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OPTIMISATION OF ENERGY extension and gas composition, online measurement
CONSUMPTION IN IRONMAKING
PROCESSES BY COMBINED USE OF
COAL, DUST AND WASTE
Alexander I. Babich,
Heinrich Wilhelm Gudenau,
Dieter G. Senk
Dept. of Ferrous Metallurgy,
Aachen University, Germany
SUMMARY
Combustion and reduction behaviour of municipal
and industrial organic wastes (plastics, shredder light
fractions from a car recycling process), carbon
extracts from coal power station fly ash, metallurgical
dusts and slurries and their mixtures with coal have
been studied. These substances can be utilised by
two ways: injection and agglomeration. This promotes
a partial replacement of primary sources of heat and
reducing agents and therefore an optimisation of
energy consumption in ironmaking processes both in
a blast furnace (BF) and direct reduction (DR),
1. INTRODUCTION
The legislation in Germany requires substantial and
sustained environmental protection by means of
saving raw material sources and avoidance of
material going to landfill.
The amount of CO2 emission is mostly related to the
energy consumption. The steel industry, which is
responsible for approx. 5 % of the world-wide energy
consumption (1) (in Germany about 10%), must find a
compromise between environmental compatibility,
economy, saving of resources and supply guarantee.
Research activities in the Department of Ferrous
Metallurgy (IEHK) at the Aachen University focus on
energy saving, waste recovery and reducing CO2
emission and its utilisation. In particular, following
studies are currently being carried out or have been
completed recently:
• fines and CO2 - injection into Electric Arc Furnace
that beside the mentioned goals promotes further
increase in productivity and improvement of the
overall furnace performance (2)
• ecological and economical optimisation of the
cupola furnace process by using a natural gas /
oxygen burner and simultaneous injection of
various types of foundry dusts (3)
• injection of residues from the steel and non-
ferrous industry, e.g. lead and zinc containing
dusts, into Imperial-Smelting furnace (4).
In the scope of this paper our activities in the field of
ironmaking will be stressed; the measurement
activities using laser techniques (e.g. raceway
of alkalis, zinc and lead in the top gas) were
summarised in (5) and presented recently in detail
(6).
Blast furnace, sinter plant and coke oven plant
consume 70-75% of the entire energy needed for an
integrated steelworks (5). The main part of the
required fuels is covered by metallurgical coke. About
4150 kg of CO2 is released by production of 1 t coke
(7).
Partial replacement of coke by natural or coke oven
gases, oil and pulverised coal (PC) has been the
main way of coke saving within the last two decades.
Coke consumption of about 280-300 kg/tHM have
been achieved at some blast furnaces by the super
high injection rate (5). Injection rate of fossil reducing
agents is nevertheless limited because of drop in the
flame temperature in the raceway and problems in
the deadman region and the cohesive zone. The next
step for coke saving, clean deadman as well as
increase in blast furnace productivity and minimising
the environmental impact due to a decrease in CO2
emission and suppress the generation of NOx would
be injection of hot reducing gases (HRG) which are
produced by low grade coal or waste gasification or
top gas regenerating (8). Use of HRG in combination
with high PCI rate and oxygen enrichment in the blast
could allow to keep and to increase the
competitiveness of the blast furnace process.
Increasing DRI production is a further way of
reducing the coke demand.
A wide range of in-plant and external wastes can be
utilised in ironmaking processes via sintering,
pelletising, briquetting and injection. A blast furnace is
an almost ideal aggregate for waste utilisation due to
high temperature and oxidising potential. The key
problem for ironmakers however is to maintain a
smooth, highly productive operation, suitable metal
quality and production costs when using auxiliary
substances and wastes.
This paper is focused on two main topics:
• investigation on combustion and reduction
conditions in the BF raceway which is a vital zone
of the blast furnace which supply the process with
heat and reducing agents
• investigation on reduction phenomena of self-
reducing agglomerates for DR processes,
especially swelling / shrinking behaviour affecting
the heat transfer, and the gas permeability.
Numerous materials including in-plant wastes,
carbonaceous extracts from coal power station fly
ash, shredder light fractions from the waste car
recycling process and municipal organic waste in
different combinations with and without powder coal
have been tested.

