power system components. Time Dial Setting (TDS) and Type of curve are
chosen to ensure that the coordination with the downstream relays. This conventional
procedure for setting the relays went well for a long time. However introduction of
Embedded Renewable Generation, Cogeneration in plants in process industries and
islanding from the grids, Change in the Grid Topology etc. results in the drastic
change in the fault current. This leads to problems like nuisance tripping of relays,
improper coordination or longer time taken to operate the relays for a fault. The
Situation got worse in the continuous addition of renewable generation, most
sophisticated grid islanding schemes, Energy efficient motors which draw high
starting current, technological advancements in controlled switching for transformer
and reactor to reduce the inrush current etc. made the conventional method of relay
setting obsolete. These technical improvements along with new feature in the new
numerical relays provide a better platform to coordinate the relays to reduce the
operating time of relay, prevent the nuisance tripping and ensure the coordination
between the relays in all the grid topologies.

Overcurrent Relays utilized in power systems protection as economical

protective devices. Overcurrent relays are used as primary protection devices in Low
Voltage Radial systems and as backup relays to distance and differential in the High
voltage interconnected transmission and sub-transmission system.

Over current Relays are categorized as Instantaneous, definite time and inverse
time relays. Modern numerical relays from famous manufacturers like ABB, Areva,
GE, Siemens etc. has three stages of Protection. Stage 1 & 2 shall be either Inverse
curve or definite time whereas Stage 3 is Instantaneous without any time delay. Also
these relays have the additional feature of multiple group setting depending on the
digital input to the relay which may corresponds to particular topology of grid
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conditions. In addition to these relays have inrush or starting multipliers which may be
effectively used to prevent the mal-operation of relays during motor starting or
transformer charging. In addition to standard curves such as Normal Inverse (NI),
Very Inverse (VI), Extremely Inverse (EI), Long Time Inverse (LTI), Standard
Inverse (SI) etc. relays also have the feature of developing user defined curves based
on the user requirements. All these features available in the new relay are utilized with
sophisticated software program to reduce the fault clearing time and prevent the
nuisance tripping of the relays.

3.8.2 Over Current Relay Coordination

Stage: 1&2 (Inverse Definite Minimum Time Delay – IDMT Relay – 51)

a. Pickup up Setting or Plug Setting

Plug setting for inverse relays shall be selected based on the maximum possible
load current and over load margin. In HV substation this depends on the worst case
power-flow current with some future margin.

b. Time Dial Setting (TDS) or Time Multiplier Setting (TMS)

Choosing TDS is more involved task which provides the necessary

coordination with downstream relays. This depends on the how many factors
including maximum fault current, minimum fault current, starting Current, Inrush
Current, through fault current, Type of curve selected etc.,

c. Curve Selection

Selection of curve for the relay is also involved task. Conventionally normal
Inverse or Stand Inverse is selected for plain feeders and Extremely Inverse is used for
Transformer Feeders and Motor Feeders.

Stage: 2 (Definite Time Delay – DT Relay – 50)

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a. Pickup up Setting or Plug Setting

Plug setting for Definite Time relays depends upon whether time
discrimination is adopted or not. If time bias is not used i.e. Definite Time is set as
minimum time then the pickup setting shall be higher than the starting or inrush or
through fault current. However present modern of numerical relays provides many
options related to starting and inrush, hence pickup setting can be lowered in normal
operating condition which reduces the damage. i.e. Even when there is fault with
minimum short circuit current, this options make to fall in the Definite Time region of
the relay characteristics, otherwise which falls in Inverse characteristics of the relay in
conventional setting. This result in significant reduction of fault clearing time and
leads to damage.

b. Time Setting (TS)

Proper Time discrimination is proposed if the relay is used to coordinate with

the downstream relays. Otherwise the minimum available time delay the relay will be
used.
Stage: 3 (Instantaneous stage – 50)

a. Pickup up setting

Pickup setting shall be higher than the starting or inrush or through fault
current. However present modern numerical relays provides many options related to
starting and inrush and hence pickup setting which can be lowered in normal
operating condition that reduces the damage. I.e. whenever fault occur with minimum
short circuit current this options enable to fall in the instantaneous region of the relay
characteristics which falls in Inverse characteristics of the relay in conventional
setting. This result in significant reduction of fault clearing time will leads to damage.

Earth fault settings also Similar to the over current relay setting except the below facts
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a. Plug settings are based on the unbalanced current in residual connected

type current transformers and minimum possible setting shall be adopted
in Core Balancing Current Transformers
b. Earth fault current depends on the type of earthing (Solid, Resistance
Earthed) and hence care shall be taken to ensure the fault current
available.
c. Earth fault current also depends on the winding configuration. For an
example of fault on the star side of the Delta – Star transformer, the
same will not be reflected in the Delta side and hence the same need not
be coordinated
Table 3.1 Relay Characteristic

Grading Margin

The current and time settings selection shall start at the load end and worked
back towards the power source. Grading margins between protection relays shall be
typically as follows:
Grading Margin :
(Er1 + Er2 + Ect) x T/100 + Tcb + T0 +Ts
=(5 + 5 + 5) x 0.25/100 + 0.1 + 0.02 + 0.03
= 0.2175 ˂ 0.25s
Where,
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Er1, Er2 = Relay Timing Errors

Ect = CT Error

T = Nominal Operating time of relay nearest to the fault

Tcb = Circuit Breaker Opening time

T0 = Relay Overshoot time

Ts = Safety Margin

3.9. Summary

In this chapter the basics of Relay coordination and steps involved in the relay
coordination were discussed.