2. BEHAVIOUR OF INJECTED INTO BF WASTES
AND MIXTURES
2.1. Iron containing materials
2.1.1. Lab scale tests
In-plant iron containing waste materials (ICM) have
been investigated using laboratory injection rig, which
simulates behaviour of injected solids within 10-20
ms in the tuyere and the oxidising part of the raceway
(9)-(11). The tests on the rig have been supported by
measurements using microprobe and DTA facility.
Table 1 summarises the results of the combustion
and reduction tests of different ICM injected in a
homogeneous mixture with two types of PC (LVC and
HVC) (9),(11),(12).
Analysis of the results obtained shows that the
reduction behaviour of ICM at a constant grain size
depends on their ratio in the mixture with PC (the
higher the PC rate, the higher the reduction degree)
as well as on the type of materials to be reduced and
the type of reducing agent. Decrease in volatile
matter (VM) content in PC promotes higher reduction
degree, which can be a result of different ignition and
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combustion mechanisms of LVC and HVC (9). The
presence of carbon in flue dust provides additional
heat and reducing agents and therefore higher
reduction degree. Reducibility of hematite (iron ore,
flue dust) is higher than that of other iron compounds.
ICM that contain iron in metallic or wustite form (mill
scale, mill scale sludge, sponge iron) oxidised under
testing conditions and showed therefore poor
reduction behaviour. It doesn’t mean that injection of
these materials makes no sense. It is to be
considered that injection rig simulates only processes
in the oxidising part of the raceway. Materials with
high reducibility will be partially reduced already in
this area, reactions of the hard-to-reduce materials
will be shifted to the rear of the raceway.
A certain rate of ICM in mixture with PC can improve
the combustion conditions in the raceway due to
additional offer of oxygen from hematite or magnetite
and additional heat due to endothermic oxidation of
wustite or metallic iron. Running tests with PC-mill
scale mixtures also allow to suppose that mill scale
plays the igniter role for PC (13). An optimal ICM rate
is 10-30% depending on the material properties.

Table 1: Combustion and reduction behaviour of PC-ICM mixtures under the raceway simulating conditions

Injected substances Combustion efficiency, %, at Reduction Main ICM constituents, %

O/C3)=1.5 O/C=3.0 degree, %
1)
LVC (alone) 49 57 -
HVC2) (alone) 57 75 -
LVC + 10% flue dust 58 68 17 Fetotal=46.3; FeO=1.3;
LVC + 30% flue dust 65 76 11 C=14.3
LVC + 10% mill scale 55 58 7 Fetotal=73.4; FeO=32.6;
LVC + 30% mill scale 66 74 -7 oil=0.18
HVC+10% mill scale 68 73 -3 the same as above
HVC + 30% mill scale 58 76 -8
HVC + 10% mill scale sludge 68 73 -8 Fetotal=59.6; FeO=19.2;
HVC + 20% mill scale sludge 65 77 - 10 C=4.5; oil=5.9
LVC + 20% mill scale sludge 65 73 -5 the same as above
HVC + 10% iron ore fines N.D. N.D. 12 Fetotal=67.8; Fe2O3=96.9
HVC + 30% iron ore fines 55 86 10
LVC + 10% iron ore fines N.D. N.D. 18 the same as above
LVC + 30% iron ore fines N.D. N.D. 11
HVC + 10% sponge iron 61 85 - 11 Fetotal=90; Femet=77.3
1)
LVC: low volatile coal (ca.10.8% VM, 9% ash) from the German mine Niederberg.
2)
HVC: high volatile coal (ca. 27.7% VM, 10% ash) from the German mine Lohberg
3)
O/C: atomic ratio of oxygen to carbon

2.1.2. Industrial trials

PC/flue dust mixture injection (85/15%) was carried
out on the industrial scale at the Donetsk Steel Plant
BF 1, Ukraine. This blast furnace (hearth diameter
7.2 m) operated during the trials with simultaneous
injection of natural gas and PC and 24.5% O2 in
blast.
The mixture was prepared from lean coal concentrate
(11.6% VM, 8.9% ash) and flue dust (39.6% Fetotal,
12.5% C, 13.7% CaO, 3.8% MgO, 0.48% Na2O+K2O,
0.02% Zn).
No negative effect on the blast furnace operation and
equipment of the PC preparation and injection plant
was observed during the two trial campaigns (each of
one week). Analysis of blast furnace operation
parameters during the trial periods given in (11)
showed that coke rate decreased by 0.5 and 3.6% in
the two trial periods respectively, furnace productivity
did not change in one period and increased by 4% in
the other. Slag volume decreased during the mixture
injection. Slag basicity and pig iron quality kept

practically on the base level. Various techniques for
the prevention of alkalis and zinc accumulation
possible in the case of long operation with a high flue
dust rate have been discussed in (11).
Recent trials with PC / flue dust mixture injection in
an experimental BF have confirmed the advantages
of this technology (14).
2.1.3. Controlling the thermal state
Controlling the hot metal temperature and
composition by varying the PC rate provides a
required prompt change in the heat input per unit of
hot metal (15). However, other parameters, such as
flame temperature and slag basicity, are altered. It is
possible to overcome this unfavourable side-effects
by means of the combined injection of PC and flue
dust or other oxidised ICM. When iron oxides are
injected, reactions of the following type take place:
3<FeO> + [Si] + <C> = 3 [Fe] + (SiO2) + {CO} (1)
2<Fe3O4> + 3 [Si] + 2<C> = 6 [Fe] +3 (SiO2) +2 {CO}
(2)
combustion degree, %
They promote a decrease in slag basicity.
Furthermore, the direct reduction of iron oxides in
the raceway leads to a drop in the gas temperature
in this zone.
As flue dust rate variations are inversely
proportionate to PC rate variations, the relationship
between their deviations can be established in order
to maintain the constancy of slag basicity and cause
minimum alterations to gas temperature in the
raceway.
By determining the regulating action of both PC,
according to earlier published dependencies
(15),(16), and ICM, on the basis of its consumption
and the extension of reactions like (1) and (2), it is
possible to take into account the influence of the
silicon content in hot metal.
2.2. Organic waste and carbon extracts
A wide range of organic materials such as grass,
biomass, straw, plastics and other polymers were
tested at the IEHK injection rig (12),(17). Only the
most recent studies are presented here.
2.2.1. Waste plastics
Previous studies showed that the combustion
efficiency of LVC can be increased by 10-20% when
injecting mixtures of such PC with 10-30% waste
plastics (WP) from the German waste plastic
recycling system “Duales System Deutschland”
(6),(17).
Further injection tests have been performed with pure
WP to clarify the behaviour of polymeric waste of the
same composition (about 76% C, 10 % H2, 8 % O2
and 5 % ash) and grain size (ca. 3-6 mm) but
different in the way of their pre-treatment (4). Three
WP types have been investigated: agglomerate
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(fraction after crushing and separation from trouble
substances (ρ =265 kg/m3), granulate (after smelting
above 100°C, ρ =362 kg/m3) and re-granulate (after
additional pressing, ρ =497 kg/m3).
The materials reacted very intensively but the
combustion degree was low (Fig. 1). This is
doubtless due to the grain size. Large particles (up to
6 mm) could not burn out completely within the test
residence time of max. 20 ms. Unreacted residues of
granulate and re-granulate (sometimes in granular
form) have been found on the filter. No remainder of
agglomerate has been observed. Results obtained as
well as industrial experience of waste plastics
injection confirm circulation mechanisms of coarse
plastics in the raceway suggested in (18) and
therefore considerably longer residence time of these
particles in the oxidising zone. Furthermore, pre-
treatment of WP plays an important role. Combustion
efficiency of agglomerate was higher than that of
plastics materials of higher pre-treatment stages (Fig.
1). It is due to bigger specific surface and lower
density of WP from low pre-treatment stage.
40
35 1: agglomerate
30 2: granulate
3: re-granulate 1
25 2
3
20
15
10
5
0
0,5 1,5 2,5 3,5
O/C atomic ratio
Fig. 1: Combustion behaviour of WP (according to
(4))
2.2.2. Shredder light fractions
Previous studies at IEHK showed the negative effect
of shredder light fractions (SLF) from a car recycling
process on the combustion degree of HVC (17).
Industrial trials at EKO Stahl with injection of pure
SLF showed the general possibility to inject such
materials but confirmed their poor combustion
efficiency (19). In the present study SLF containing
about 30% ash have been grounded below 0.2 mm
and injected into the lab rig in pure form and in a
homogeneous mixture with LVC. Results show that
the combustion efficiency of pure SLF is lower than
that of PC. The combustion efficiency of the mixture
of LVC with 20% SLF is close to that of pure PC (Fig.
2).
The only possibility for SLF use in a BF could be
adding them in small rates to PC from low volatile
coals like anthracite to keep the coal combustion
efficiency and to prevent worsening operation
conditions. Solutions on SLF preparation and
handling are required.
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80 strength and their collapse, which gives rise to
operational problems and loss of productivity of the
70
3 shaft furnaces such as OxiCup and Technored
Combustion degree, %

60 2 processes and hinders heat transfer in rotary hearth

50
40
30
20
10
0 as the BET method (to determine specific surface).
0,5 1,0 1,5 2,0 2,5
O/C atomic ratio
Fig. 2: SLF combustion behaviour (according to (13)
2.2.3. Carbon extracts from fly ash
European coal power stations produce about 50 Mio
tons per year of fly ash. Unburned carbon (UBC)
which has to be extracted from the ash to meet the
quality standards of the concrete and cement industry
has been examined at the IEHK from the viewpoint of
its possible re-use in different processes. In the
series of injection tests this material could not prove
its suitability for tuyere injection due to insufficient
combustion efficiency even at low injection rates
(high O/C ratio) (Fig 3). This is caused by the
unreactive carbon, high ash content (32%) and very
1
furnace processes.
1: 100% SLF Behaviour of self-reducing pellets, SRP, (green
pellets with cold-embedded carbon) during reduction
2: 20% SLF+80% LVC have been investigated using a lab rig based on a
Tamman furnace, phase analysis based on the
3: 100% LVC electronic microscopy with an electron probe, as well
3,0 3,5 4,0 Various carbonaceous materials studied for BF
injection in the previous chapter (HVC, LVC, WP,
UBC in pure state and in different combinations) have
been used as reductants (20), (21). Maximum rate of
18% carbon has been tested because this value is
enough to reach a complete reduction of iron
agglomerates (10).
It has been found that the use of pellets with
embedded carbon can hinder or reduce their swelling
at 800-1000°C and lead to shrinking at higher
temperatures (Fig. 4). The volume change behaviour
depends on the embedded coal rate, reduction
temperature and reduction time.
20
Swelling degree, %

low VM (2%). Combustion efficiency of fine UBC 0

fractions (32-63µm and especially 32µm),
characterised according to a petrographical analysis -20
18% LVC
by reactive isotropic constituents, is nevertheless 14% LVC
-40
significantly higher.
10% LVC
-60
6% LVC
80 HVC
-80
70 700 800 900 1000 1100 1200 1300
LV Tempertature, °C
60
Combustion degree, %

Fig. 4: Volume change1 of hematite pellets with

50 LVC (reduction time 30 min) (21)
UBC
40 Replacing coal with UBC allows to produce green
30 UBC 32-63 pellets without binder due to the puzzolanic
properties of the rest of fly ash in the UBC (usually
20 about 3% of bentonite is needed).
UBC (polyfractional) Fig. 5 shows volume change during reduction of SRP
10 with embedded UBC with added WP. The higher the
0 WP rate, the smaller the decrease in pellet diameter.
3 This is because a considerably less dense iron
0,5 1 1,5 2 2,5 3,5 4
precipitates during the reduction of pellets with
O/C atomic embedded WP compare to pellets with coal and
especially with UBC. The high volatile WP is gasified
Fig. 3: Combustion degree of UBC (20)
very quickly and a distinct pore system is formed
(Fig. 6), which causes a reduced shrinkage of pellets.
3. BEHAVIOUR OF AGGLOMERATES FOR DR
PROCESSES DURING REDUCTION

Some agglomerates (pellets and briquettes) have the

tendency to swell enormously in a reducing 1
Swelling degree = 100·(V1 – V0) / V0 , %
atmosphere. Swelling or, volume increase, can lead where, V1: pellet volume after reduction test, mm3
to sticking and plating or to the loss of agglomerate V0: pellet volume before reduction test, mm3
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0 ‹  Fig. 8 shows metallic, oxide, and slag phases in SRP

UBC+6% WP with embedded UBC and WP at the same
-5 temperature. Better reducibility of SRP with coal (Fig.
7 b) and UBC (more metallic phase) compare to SRP
-10 with WP could be observed due to more intensive
‹ UBC+12% WP
 solid phase reactions of pellets with dense structure
-15 (see Fig. 6).
‹
-20 
‹
UBC 
-25

-30

-35
900 1000 1100 1200 1300
Fig. 8: Microstructure of SRP with UBC (left)
Fig. 5: Volume change of hematite pellets with and with WP (right) at 1200°C
UBC and WP (reduction time 15 min)
(according to (20))
4. CONCLUSIONS

• Combined injection of PC with a certain rate of

iron containing wastes into BF can improve
reduction and combustion conditions in the
raceway

• Combustion behaviour of WP depends on their

1 cm
Fig. 6: Polished sections of SRP with UBC(left)
and WP (right)
Optimal shrinkage and density of SRP for different
processes can be controlled by the type and rate of
embedded reductant as well as by reduction time and
temperature.
Rate of metallic iron in SRP increased with the rise in
reduction temperature for all tested carbonaceous
materials. Fig. 7 shows an example for SRP with
LVC (white phase corresponds to metallic iron, grey
to oxides, and black to slag).
a b
grain size and pre-treatment method
• Poor combustion efficiency of SLF can be
improved by adding them in small rates to LVC
• The use of pellets with embedded carbon can
hinder or reduce their swelling at 800-1000°C
and lead to shrinking at higher temperatures
• Optimal shrinkage can be controlled by the type
and rate of embedded reductant as well as by
reduction time and temperature.
ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS
The authors wish to acknowledge Donetsk Steel
Plant for the organisation of industrial trials.

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